Chapter 2

Choosing and refining your research problem and formulating your research questions are critical stages in a successful project. These next steps activities build on Chapter 2 and are designed to help you develop your thinking in this key area.

Activity 2.1 Identifying a research problem

Use one or more of the techniques identified in Section 2.3 of Chapter 2 to help you generate a list of potential research problems. Review the potential research problems in terms of their relevance, feasibility and interest. Select one that looks most promising.

Activity 2.2 Writing your research problem statement

Formulate a statement of your research problem in three sentences:

1. Background (a statement of the theoretical or practical problem, issue or opportunity motivating the research)…
2. This research will (the overall aim of the research)…
3. in order to (how the research will address the theoretical or practical problem)….

Activity 2.3 Aligning your research project with your personal goals

A research project can be a major undertaking so it is worth taking time to consider your own motivations in doing it and, in particular, what opportunities it may provide for your personal development. Think about the following questions:

1. Why am I doing this research project?
2. What are my personal goals (career, professional, skills, knowledge, etc.) in undertaking this project?
3. How will the chosen research problem help me achieve those goals?
4. Summarise your ideas in a short paragraph.

Activity 2.4 Formulating your research questions

Now start formulating your research questions:
What do you need to know in order to resolve your research problem? Is the knowledge in the form of answers to ‘what’, ‘why’ or ‘how’ questions?

1. Make a list of possible research questions that, if answered, would provide that knowledge.
2. Use the evaluation criteria in Section 2.4.5 of Chapter 2 to help you refine your research questions.
3. Record your refined research question(s) in a short paragraph to be used when writing up your research proposal (see Chapter 8).

Chapter 3

A critical review of the literature forms a core component of most academic research projects and is important input to many practitioner projects as well. These activities build on the ideas and techniques introduced in Chapter 3 to help you carry out a critical review of literature for your own project.

Activity 3.1 Formulating your literature review questions

Based on your research problem and research questions, formulate questions that your literature review should answer that will help you 1) develop your understanding of theory and practice in your topic area 2) design a suitable research approach.

Activity 3.2 Places to look

Review Table 3.2 in Chapter 3 and identify databases and other online areas that you can search for sources. Check which of these you can access via your academic institution, professional body or other organisation. Bookmark these sites so that you can find them again once you start to search.

Activity 3.3 Preparing your literature search

1. Confirm the reference format (e.g. Harvard) that you are required to use. If there is no specific requirement, you will have to make your own choice.
2. Use Tables 3.3 and 3.4 to develop your own template for capturing information from the sources you find.
3. Familiarise yourself with any reference management software you intend to use or decide how you will record reference information.
4. Set up a folder on your PC or laptop (or Cloud storage area) where you will store any downloaded files. Create a simple filing system for any hard-copy documents you need to store.

Activity 3.4 Start searching

Make a list of search terms/keywords and the databases and other search locations to use to start searching. Capture your findings using your template created in the previous activity.

Activity 3.5 Developing a concept-centric review

As you evaluate and capture information from individual sources, start looking for patterns and themes in your reading. Use a table and/or graphical technique such as a literature map or concept matrix to develop a concept-centric view of your literature.

Activity 3.6 Develop a conceptual model

If you are adopting a deductive, theory-testing, research approach, develop a conceptual model and formulate appropriate hypotheses for testing. If you are adopting an inductive, theory-building, research approach, identify potential sensitising concepts that may inform your data collection and analysis.

(This activity should be done after deciding on your research design and studying Chapters 4 to 6.)

Activity 3.7 Make a presentation on your literature review findings

Find a suitable forum where you can make a presentation on your literature review findings to peers and colleagues. Use the opportunity to refine your overall argument and to get feedback on its structure and coherence.

Chapter 4

Chapter 4 introduces some key decisions that you will need to take as you develop the research design for your own project. These activities are designed to help you think through these decisions by inviting you to look at prior research in your topic area in order to draw out lessons that can be applied to your own project.

Activity 4.1 Theory and research design

Select one or more research articles from the literature you have reviewed so far in your topic area. Identify the approach used by the authors to integrate theory into the research design (deductive, inductive, or abductive). Why is this approach adopted? How does it help the authors answer their research questions? Would the approach be suitable for your research project? If not, what approach would be appropriate?

