Glossary

acceleration Educational interventions that move students through programs at a faster rate as compared with other students.

acquired deafness Deafness that occurs after birth as the result of an event or an illness.

acquired immunodeficiency syndrome A life-threatening disease that makes it difficult for the body to fight infections.

adaptive functioning A person’s ability to perform age-appropriate and culturally appropriate behaviors in relation to practical daily skills, such as self-care and hygienic needs, socialization, and problem-solving abilities so that the child could adapt to his or her environment and in different circumstances.

adaptive skills Development of skills necessary to control one’s environment, such as hygiene and self-care, feeding, dressing, play, and simple daily problem-solving abilities.

affect attunement A pattern of reciprocal behavior and emotional harmony shared between the caregiver and infant that helps the infant to develop and sustain self-regulation.

alternative assessment The use of informal techniques to measure a child’s abilities, including performance, oral presentation, demonstration, exhibition, portfolio, and so forth.

American Eugenics movement A widespread belief in the 1920s and 1930s that certain problems such as “feeblemindedness,” epilepsy, alcoholism, and criminality are biological traits of the “inferior type” and are inherited from generation to generation.

American Sign Language (ASL) A manual/gestural language system, which is used by the majority of children and adults who are deaf.

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) The first comprehensive civil rights law for people with disabilities, this act was signed by President George H. W. Bush in 1990. The Act prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities in employment, public services, in public accommodations, and in telecommunications.

annual goals Broad statements relating to domains of development or to various academic areas that indicate what the child is to achieve in one year.

antecedent Anything that happens before a behavior occurs.

Apgar score A score describing the overall well-being of the newborn right after birth, by measuring the heart rate, breathing, appearance, and reflexes of the infant.

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) A systematic approach to understanding, predicting, and changing human behavior.

appreciation praise A form of praise in which the person expresses a sense of appreciation for the values within a specific culture, here the culture and community of a classroom.

apprenticeship The concept based on the idea that children develop as active constructivists of their knowledge with the guidance and ongoing support of adults in their culture and within their cultural routines and via use of different cultural tools available to them.

assessment An ongoing process of gathering information about the child, based on which intervention and activity plans might be designed, revised, refined, or modified.

assistive listening devices Any type of device that would help individuals to hear sounds better, and therefore to communicate better.

assistive technology A piece of equipment, an item, or a system that is acquired commercially and is modified and customized to be used to maintain or increase functional capacity of a child or adult with a disability.

asynchronous development Uneven development, where there is a disparity in levels of growth and ability within various developmental areas.

at-risk Children who because of various environmental and biological risk factors (such as poverty, lack of educational resources, or biological conditions) are at jeopardy to develop special needs, or are less likely to succeed in school and in community.

attachment A developmental process consisting of an emotional tie and binding affection that a child has with his or her caregiver and other people.

atypical development Patterns of slow, unhealthy, or atypical development in children.

auditory system A part of the overall sensory processing system that is responsible for sound perception and processing of the auditory sensory input.

augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) An intervention strategy that utilizes manual as well as low and high technologies such as sign language, pictures, symbols, and computerized devices in conjunction with the child’s language abilities in order to enable the child to communicate with others.

authentic assessment Utilizes the tasks of the classroom and the daily work of children as the way of assessing the child’s learning and progress.

aversive Using an unpleasant or punishing stimulus to cause a behavior to decrease or diminish.

behavior A behavior refers to an observable action of an individual. What an individual does or says is a behavior. Therefore, behaviors could be verbal or nonverbal.

body mass index (BMI) A measure of the relationship between length and weight across age.

cells The basic building blocks of all living things. There are over 100 trillion cells in the human body.

(Central) Auditory Processing Disorder ((C)APD) A sensory processing problem that impedes correct recognition of speech sounds.

cephalocaudal Type of motor development in which control over motor skills progresses from the head downward toward lower portions of the body.

child abuse Unreasonable acts that may endanger a child or cause a child unnecessary physical and emotional pain or threaten the child’s health and development.

child advocate A person who would argue on behalf of the parents and the child.

Child Find A system consisting of organized efforts in each state to locate and identify children who might have developmental delays or might be at risk for developmental problems.

child neglect Failure of parents or caregivers to provide the minimal age-appropriate care necessary for the child’s physical, emotional, and mental growth and development.

children at risk Children who, because of poverty and other adverse conditions, are in danger of having negative developmental outcomes.

children with special needs Also referred to as exceptional children; those children who, because of a variety of conditions, such as a diagnosed disability, require special care and education.

chromosomes Threadlike structures containing DNA that are located in the nucleus of each cell.

circles of communication Back-and-forth communicative signals between the infant and the caregiver. Circles of communication could be verbal or nonverbal.

cognitive development Refers to the development of general awareness and thought processes such as problem solving and memory. Cognitive development includes development of communication and language.

cohesion The degree to which family members are close together or are far apart from one another.

