Chapter 11 The Nervous System and Senses

Overview

A man in his sixties finds it difficult to walk and shuffles his feet along the floor, just an inch or two at a time. Last week he tried to walk by lifting his feet, but he stumbled after only two quick but awkward steps. A young woman has lost all motivation to work, to keep herself clean, or just to go on living. “What for?” she asks, “none of it matters.” A man who is usually friendly has episodes when he seems fearful and suspicious of others.  During these episodes, he hears voices telling him that “they” (he’s not sure who) are out to get him, though he has broken no laws.  These three people have three very different diseases: Parkinsonism, depression, and schizophrenia. Could it be that all their assorted symptoms are caused by chemical imbalances in the brain?

The brain coordinates the activities of the rest of the body, including moving, sleeping, eating, and breathing. Changes in the brain can thus produce diseases such as Parkinsonism, whose symptoms include uncoordinated movements.

Does the brain also produce activities that we associate with the mind? Does biochemical activity in the brain produce perceptions, emotions, moods, and personality? Does it produce thoughts, dreams, and hopes? A branch of biology called neurobiology is the scientific study of the brain and nervous system. A central theory of neurobiology is that the mind and the brain are one and the same. As a framework that guides (and limits) research, the assumption that mind equals brain is a good example of a research paradigm (see Chapter 1). There is probably no theory in biology that is more controversial, both among biologists and between biologists and the public.

There is now considerable evidence in support of this theory. Electrical and biochemical activities have been measured in the brain during dreams and thought. Some diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease (Chapter 12), in which there is brain degeneration, are accompanied by changes in personality. Mental illnesses such as depression are associated with changes in brain chemistry and can in many cases be treated with drugs.

In this chapter we examine the workings of the brain and the nervous system and consider the extent to which the mind is another name for brain activity. The nervous system is adapted for sending and receiving messages. You will learn how these messages travel electrically along cell membranes and are carried from cell to cell by chemicals called neurotransmitters. You will also learn how the brain is organized, how sense organs handle incoming messages, how muscles react by contracting, how the brain processes and stores messages, and how mental processes in both health and disease derive from activity at the chemical and cellular levels.

Chapter Outline

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Review Questions

THE PURPOSE of these review quizzes is to guide students in where their knowledge and understanding is strong, where it is weak, and where time should best be spent in studying.

CHAPTER 11:

  1. How is the nervous system organized?  What are its major parts?  What are its different cell types?  What makes some cell membranes electrically excitable?  How does a nerve impulse travel along a nerve cell?  How do we know this?    (If you cannot explain these things, or if you are not sure, then you need to reread Section 11.1.)
  2. What is a neurotransmitter? How are neurotransmitters released, and how do they work? What are the different ways in which neurotransmitters are removed?  Name at least five neurotransmitters.  Explain how insufficient secretion of dopamine can occur, and what problems can result.  Also explain how excessive secretion of dopamine can occur, and what problems can result.  (If you cannot explain these things, or if you are not sure, then you need to reread Section 11.1.)
  3. Explain how each type of sense organ (skin surface, eye, ear, tongue, nose) is constructed and how it functions.  What are the major parts of the brain, and what processes does each control or respond to?   How do muscles contract?   (If you cannot explain these things, or if you are not sure, then you need to reread Section 11.2.)
  4. What are some simple types of learning?  How are memories formed?  What are circadian rhythms, and how are they controlled?  What are the stages of sleep, and what characterizes each stage?    (If you cannot explain these things, or if you are not sure, then you need to reread Section 111.3.)
  5. What are some of the features of depression?  What are some of the characteristics of schizophrenia?  How do each of these relate to the functioning of neurotransmitters?  What evidence do we have for these relationships?  How does this knowledge inform treatments for these conditions and for other mental illnesses? (If you cannot explain these things, or if you are not sure, then you need to reread Section 11.4.)

Open Response Study Questions

These questions are designed to assess your understanding of the topics explored in this chapter. You can use these questions in three ways:

Before you start …

Read through the questions before you read the chapter to help prime you to read the text more carefully and strategically. Remember that you are just starting out on your learning journey, so don’t feel disheartened if you don’t know how to answer them yet!

Whilst you read …

As you work through the chapter, have another go at answering the questions to see how you are progressing. You can also answer the questions with the textbook open in front of you, in order to create model answers that can be used to refer back to later.

At the end …

Answer the questions once you have finished reading to see what you have learned. Check your responses against your model answers and use these to identify any gaps in your understanding.

DEFINITIONS:

In your own words, define ANY TWO of the following terms:

Myelin    Neuroglia    Norepinephrine    Reticular activating system     Substantia nigra

ESSAYS:

Answer any two of the following questions.  Make sure to answer all parts of any question you choose.

1. Explain how a nerve impulse travels along an axon. What role do various ions play?  What role does myelin play?

2. (A) List two or more diseases that can result from either too much or too little of a neurotransmitter.  In each case, specify: (B) what neurotransmitter is involved,  (C) whether the disease results from too much or too little of the neurotransmitter, and  (D) how drugs or other treatments may help modify these conditions (specify the type of drug and its presumed mechanism of action in each case).

3. (A) What is depression?  (B) How is it treated?  (C) Why do the treatments (usually) work?

4. Draw a fully labeled illustration showing a section through the human eye and the layers that surround it.

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Chapter 12
Aging and Alzheimer’s Disease