Write a short summary of your analysis and your decisions.

Activity 4.2 Time horizon

Review the research articles that you have identified so far in your topic area. What time horizon is adopted in each study? Why was this time horizon chosen? How does it help the authors answer their research questions? What time horizon would be most suitable for your research project?

Write a short summary of your analysis and your decisions.

Activity 4.3 Choice of data type

Review the research questions for your project and identify the data you will need in order to answer them. What potential data sources (primary/secondary) are available? What are the strengths and weaknesses of each for your particular project? What type of data will you use for your project?

Write a short summary of your analysis and your decisions.

Activity 4.4 Research methods

Review the research articles that you have identified so far in your topic area. What general research methods (quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods) are adopted in each study? Why was that approach method chosen? How does it help the authors answer their research questions? Based on your analysis, what type of research method (quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods) would be most suitable for your research project?

Write a short summary of your analysis and your decisions.

Activity 4.5 Research quality

Select one or more research articles from the literature you have reviewed so far in your topic area. How do the authors address the quality of their research? What quality criteria do they refer to in their article? How does this help establish the credibility of their research for the reader? How will you address quality issues in your own research?

Write a short summary of your analysis and your decisions.

Chapter 5

Developing a research design for your project may take time and involve exploring a range of different options before reaching a final decision. These activities build on Chapter 5 by reviewing prior research in your topic area to help you evaluate possible options for your own project.

Activity 5.1 Research designs used by prior research in your topic area

Review the research articles that you have identified so far in your topic area.

1. What type of research questions (‘what’, ‘why’ and ‘how’) have been addressed?
2. What research designs (quantitative, qualitative, mixed method) have been used?
3. What are the strengths and weaknesses of those designs in terms of answering the research questions posed in the articles?
4. Are any of the research designs potentially useful for your own project?

Write a short summary of your analysis and your decisions.

Activity 5.2 Developing a research design for your own questions

Revisit your own research questions. For each question identify:

1. What type of question (‘what’, ‘why’ and ‘how’) is it?
2. What research designs (quantitative, qualitative, mixed method) could be suitable?
3. Why might they be suitable? What are their potential strengths and weaknesses?

Write a short summary of your analysis.

Chapter 6

These activities follow on from those in Chapters 4 and 5 by asking you to focus on specific research designs and how they may be applied to your own project. They provide additional input into making the final decision on your research design which we bring together in Chapter 8.

Activity 6.1 Research designs used in your topic area

Review the research articles that you have identified in your literature review:

1. What specific research designs are used in your topic area?
2. What types of research question are they used to answer?
3. What are the strengths and weaknesses of these designs in relation to your topic area?
4. Evaluate the contribution made by different research designs in your topic area.

Write a short summary of your analysis. You may wish to summarise the findings in a simple table showing the methods used and your evaluation of them for each of the research articles you have identified.

Activity 6.2 What research design may be suitable for your own project?

Review your research questions and your answers to Next Steps activity 5.2 in Chapter 5 and in activity 6.1.

1. What specific research designs could be used to answer your research questions?
2. What would be the strengths and weaknesses of those designs for your project?
3. Evaluate the suitability of the research designs you have identified for answering your research questions.

Write a short summary of your analysis and decisions.

Chapter 7

As you embark upon your research project we recommend you undertake the following activities to ensure you are compliant with all ethical considerations.

Activity 7.1 Understanding ethical guidelines

Familiarise yourself with any ethical guidelines or codes of practice that are relevant for your project, for example those of the academic institution at which you are studying or of the organisation or professional body of which you are a member.

Activity 7.2 Applying the four ethical principles

Before undertaking this activity, look again at Table 7.2 where we provide you with a series of questions to ask yourself about the ethical context before, during and after your research project. Then consider which of the following four aspects of your research design may raise an ethical issue for you: avoidance of harm or loss of dignity; transparency and honesty; right to privacy; and researcher integrity. Think about how you are going to address them.

Activity 7.3 Preparing your ethical approval documents

Check the ethical approval process that applies to your project and start preparing the necessary documentation, including information sheets and consent forms. We provide sample templates as a guide (Ch7 info sheets)

Chapter 8

As you move forward with your research project you will need to take decisions regarding your research design, followed by considerations about how to plan and manage it. Here we provide you with some activities to do that and help you in this process. It is likely that you will be required to prepare a research proposal as you commence your research project. We also provide you with a template structure for a research proposal (ch 8 - reseaerch proposal )as an additional resource on the companion website.

