Interpersonal communication is the use of symbols, whether written, spoken, or displayed nonverbally, to represent ideas in interactions between people. This chapter describes interpersonal communication as a continuous, dynamic, and consequential process that is irreversible and imperfect. In addition, the ability of interpersonal communication to convey content and relational messages in contexts spanning organizational communication, health communication, and computer-mediated communication is examined. Characteristics of communication competence are reviewed, along with the factors that promote communication competence and the situational variables, such as culture, setting, and age, that shape standards for competent communication. This chapter also provides an introduction to the study of interpersonal communication, with an overview of the aims of communication theory and dominant research traditions. The role of ethics, including both ethical communication and ethical communication research, is discussed.

Culture encompasses the values, beliefs, and customs that are shared by a group of people. Culture can be shared among people by virtue of the cultural institutions they are part of, the life experiences that they have in common, or the opportunities they have to communicate with each other. Cultures form and change overtime, and characteristics of a culture are both shaped by and reflected in communication. Intercultural communication occurs when people communicate with each other based on their membership in a social group, rather than their personal, individual qualities. Ethnocentrism, uncertainty and anxiety, and marginalization are challenges that complicate intercultural communication. A discussion of communication between people of different genders highlights how intercultural communication is relevant throughout people’s lives. This chapter also provides suggestions for finding common ground for across cultures, appreciating cultural diversity, and improving intercultural communication.

Self-concept refers to the knowledge individuals have about themselves, which is shaped and expressed through interpersonal communication. This chapter describes the characteristics of the self and the various sources of self-knowledge. In addition, the chapter examines identity as a multi-layered understanding of the self and investigates the potential causes and consequences of identity gaps. The challenges of identity formation during emerging adulthood and identity change during later life stages are also addressed. This chapter also provides suggestions for strengthening interpersonal communication skills to express a coherent identity and support multiple identities. The ethics of communicating identity and supporting minority identities are also discussed.

Perception is the process by which people select, organize, and interpret information available to their senses; therefore, it fundamentally affects communication with other people. This chapter describes the stages of perception and factors that affect how people perceive and make sense of other people. In addition, the chapter examines attributions, or how people explain the causes of behavior, with an emphasis on attribution biases in close relationships. The influence of individual differences, such as gender, age, and cognitive complexity, alcohol intoxication, and stereotyping on perception are also discussed. Among other suggestions, this chapter offer recommendations for overcoming subjective biases in perception, protecting valued relationships through adaptive attributions, and combating the influence of stereotypes.

Language encompasses the verbal symbol systems people use to communicate. This chapter highlights four features of language as abstract, arbitrary, related to culture, and consequential. The syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic rules of language use, as well as maxims the guide using language in conversation, as described. This chapter discusses the effects of gender, power, and intimacy on language use, as well as pervasive biases that are manifested as racist, sexist, and heterosexist language. This chapter also provides suggestions for strengthening interpersonal communication skills by harnessing the power of language, working to reduce miscommunication, adjusting language to address social context, and using including language.

Nonverbal communication encompasses how people create and exchange meaning through nonverbal behavior. This chapter reviews the channels through which nonverbal messages are conveyed, and characteristics of nonverbal communication as a symbol system. Four functions of nonverbal communication, communicating emotion, communicating liking, communicating power and status, and regulating conversation, are discussed. Culture and gender differences in nonverbal communication are considered, as are the ways verbal and nonverbal communication come together in interactions, such as those that involve deception or negotiate sexual intimacy. Suggestions for improving nonverbal communication include developing an awareness of nonverbal cues, using nonverbal cues to manage relationships and interactions, embracing individual differences in nonverbal communication, and being mindful about combining verbal and nonverbal cues.

Language encompasses the verbal symbol systems people use to communicate. This chapter highlights four features of language as abstract, arbitrary, related to culture, and consequential. The syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic rules of language use, as well as maxims the guide using language in conversation, are described. This chapter discusses the effects of gender, power, and intimacy on language use, as well as pervasive biases that are manifested as racist, sexist, and heterosexist language. This chapter also provides suggestions for strengthening interpersonal communication skills by harnessing the power of language, working to reduce miscommunication, adjusting language to address social context, and using including language.