collective empowerment Also known as “family professional partnership”; occurs when parents and professionals come to a mutual appreciation of each other, thereby creating a synergy that brings  together each other’s expertise and knowledge to work successfully together.

combined presentation A diagnostic classification under ADHD, characterizing children who display symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity.

comments Simple sentences that provide additional information about events or actions that are or are about to take place.

communication Exchange of ideas, thoughts, or information via sending and receiving messages between two or more parties.

community-based instruction Teaching children specific skills within their environments and through related required skills.

comorbidity The coexistence of two or more disorders together.

compensatory programs Also called prevention programs; designed for at-risk children to give them opportunities to change their life course.

conceptual domain Also referred to as academic domain, is one area of adaptive functioning. It involves abilities in speech and language, memory, reading, writing, reasoning, learning practical knowledge, general awareness, problem solving, and judgment in new situations.

conductive hearing loss Hearing loss caused by damage to the outer or middle ear, marked by a lack of sensitivity to faint or certain sounds.

congenital Infant’s diseases, disorders, or conditions that are present at birth.

congenital blindness Blindness that has been present from birth.

congenital deafness Deafness that is present at birth and caused by genetics factors, hereditary conditions, or as a result of a prenatal event or a condition.

consequence Event or events following the behavior that would affect its future occurrence.

context of child development The environment in which the child develops and people with whom the child interacts. A developmental context includes the family members, ethnicity, and community in which the child lives.

contextually based assessment Assessing children in their various contexts, such as home, community, and early childhood settings, and as they perform different activities.

control sentences Sentences that provide analogies that are related to one or more appropriate responses in the child to help the child remember the appropriate course of action to take.

controversial Educational practices that have no scientific basis.

convergent assessment An assessment process in which information about the child is collected from multiple sources and over a certain period of time to get an accurate picture of the child’s condition.

critical period hypothesis States that unless one is exposed to language and social stimuli within the first few years of life, one will lose much of his or her abilities to learn a language, in particular its grammatical system.

critical thinking Mental processes consisting of reflection, analysis, and evaluation of tangible and nontangible evidence.

cultural codes Ways in which people conduct their various daily living practices.

cultural competence Understanding and respecting basic cultural and family values of individuals from different perspective than one’s own and to reserve judgment about what is right or wrong or what is better or worse as compared with one’s own cultural or family background. In its broad sense, it refers to an ability to work effectively with a diverse group of people.

cultural reciprocity A model established and promoted by professionals, in which both parents and professionals come to a mutual and true understanding of each other’s cultural beliefs, values, and attitudes as it relates to the child with special needs.

culture Values and beliefs that dictate how people should behave within their family and in the larger society.

curriculum-based assessment Assessment procedure that is based on students’ achievement of the curriculum learning goals in specific subjects.

curriculum-based measures Assessment instruments that measure knowledge in specific subject areas.

cyberbullying A social type of bullying in which a child is harassed, embarrassed, threatened, or tormented by a peer who is using digital media (interactive digital technology, Internet, smartphones or  other electronic devices, etc.) for this purpose.

data driven All decisions regarding any course of action are based on results obtained from systematic collection of data throughout intervention and progress monitoring.

deaf With a lower case “d,” deaf refers to any individual or child who cannot utilize hearing to use language.

Deaf With a capital “D,” Deaf refers to a child or individual who is a member of a distinct cultural and linguistic group.

Deaf community Deaf individuals who perceive themselves as a linguistic minority group who have their own culture and language, American Sign Language (ASL).

decibels (dB) A logarithmic unit used to measure sound level, by describing a ratio of power, sound pressure, voltage, or intensity.

deinstitutionalization A trend leading to the rapid downsizing of institutions and hospitals that previously cared for children and adults with intellectual disability and mental illness.

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) DNA is the nucleic acid that is the genetic material determining the makeup of all living cells. It consists of two long chains of nucleotides twisted into a double helix and joined by hydrogen. DNA determines individual hereditary characteristics.

descriptive sentences Sentences that describe a social story’s scenario details such as the time and location.

development Refers to the process in which human behavior changes in a predictable way, provided certain conditions are met, throughout the life cycle.

developmental delay A delay in development in two or more areas as measured by testing. Usually a specific percentage of delays, set by states, should be present for the child to be eligible for services.

developmental domains Major dimensions of development that encompass specific abilities. There are three major domains: physical, cognitive, and social emotional.

developmental milestones Specific behavioral markers that indicate development of a certain skill around a specific time (child’s age).

developmental screening A short standardized test usually conducted to allow professionals to identify children who might need further assessment or careful monitoring.

developmental theories Systems of explanations and principles for the evolving and gradual process of human development.

diagnostic test An assessment instrument that helps confirm or exclude the presence of a specific condition for which the test has been designed.

differential attention (DA) An approach marked by attending to the child’s behavior when the behavior is acceptable or appropriate and ignoring the child’s behavior when the behavior is inappropriate or unacceptable.

differentiated instruction A flexible approach to teaching, which allows for change of instruction, materials, procedures, and assessment protocol for students on the basis of their individual learning needs.

differentiation Principle of motor development in which infants’ motor skills become more defined and develop into a set of distinguished skills, each with a different function.

directive sentences Sentences that give the child suggestions as to one or more appropriate responses in a given situation.