Activity 8.1 Selecting a research design.

As a next step you need to finalise your research design in sufficient detail to provide a good basis for writing your proposal. Think about the research questions you have set and then look at Table 8.1 and decide on a specific research design that is appropriate for your project. Sum up your thinking by completing the following statements:

• I will adopt the following research design to investigate my research question…
• This research design is appropriate because…

Activity 8.2 Identifying key stakeholders

Identify the key people and/or organisations whose support will be important to the success of your project. Think here about how you are going to gain access to key stakeholders and keep their support.

Activity 8.3 Identifying key resources

Identify any key resources, such as software or access to a particular database, and make the necessary arrangements to ensure that they are available when you need them.

Activity 8.4 Risks

Look back at Table 8.4. Review the risks that you may encounter during your project, the degree of risk, taking into account how likely they are to happen and their potential impact and decide how you intend to manage them. Record your assessment in writing and review it regularly as the project proceeds.

Activity 8.5 Record keeping

Decide on a format for your research diary/log. We provide you with a template for your diary/log (Ch8 diary)as an additional resource on the companion website. If you are setting out on a research project begin a research diary now. Note how you will keep information on your progress and your reflections on your experiences.

Activity 8.6 Key activities and outline project plan.

At this point you should be able to identify key activities needed to complete your research and so prepare a project plan. We provide you with a template (Ch 8 template) on the companion website based around the typical activities as shown in Table 8.3 for you to use to help you develop an outline project plan . You will need to make an estimate of how long each activity will take, making due allowance for any turnaround times for drafts or review.

Activity 8.7 Time schedule

Using the data from the table above, develop a graphical version of your time schedule for your project plan in the form of a Gantt chart for inclusion in your research proposal and to help you manage your project and communicate its progress to yourself and others.

Chapter 9

You will need to address the issue of sampling at the outset of your research project and you will need to include this in your proposal. Different research methods use different sampling approaches. You should therefore ensure that your proposed sampling method is consistent with your proposed research method. To do this we provide you with some questions to ask yourself.

Activity 9.1 Choosing a sampling technique

Identify your sampling techniques using the following questions as a guide:

What is the population from which my sample will be taken?

For quantitative research:

1. What is my target population? What do I know about it?
2. What sampling method (e.g. probability sampling, non-probability sampling) do I need to use? If probability, how will I conduct randomised selection?
3. What specific sampling method will I use?
4. What sample size will I need? Do I need to set any quotas?
5. For survey studies: what response rate do I expect and therefore how many questionnaires will I need to send out?

For qualitative research:

1. What sources of data are relevant to my inquiry?
2. Where will I find them?
3. What sampling method will I use?
4. What sample size should I use for planning purposes?

Activity 9.2 Gaining access

How will you gain access to your intended sample? What potential barriers might you encounter and how will you overcome them?

Activity 9.3 Selection bias

Assess your proposed sampling approach. How will you avoid problems of selection bias?

Activity 9.4 Describing your sampling plan

 Think about and answer the following questions:

1. The proposed sampling method will be:
2. This is appropriate because:
3. The intended sample size is OR the following method will be used to determine the sample size:
4. This is appropriate because:
5. The limitations of my sampling plan are:

Chapter 10

It is essential that your questionnaire will enable you to collect appropriate data to allow you to answer your research question. Developing a questionnaire can involve a considerable amount of time and effort. These activities aim to help you take a systematic and rigorous approach to questionnaire development.

Activity 10.1 Identifying relevant concepts/variables

Draw up a data collection matrix table as shown at Table 10.4. Return to your research questions and any conceptual model/hypotheses you are using. Identify the key concepts that you are investigating in your research project and list them in your data matrix. How are the concepts defined in the literature you have studied?

Activity 10.2 Questionnaire administration

Decide how you will administer your questionnaire so that you can make arrangements regarding distribution and return. If using an online survey, design your survey using an appropriate online survey tool.