Listening is the process of receiving and constructing meaning from spoken and nonverbal messages, and it culminates in communicating a response to the communication partner. Listening is complicated by the variety of forms it can take and also the numerous barriers to listening. Active listening, which includes asking questions and paying attention to relational messages, can contribute to effective communication, but listeners may also bring important biases to the listening experience. Responding to messages, which includes assembling relevant messages and expressing empathy, can improve listening outcomes. When partners are fully enmeshed in a listening experience, transcendence might occur. This chapter offers suggestions for improving listening and responding by using appropriate listening strategies, putting effort into listening, and attending to details when responding to a communication partner.

Interpersonal communication is instrumental in the development and dissolution of close relationships. Relationships go through various stages of development and the nature of communication between partners differs at each stage. Self-disclosure is the mechanism that increases closeness between partners as they share increasingly intimate information about themselves with one another. As relationships evolve, people may experience uncertainty about their partner and the relationship and struggle to establish interdependence, which can contribute to relational turbulence. Partners will continually weigh the costs and rewards of maintaining their relationship as they consider whether to continue or end their partnership. When relationships are ending, partners also go through stages to dissolve the relationship and limit further contact. The complexities of navigating close relationships can also lead to unhealthy or atypical interpersonal attachments, such as stalking and relational intrusion or friends-with-benefits relationships. This chapter describes the stages of relationship development and the interpersonal communication processes that are involved in maintaining and dissolving close relationships, as well as the qualities and characteristics of problematic relationships.

Intimate relationships are negotiated, enacted, and maintained through interpersonal communication. There are several components of intimacy and many love styles that all have unique qualities and characteristics. Individuals who are involved in intimate relationships may enact an array of strategies to maintain their relationship. In addition, partners might have different ideas about the ideal ways to manage and express intimacy, which can lead to some downsides like romantic infatuation or infidelity. This chapter defines the nature of intimacy and love, describes relationship maintenance strategies and the dialectical tensions that couples might confront in their expectations for intimacy, explores how attachment style and age can shape romantic relationships, highlights the extremes of love that can result in infatuation or infidelity, and offers recommendations for effective communication in close relationships.

Families are an important part of people’s lives and communication in the family can shape individual and relational outcomes. Families take a variety of different forms and fulfill several important functions, including socialization, cultural transmission, and providing support and affection. This chapter examines the various components that make up the family system and the dimensions that shape family communication and comprise different types of families. The chapter describes how family communication patterns can contribute to family secrets and concludes with a discussion of the various interpersonal communication challenges that can arise throughout the family lifespan.

Interpersonal influence involves efforts to change another person’s attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors. People have to manage a variety of goals when engaging in interpersonal influence and enact an array of communication strategies to achieve those goals. Influence messages can vary in terms of their explicitness, dominance, and argument. In addition, the degree of intimacy and power dynamics in a relationship can shape the appropriateness and effectiveness of interpersonal influence. People who are the target of interpersonal influence can use various tactics and obstacles to resist influence attempts. This chapter describes the qualities of interpersonal influence, the myriad goals involved in crafting influence messages, the features and patterns of influence interactions, and the various factors that shape the success or failure of influence attempts.

Conflict can take a variety of forms, including arguments, disagreeable communication, hostile episodes, and pervasive tension, with each type of conflict taking on different characteristics. The tenor of a conflict is shaped by the communication strategies and tactics that are used during the interaction, as well as the conflict styles of the people involved. Conflict dynamics are shaped by the attributions people make for the conflict, as well as the degree of power partners have in their relationship, and can be enacted through a variety of conversational patterns. This chapter focuses on strategies for managing goals during conflict, adopting constructive conflict styles, and de-escalating interpersonal tensions.

There are many different ways to communicate social support to others. Through a variety of verbal and nonverbal messages, people can provide support that is more or less engaged and focuses on addressing emotions or actions. Offering effective support requires perspective-taking and unfolds through conversational patterns between partners. Whether helping someone process the news of a cancer diagnosis or grieve the death of a loved one, supportive communication can provide important resources, improve people’s emotional state, bolster self-confidence, or connect people with other sources of help. This chapter describes the characteristics and patterns of comforting communication, examines the features of support for consequential stressors, and offers recommendations for improving the communication of support and comfort.