DIR Model Developmental Individual-Difference Relationship-Based model of intervention, also called Floortime model, is a play-based framework for assessment and intervention of children with developmental disabilities, specifically children within the Autism Spectrum Disorders. The focus of DIR is to build healthy social and emotional and intellectual capacities in the child.

Discrete Trial Teaching (DTT) Consists of a systematic and intensive one-on-one instruction and reinforcement procedures between the child and the behavior interventionist.

discrete trial A single teaching and learning event in which a stimulus is presented by the teacher/therapist and response is given in response by the student/child.

due process hearing A legal process that entitles the parents of children with disabilities to have legal counsel and to contest decisions made in regards to the education, placement, and services of their children.

Dynamic Systems Model A theory of development that explains that motor development occurs as a result of interaction of many factors, such as sensory and cognitive processing, biomechanical and physical development, environment, and demands of a specific task that the child is to perform. In this model, development is a dynamic system that is marked by variability, instabilities, regressions, discontinuity, and jumps.

Early Childhood Education (ECE) A system of care and education of children from birth through age 8 or third grade.

Early Childhood Intervention (ECI) Includes the system of care and education addressing the needs of children at risk and children who are diagnosed with disabilities or developmental delays from birth through age 5.

Early Childhood Special Education (ECSE) The system of intervention that provides specialized instruction and supporting services for children (from birth through 8 years of age) who have diagnosed disabilities.

Early Intervention (EI) A system of intervention consisting of a range of developmental services and programs designed for infants and toddlers (birth through 3 years old) who are diagnosed with developmental delays or disabilities.

echolalia A condition marked by echoing, or repeating, the words that one hears.

elementary special education Special education services (specialized instruction and support services) for children with disabilities from age 6 through 14 (K–8).

emotional competence The child’s ability to regulate self-emotions, understand feelings and emotions of self and others, and apply this knowledge to form and maintain relationships with others.

enrichment Modifying the curriculum by adding learning activities or providing new learning opportunities in addition to what the regular curriculum might require.

evaluation A formal process that occurs at the time of diagnosis and periodically after that to determine if a child is eligible and continues to be eligible to receive Early Intervention and Special Education services.

evidence-based or scientific research-based Practices and strategies that have been grounded in research and have empirical validity.

exceptional children Children who, by virtue of their special needs, require special educational services and instruction in order to be successful in school.

executive function A mechanism in the brain circuits, located in the frontal cortex of the brain, that prioritizes, integrates, and regulates other cognitive functions, such as the planning and execution of an action.

expansion A language stimulation technique that recasts the child’s utterance into a correct syntactic form.

experimental Scientific inquiry in which all factors under study are controlled and the researcher tests a hypothesis under controlled conditions.

explicit instruction An instruction in which the teacher overtly teaches all steps needed to complete a task.

extension An advanced form of expansion in which the teacher expands the child’s utterance into a correct sentence, then adds a new and related comment.

externalizing behaviors Behaviors that are easily observable, such as acting out, defiance, noncompliance, or aggression.

extremely low birth weight (ELBW) An infant weighing less than 1,000 grams (2. pounds).

false negative The results of the test indicate the absence of certain risk factors, when in fact those risk factors are present.

false positive The results of the test indicate the presence of certain risk factors in the individual, when in fact no risk factors are present.

family Any unit whose members consider themselves to be a family and provide support and care for each other on an ongoing basis.

family-directed assessment Involving family in evaluating resources, priorities, and concerns of the family and the child and in developing a plan of action accordingly.

family functioning The ongoing relationships between adult members and between the adults and children in fulfilling the family’s functions.

family resilience The concept describing the phenomenon that some families cope with stress and adversity in a positive way and become strengthened as a result.

family structure Refers to the configuration of the family on the basis of the members within the family unit.

field of vision The area around the person, which one can see when looking ahead. A normal field of vision is 160 degrees.

fine motor Development of small muscles in arms and hands; required in manipulation and handling of objects.

flexibility The degree to which family members are willing to change their roles and responsibilities as situational changes in the family might demand.