Activity 10.3 Formulating your questions

Review your literature; identify any scales or questions that already exist from prior research that can be used for the measurement of your own variables. Ensure that the prior variables do match the definition of your own variables. Note the wording of the questions and consider any adaptation you will need to make. Note the references in your data collection matrix.
If no existing measures are available, decide how you will develop your own measures. Select an appropriate measurement level and question format for each question and record them in your data collection matrix.

Activity 10.4 Preparing your questionnaire

Begin drafting your questionnaire by using the structure provided at Figure 10.9. Use each of the five boxed headings to create five sections for your questionnaire and use your data collection matrix to populate each section. Once you have done that, review your questions and the overall questionnaire for completeness and accuracy.

Activity 10.5 Pre-testing and piloting

Carry out a pre-test and pilot of your questionnaire. Incorporate any required changes, recording what was done and the reasons for doing so in your research diary or journal.

Chapter 11

Although interviews are a very widely used data collection method, this does not mean that they can be used successfully without careful thought and planning beforehand. These activities will help you decide whether and how to use interviews in your study and help you prepare to carry them out.

Activity 11.1 The use of interviews in your topic area

In this activity we explore the role of verbal accounts of behaviours, events, preferences, thoughts or emotions as a data collection tool. Interviews may be conducted in many forms and serve very different purposes in different studies.

So, as your first activity, undertake the following tasks:

• Revisit the key research articles from the literature that you have reviewed and identify how the authors use individual and/or group interviews to collect qualitative data. For instance, are they the only data collection tool, or are they used in conjunction with others?
• Reflect on how the use of interviews helped the authors answer their research questions.

Activity 11.2 Are interviews right for your project?

Now, you need to make an informed decision as to whether or not interviews are a suitable data collection tool for your research project. You need to assess the advantages and disadvantages of using interviews in your research project. You should also spend some time identifying the limitations of using interviews as a data collection approach.

As your next activity:

• List the advantages and disadvantages of individual interviews and focus groups as a data collection approach for your project. Consider a broad range of factors, including the likely cost or time required for data collection.
• Identify the limitations arising from using interviews in your study.

Activity 11.3 Preparing to carry out your interviews

Once you have decided on the role of interviews in your project, you can begin to organise them. You need to decide how you are going to conduct them and what you are going to ask. You also need to think very carefully about how you are going to capture not only the interviewees' responses but also contextual information, and how you are going to store the data in a way that helps you analyse the data while preserving the respondents' privacy and anonymity.

• Decide whether you are going to use some form of technology interface, as opposed to face-to-face, to conduct your interviews. Ensure that you know how to use the technology interface and deal with technical problems. Check that participants are comfortable with the technology, as well.
• Negotiate access and clarify expectations regarding how long you can stay on the site, what you can access and what you will be providing in return.
• Decide how much information and the level of structure that you need to provide to the research participants. Construct the interview guide and prepare appropriate briefing and informed consent documents (Chapter 7).
• Organise logistic aspects such as booking rooms or creating online discussion forums. If relevant, set up anonymised online accounts and passwords.
• Carry out a pilot interview to confirm your arrangements.
• Decide how you are going to record and store the data, and your notes. Obtain authorisation to record the interviews, as relevant.

Chapter 12

These activities will help you decide whether to use observations, documents or artefacts in your study, and help you prepare to implement.

Activity 12.1 The role of non-verbal sources of data

In this activity we explore the role of non-verbal sources of data. The chapter covers various data collection approaches, which are very different from each other in approach and type of insight obtainable.
As your first activity, undertake the following tasks:

• Revisit the key research articles from the literature that you have reviewed and identify any that have collected data by means other than survey or interviewing the research participants. What collection methods have been used?
• Reflect on how the use of these alternative methods helped the authors answer their research questions.

Activity 12.2 Selecting your data sources

Now, you need to make an informed decision as to whether or not observations, documents or artefacts are a suitable source of data for your research project. You need to assess the relative merits of using these approaches in your research project.

As your next activity:

• With reference to your specific research project, list the advantages and disadvantages of the data collection approaches discussed in this chapter. Consider a broad range of factors, including the likely cost or time required for data collection.
• Identify the limitations arising from using the selected data collection tools for your study.

Activity 12.3 Preparing to collect your data

Once you have decided on the role of observations, documents and artefacts in your project, you can begin to organise their collection. You need to decide what sources you are going to use and what exactly you need to collect. You also need to think very carefully about how you are going to capture not only the data but also contextual information, and how you are going to store the data in a way that helps you analyse the data while preserving the respondents' privacy and anonymity.