Floortime Model A relationship-based philosophy and procedure, pioneered by Stanley Greenspan, which refers to a set of child-centered techniques based on the child’s interest and developmental level, by which the therapist aims to help the child overcome any developmental problems.

follow-up praise A form of praise in which a positive behavior of a child is described and stated immediately upon the time a child displays that behavior.

formative evaluation Ongoing assessment throughout the daily operation of a program, gathering statistical information as well as qualitative information about the program.

free and appropriate public education (FAPE) Special education and related services that are provided at public expense, meet state standards, are appropriate, and are provided in conformity with an IEP.

functional academics Academic skills necessary so that students could function independently within the home and community settings.

functional behavior analysis (FBA) Analysis of the components of events taking place prior, during, and after the problem behavior. Functional analysis determines the behavior’s functions and consequences that might increase or reduce the behavior in the future.

functional behavioral assessment A system of behavioral assessment that focuses on identifying cognitive, social emotional, or environmental factors, which contribute to occurrence of a child’s behavior.

functional vision assessment (FVA) Assessment of how the child uses his or her visual abilities within his or her natural environment.

genes The basic physical and functional unit of heredity.

gestational diabetes Diabetes that is contracted during pregnancy without a prior history of that disorder.

giftedness Children identified by professionals who, by virtue of their exceptionally high abilities and higher performance capabilities, require enhanced education or programs to realize their potentials.

graphomotor Skills necessary for drawing and handwriting.

grasping A child’s ability to use fine muscles in the finger to hold, pick, or grasp objects.

gross motor Development of large muscles of trunk and limbs, involving locomotion and posture, and balance.

growth Refers to increase in weight or height or maturation of an organism.

guided participation A process of interpersonal transaction between children and adults, through which children participate in learning as the adults guide and support their learning and development.

gustatory system A part of the sensory processing system that is responsible for detecting and processing taste input.

handedness A person’s preference for using one hand over the other and that hand’s precision and proficiency in performing skilled tasks, such as writing, drawing, and object manipulation.

hard of hearing A child or individual who has sufficient hearing for communication and language use.

Head Start A compensatory program funded in 1965 by the office of Economic Opportunity to give children who, because of socioeconomic conditions, are at risk for school failure a head start in education, so that the disparities in education of these children and their peers are eliminated.

hearing impairment A term that is used by IDEA to describe hearing loss or deafness in children.

hearing loss Any degree or type of hearing damage.

hertz (Hz) Named after a German physicist, Heinrich Hertz, who demonstrated the existence of radio waves in 1886, hertz is the unit of measurement expressing the frequency in one cycle per second.

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) The virus that causes AIDS by damaging part of the body’s defenses against infection.

hyperactivity A state in which the child is easily excitable or overactive.

hypertonia Increased tightness of muscles, also called spasticity.

hypotonia Decreased or lack of adequate level of muscle tone.

IFSP outcomes Statements of major outcomes expected to be achieved for the child and the family based on the child’s current developmental level and the family’s priorities. IFSP outcomes include criteria for achieving the outcome, the type of services/activities needed to achieve the outcome, and a timeline for revision of the outcome if necessary.

implants Small electronic devices that are inserted surgically underneath the skin. On the basis of their type, implants help provide hearing sensation, transmit sounds, process auditory information, and amplify sounds.

impulsivity Resorting to an action without thinking first or considering the consequences of one’s action.

inattention Having a short attention span or not being able to sustain attention for more than a short period of time.

incidental teaching An approach that uses naturally occurring opportunities in the child’s environment for teaching and instruction, while utilizing the child’s interests and motivations.

inclusion The concept in which children with disabilities are educated in the same educational settings along with their peers without disabilities while special education and support services are provided for them in that environment.

inclusive classrooms Classrooms in which both children with and without special needs are educated, and support services, such as adaptation to curriculum, are available to meet all children’s needs.

indirect language stimulation Language stimulation techniques to be used through daily activities where the goal is to carry out a discussion while increasing the language comprehension of the child.

Individualized Education Plan (IEP) A written plan developed by professionals and parents outlining the education plan for the child on an annual basis.

Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) An annual plan written by professionals and parents outlining outcomes for the infants and toddlers and their families.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (P.L. 101-76) is the amendment to the previous law, Education for All Handicapped Children Act. IDEA adopted a language of “child first” and provided a set of guidelines regarding legal rights of children with disabilities and their families to support and services.

intellectual disability Impairments in the area of intellectual functioning and adaptive functioning to the degree where day to day functioning is adversely influenced.

intellectual functioning Specific mental abilities, such as reasoning, problem solving, planning, abstract thinking, and learning, either from experience or academically.

intelligence Refers to a range of abilities including reasoning, problem solving, thinking abstractly, planning, and learning from experiences in one’s environment.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ) A score indicating the ratio between an individual’s chronological age vs. mental age.

internal dyssynchrony Emotional and psychological problems that might occur because of asynchrony in development.

internalizing behaviors Behavior characteristics that may not be easily observable, such as depression, anxiety, or withdrawal.

itinerant professionals Special educators, therapists, or specialists who are designated by the Board of Education to provide consultation or direct services to a child in a private or a public school.

joint attention See shared attention.

Kangaroo Mother Care Also called skin-to-skin care, is a strategy used for premature or other infants that focuses on placing the infant in a continuous skin-to-skin position with the mother, father, or other caregivers for several periods throughout the day and as much as possible.

kinesthetic multimodal approach to learning A strategy in which hearing, speaking, seeing, and moving are connected together to teach early literacy, such as phonemic awareness and letter-sound recognition.

labeling Written and oral labeling of objects, toys, and materials that are within the young children’s environments.

language A socially shared system of rules for sounds, signs, and written symbols to be used for the purpose of communication among the members of a human group.

language content Refers to semantics or the meaning of words in the language.

language disorder Problems with receptive and/or expressive language.

language form Refers to rules of syntax or grammar that dictate the form of language.

language impairment A disorder in one or more areas of learning processing that is involved in understanding and/or using language.

language modeling Providing linguistic models for children beginning with isolated sounds and moving to modeling words, phrases, sentences, and uttering sentences.

language use Refers to the pragmatic or social aspect of language that dictates how language is to be used for social and communicative purposes.

large for gestational age An infant’s weight which is over 4,000 grams (8. pounds).

layered instruction An instruction that builds on students’ varied learning abilities and developmental levels, so that the students can learn to the best of their potential.

lead An environmental toxin that can be found in old buildings, which could cause cognitive impairment in children.

learned helplessness A psychological condition in which a person has learned that he or she has no control over a situation no matter what he or she does, even if in reality the situation is easily changeable.

least restrictive environment (LRE) An educational setting where to the maximum extent possible, a child with disabilities could receive an individualized, free and appropriate education along with his or her peers without disabilities.

legally blind Children and individuals whose vision is 20/200 or below or whose field of vision is 20 degrees or less.

locomotion Refers to movements that change the child from one location to another in a natural, spontaneous, and rhythmic pattern.

logo reading A picture fading approach in which familiar signs in the environment are used to teach children letter-sound correspondence and word reading.

low birth weight (LBW) An infant’s weight that is below 2,500 grams (5. pounds).

low incidence disabilities Conditions that are not very common in children, which include a variety of disorders, such as deafness, blindness, and a number of neurological and physical disabilities.

low vision Refers to children who need optical aid in order to see and read print. These children might learn to read braille.

macro-culture The dominant culture that is shared by a large group of people within a society in which there are several smaller groups with their own subcultures.

manipulatives Hands-on materials that are designed to teach shapes, numbers, letters, concepts, and mathematical operations, by means of active engagement with and manipulation of the materials.

manual or hand babbling Sequence of hand gestures in infants, which resembles signs in a sign language.

matching In a face-to-face interaction between infant and the caregiver, matching is referred to as the infant’s ability to either imitate the facial expression of the caregiver or respond to the caregiver’s overtures with similar facial expressions or vocal behaviors.

Mean Length Utterance (MLU) A measure of language productivity in children, usually calculated by collecting the number of utterances of children and dividing the number of morphemes by the total number of utterances. The higher the MLU of a child, the higher the proficiency in the child’s language.

measurable Clear criteria that specify how goals and all objectives and benchmarks are achieved.

mental retardation A static condition marked by limited intellectual functioning and adaptive development, which could not be changed or improved over time.

mercury A toxic substance that could be ingested through contaminated food and cause neurological impairments.

micro-culture A subculture with its values and practices, belonging to smaller groups (e.g., ethnic group) within a shared larger culture or macro-culture.

micropreemie An infant who weighs less than 800 grams (1. pound).

mixed hearing loss Hearing loss caused by damage to a combination of outer, inner, and middle ear or to the auditory nerve.

mixed methodologies A study that employs both qualitative and quantitative methodologies to capture the details of experiences of subjects in the study and conditions in the field.

mobility Children’s ability to move about safely in their environment.

morpheme The smallest meaningful unit in a grammar of a language.

motor or movement planning The process of finding out how to accomplish a goal that involves sequential action, such as climbing stairs.

multidisciplinary team A team composed of professionals from various disciplines that work independently of one another. Although team members might work side by side or share space together, they work and function separately.

multifactorial genetic disorders Disorders caused by defects in one or more genes in combination with environmental factors.

musculoskeletal system (MSK) system Consists of bones, muscles, and joints that enable motor movements.

music therapy A form of therapy established using music to address different developmental needs of the individual.

natural environments The typical environment in which the young child develops, such as a child’s home and community.

negative attention Paying attention to the inappropriate behavior of a child by using negative statements or using punishment.

negative reinforcement Removal of an aversive stimulus that increases the likelihood of the behavior that leads to it.

neonate The infant during the first 28 days of life.

neurobiological risk factors Genetic or neurological factors that could lead to establishment of a developmental problem in a child before, during, or after birth.

neuromuscular (NM) system Consists of spinal motor neurons, the peripheral nerves, and the junction between muscles and nerves. It enables the body to move through transferring messages to and from the brain and body.

neurotransmitters Chemical messengers that are responsible to carry information from one nerve cell to the next.

No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) A U.S. Federal law signed by President George W. Bush in 2002 that reauthorized the Elementary and Secondary Education Act in addition to reauthorizing programs to improve educational performance of students in primary and secondary schools by raising the standards of accountability for states, school districts, and schools. The Act also gave parents flexibility in choosing schools that their children attended.

norm-referenced tests Standardized measures that evaluate and compare each examinee’s performance as compared with the performance of other similar examinees.

number sense An intuitive ability to understand what numbers mean and how to make mental calculation and comparisons about quantity.

objectives Also referred to as short-term benchmarks, objectives are smaller components of the annual goals that describe what the child should achieve by specific segments of the year.

observable Any behavior that could be seen.

observation A systematic watching and listening of children to gather information about them.

olfactory system A part of the sensory processing system that is responsible for detecting and processing smell.

oral motor Involves development of orofacial musculature that is elemental in feeding and in speech development.

orientation Children’s ability to figure out where they are.

orientation and mobility specialist A trained individual who helps children and adults with visual impairment find their way and move about safely in their environment.

parallel play Children playing alongside one another.

parallel talk Also called narrating, is describing the child’s actions by matching words to the action as the child is performing a task.

paraprofessionals Persons trained to assist the teacher in a specialized or nonspecialized education setting who are not certified to practice as licensed professionals/teachers.

partially sighted Children and individuals who have some vision but need special education in order to succeed in school.

partnership with families A framework outlining a working relationship between families and professionals, which is based on ongoing collaboration to benefit the child.

peer tutoring, or peer mediated instruction or intervention A system of teaching and learning that relies on training more proficient children to teach their peers with learning difficulties academic and social skills.

perception The interpretation of what has been sensed.

perceptual motor skills The ability to mentally organize and interpret and then respond motorically to what one sees. It requires appropriate sensory processing and development of balance, coordination, and fine and gross motor muscles.

performance-based assessment Direct and systematic observation of a student performance and rating of that performance based on previously set criteria.

perinatal period The period surrounding child birth, beginning from about 5 months before to 1 month after birth.

perspective sentences Sentences that provide perspective and insights into the thinking of the child as well as others involved in a social story scenario.

phonological awareness The ability to hear and recognize the structure of sounds in a language.

phonology The study of how sounds are organized and produced in a language.

physical development Refers to the development of muscles, bones, motoric movements, and to the general health of a child.

pica Eating nonfood items

Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) A system of communication used for children with autism based on an exchange of pictures between the child and others.

picture fading A phonics approach to teaching literacy in which single pictures and their associated words are used during play and instructed games and lessons. Over time, as children learn to identify words, pictures are removed while the word remains.

planned ignoring A procedure in which the adult withdraws attention from the child upon occurrence of inappropriate behavior for a predetermined period of time.

play-based assessment An assessment approach in which the child’s performance is measured during play.

polygenic disorders Disorders caused by defects in more than one gene without the influence of environmental factors.

positive behavior support (PBS) A collaborative approach that uses educational methods to help the child develop new behaviors, and systems change to redesign a child’s environment so as to minimize the child’s problem behavior, and enhance the child’s quality of life.

positive reinforcers Reinforcing stimuli that increases the likelihood of the behavior that produces it.

postnatal period The period beginning immediately after birth to about 4 to 6 weeks of the infant’s chronological age.

postural and balance control A child’s ability to move efficiently in various directions such as standing, twisting, sitting, reclining, bending, swinging, and stretching and to be able to balance, adapt, and adjust his posture as needed.

practical domain An area of adaptive functioning. It encompass learning and abilities to manage self in all aspects of daily life, such as personal hygiene and care, behavioral regulation, organization, understanding and carrying out responsibilities, recreation, and work and self-determination.

praxis One’s ability to use sensory input to formulate goals, plan, sequence, and execute motoric and nonmotoric actions.

predominantly hyperactive-impulsive presentation A diagnostic classification under ADHD, characterizing children who do not display symptoms of attention difficulties but display symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity.

predominantly inattentive presentation A diagnostic classification under ADHD, characterizing children and individuals who have symptoms of inattention without having symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity.

prelinguistic foundations of language development Skills necessary before the child begins language acquisition and use, such as eye contact, pointing, holding joint attention, gesturing, and vocalizing.

prelinguistic milieu teaching (PMT) A teaching strategy used for young children, consisting of a number of steps that are embedded within the child’s natural environment to promote prelinguistic abilities, such as eye contact and gesturing, in the child.

prenatal period The period of development and growth of the baby before birth.

pretend play Make-believe play or taking on a pretend role while following a play theme.

prevalence A measure of the number of individuals with a specific disease or condition.

prompt An action provided by the adult that supports learning of a task or a behavior in a child. Prompts could be physical, verbal, or gestural.

prompt dependency When teachers routinely and repeatedly provide physical and verbal assistance without setting a goal for children’s independent functioning, so that they begin to expect others to assist them even when they are able to perform a task independently.

prompt fading Gradual elimination of teacher’s scaffolding as the child learns to perform a task.

prompt hierarchy A system of prompts organized in an order from most to least or from least to most intrusive form.

proprioceptive system A part of the sensory processing system that uses information from various muscles and joints and helps one be aware of the body’s position in the space.

protective factors Factors that would buffer the effect of risk factors and protect the child against adverse conditions.

protodeclarative pointing Pointing to an object with the purpose of showing one’s interest in that object to another.

proximity control The method of standing or sitting in close proximity to the child in order to encourage the child’s focus and attention and to monitor his or her behavior.

proximodistal Principle of motor development whereby an infant’s control over his or her motor skills progresses from the center of the body to the extremities.

pseudoscientific approaches Practices, ideas, or beliefs that are mistakenly regarded or are misrepresented as being scientific but do not adhere to any valid scientific methods, cannot be reliably tested, and do not have any scientific status.

qualitative research Studies that use observational field studies and interview methods to understand the details and nature of experience of subjects in the study.

quantitative research Research that uses structured and predetermined questions where relatively a large number of participants are involved. In quantitative research, measurement should be objective and results should be statistically sound and valid.

quasi-experimental A method of study that is usually used for field settings, such as educational programs. In this method the experimenter might choose to control certain factors or not manipulate any factors at all.

reaching A child’s ability to track a static or moving object and make contact with that object using his arms and hands.

readiness skills Behaviors necessary for classroom participation and essential to learning, such as sharing, sitting still for an appropriate length of time, expressing emotions, taking turns, and finishing tasks.

register Refers to variations in style of language that occurs in different contexts, such as the way that one talks to a friend as opposed to the way that one talks to a teacher.

regular or general education classrooms Classroom environments in which no specific adaptations are made to the curriculum and where typically developing children are educated.

reinforcements Experiences, objects, or events that increase the likelihood that a behavior would occur again in the future.

reliability The accuracy by which a test measures what it targets to measure.

repetition A language stimulation technique that helps the child learn correct articulation by repeating what the child says in its correct form.

resilient children Children who, despite biological or environmental high-risk status, have positive developmental outcomes and grow up to become productive members of their communities.

Response to Intervention (RTI) A research-based process that aims at improving academic performance, consisting of different tiers of intervention and progress monitoring to be used as the basis of assessment and intervention for children who have learning problems.

responsive teaching A teaching method in which parents and educators participate in children’s activities and provide support for children by doing the things that are similar to what children are doing.

risk factors Factors that might impede healthy physical, intellectual, and emotional development in the child.

Rosa’s Law Or the U.S. law P.L. 111-256 (2010) that abolishes the use of the term “mental retardation” from Federal Health, Education, and Labor law and replaces it with the term Intellectual Disability (ID).

scaffolding Active assistance of a more able person in helping the child learn a specific task. It ranges from verbal, gestural, or physical cueing and modeling to a complete physical motoring of an act.

screening test A test that screens an individual for specific risk factors for which the test has been designed.

self-determination The child’s ability to act autonomously and independently in regulating his or her behaviors to respond to events as well as initiate own responses to events.

self-regulation A developmental task related to brain development, marked by the ability of the child to manage arousal, emotion, attention, and self-reaction in response to different conditions and situations, and sensory stimuli in their environments.

self-stimulatory behaviors Repetitive movements of limbs or the entire body, which might have neurobiological and sensory causes.

self-talk Describing one’s actions carefully and in simple language as one is going through the action.

sensation Reception of information from the sensory receptors in ears, eyes, skin, tongue, and nose.

sensorineural hearing loss (SNL hearing loss) Hearing loss caused by damage to the inner ear structure, marked by a lack of sensitivity to environmental or speech sounds.

sensory integration A theory brought by Jane Ayers, explaining the process of organizing sensation from the body and environment to be used. Sensory integration is the brain’s ability to integrate information received from various senses from the environment by balancing and adjusting the flow of sensory input to the nervous system.

sensory modulation The ability to respond appropriately to ordinary levels of sensory input.

sensory motor Involves the physiological and sensory processing mechanisms that reside within the nervous system.

sensory processing The ability to receive sensory information and to organize and make sense of the information received from senses.

service delivery model The model indicating what types of services and where services are to be provided for a child with disabilities. Services could be home-based, center-based, or home- and center-based.

setting events Factors that might not be immediately noticeable and could contribute to a child’s behavior.

shared attention Takes place when two persons are interested and are looking at the same object at the same time.

single-gene disorder Abnormality that affects only one gene, such as PKU.

skin-to-skin care See Kangaroo Mother Care.

social competence A child’s ability to self-regulate so that he or she could engage and have effective interactions with others.

social domain An area of adaptive functioning. It involves awareness of others’ thoughts and feelings, interpersonal communication skills, empathy, friendship skills, and social judgment.

social emotional competence A series of cognitive behavioral skills that are related to interpersonal and intrapersonal development and that prompt appropriate interactions with, and reactions to, others and to events in different environments and situations.

social emotional development Development of emotions, personality, temperament, and relationships with others.

social games Interactive games that require children to cooperate with one another while following specific sets of rules pertaining to that game.

socialization mismatched hypothesis The hypothesis that states that children are more likely to succeed in school when socialization patterns and linguistic interactions at home match those that society uses and values.

social story A cognitive method that has been used for children with autism to teach them theory of mind skills related to specific behaviors as well as teaching academic content.

socioeconomic status (SES) The status of a family in society based on education, income level, and class association.

special education Specially designed instruction for children who have unique learning needs.

special education classrooms Specialized and highly structured classrooms in which children with disabilities are educated.

Specific Language Impairment (SLI) Language impairment that is caused by or related to developmental problems, hearing loss, or acquired brain injury.

specific praise Describes the behavior that is being praised.

speech The spoken form of language, requiring the production of specific sounds of language.

speech and language delay Lateness in emergence of speech and aspects of language use.

speech disorder An inability in production of speech sounds, fluency, or voice projection.

stuttering Disruptions in the production of speech sounds, usually beginning in early childhood.

subsystem A smaller system within the family consisting of specific members.

summative evaluation Information gathered at the end of a specific time period about the effectiveness of an intervention program. It analyzes qualitative and quantitative results obtained through formative evaluation against the outcome of the program.

systematic instruction A method of instruction based on task analysis—breaking down complex skills into smaller steps and teaching each step in its logical sequence.

systems theory A theory of development that explains a child’s growth and development within multiple systems. Interactions within the system and between the systems and the child influence and shape a child’s development.

tactile defensiveness Having an oversensitive tactile processing system. This would make certain touches aversive to the child.

tactile system A part of the sensory processing system that is responsible for feeling different sensations of temperature, texture, pain, and pressure.

temporal-sequential ability The ability to organize and remember information in the specific order that the information is presented. This ability underlies understanding the concept of time.

teratogen Any toxin that could pose a threat to the developing fetus.

theory of mind A human’s ability to understand that others can think and have beliefs. It enables the individual to understand that others can have different mental states than one’s own state of mind.

Three-Ring Model of Giftedness A model proposed by Renzulli in which giftedness comprises three interlocking clustered abilities in an individual: above average intelligence, high level of task commitment, and creativity.

tics Repetitive motor movements or sounds that individuals may make without realizing or having control over them.

tiered instruction See layered instruction.

TORCH Named for toxoplasmosis, other (HIV, syphilis, and others), rubella, cytomegalovirus, and herpes; an acronym used to describe a group of infections that could cause specific disabilities in the child.

totally blind Children and individuals who cannot receive any meaningful information through their visual sense.

transdisciplinary team A team composed of parents and professionals from several disciplines. In a transdisciplinary team members communicate, cooperate, and collaborate with one another on an ongoing basis. Mutual and cross training across disciplines are common in this team model.

transition A plan of action that outlines specific services for children with disabilities as they reach the age to exit Early Intervention and to enter the preschool special education or other appropriate early childhood programs.

twice exceptional children Gifted children who have learning or other kinds of disabilities.

umbilical cord prolapse The condition that occurs when the umbilical cord descends through the birth canal in advance of the infant.

universal health precautions A set of guidelines that are recommended to prevent the spread of infections and transmittable diseases.

universal model of curriculum An early childhood curriculum model that is comprehensive enough so that it takes into account various developmental and educational needs of all students.

validity The extent to which a test actually measures what it claims to measure.

values Standards to judge specific actions or thoughts as proper or improper.

very low birth weight (VLBW) Infants weighing less than 1,500 grams (31⁄3 pounds).

vestibular system A part of the sensory processing system that coordinates the movement of eyes, body, and head through space and helps with the body’s movement and balance.

visual acuity The accuracy of vision to see things at far and close ranges.

visual impairment Vision loss that is significant enough that the child’s visual acuity is 20/60 even with corrective lenses and glasses.

visual spatial ability The ability to mentally understand and manipulate two- and three-dimensional objects and figures.

visual system A part of the sensory processing system that is responsible for visual perception and processing of the visual sensory input.

visuals Pictures that represent words, objects, actions, or concepts that are used to enhance communication for children and individuals with autism.

working memory An active memory system in the information processing area of the brain that enables the individual to hold several facts in the memory temporarily while solving a problem or performing a task.

zone of proximal development A concept brought by Vygotsky who believed that with adults’ help children can learn to do different tasks without assistance; zone of proximal development refers to the difference between what a child is able to do and what the child is not able to do without an adult’s assistance.