• Decide whether you are going to use some form of technology such as a document scanner or video camera to collect your data. Ensure that you know how to use the technology and deal with technical problems.
• Think about how you will negotiate access to the research site and clarify expectations regarding how long you can collect data, what you can access and what you will be providing in return.
• Decide on the type of instructions and the level of structure that you will need to provide to the research participants, if relevant. Construct the coding schedule, if relevant.
• Decide how you are going to record and store the data, and your notes. Obtain authorisation to record observations and make copies, as relevant.

Chapter 13

Although the specifics of quantitative data analysis will ultimately be determined by the demands of your research question, research design and data, it is essential to approach your analysis in a systematic and structured way. These activities will assist you in following the general process outlined in Figure 13.1 of Chapter 13.

Activity 13.1 Getting ready to start your analysis

Before you start your analysis, review your research questions and your conceptual model and hypotheses (if you are using them in your project). If you have not already done so, ensure you have access to your intended analysis software on a suitable laptop or PC.

Activity 13.2 Entering your data

Follow the guidance in Section 13.2 to enter your data into your chosen software package. Make sure that you create a secure back-up copy of your data.

Activity 13.3 Preparing your data

Follow the guidance in Section 13.3 to prepare your data for analysis. Make notes of all your actions, ensuring that you create a new master and back-up copy of your data if you make any changes.

Activity 13.4 Exploring your data

Follow the guidance on data exploration in the chapter. The following sequence is suggested:

1. Calculate final sample size after all data preparation.
2. Describe your sample demographics.
3. Explore and describe other variables in your data set.
4. Test any assumptions required by statistical tests you plan to run.

Activity 13.5 Answering your research questions

Now apply your proposed analysis techniques.

1. If you are carrying out hypothesis testing, are the results statistically significant?
2. Are your findings of practical significance?
3. What conclusions do you draw in relation to your research questions?

Activity 13.6 Presenting your findings

Review your analysis, your notes and your saved output. Decide which tables, charts, etc. should be incorporated in your final report and/or presentation. Ensure that they are securely stored ready for preparing your report.

Chapter 14

Chapter 14 discussed how to analyse qualitative data. Now it’s time to apply the learning obtained in this chapter to your study. These three activities will help you to do so.

Activity 14.1 Organising your data

You are likely to have collected extensive data, from various sources and of various types. To ensure that you can find and access everything that you need, it is essential that you get organised and that you prepare your materials for analysis.

As your first activity, undertake the following tasks:

• Organise your data into files and folders, and give them descriptive names that will help you quickly locate the materials needed.
• Transcribe your audio and video recordings, if relevant.
• Type and save your field notes, using the same filing and naming system used for your data files.
• Decide whether you are going to use software to analyse your data. If using technology, consider whether you need training. Find out what training or advice is available.

Activity 14.2 Coding your data

Now, you need to select and focus on the material that is relevant to your research questions. This requires you to familiarise yourself with your data, before you can start coding it. It is vital that you stay organised throughout the process so that you can locate and retrieve any material that you need at later stages of the process (e.g. during write-up).

As your next activity:

• Read and re-read your data carefully. Use memos to capture your ideas and emerging themes. Ensure that your memos are cross referenced with your data such as a particular point in the transcript, so that you can easily locate and retrieve that piece of data later, if needed.
• Start coding your data. Ensure that you keep an index of your codes and their definitions, including any hierarchical relationships between them. If you rename or change your codes, remember to revisit the coded material to assess whether the chosen label is still relevant.
• Ensure that you save all relevant output. Make a note of preliminary findings in your memos, and the implications of these findings for your research questions. As you work, keep a detailed log of what you do to help you write up the final report.

Activity 14.3 Using visual data displays

Once you have coded your material and identified the findings emerging from your data, it is time to apply the newly gained insight to answer your study’s research questions. Visual displays are valuable in this stage. They can help you process the data, as well as display and communicate your findings to others.

As your final activity for this section:

• Review your analysis plan to ensure that it is still appropriate in the light of your data exploration. Decide what changes, if any, need to be made (for example, collect more data). If appropriate, you should discuss these with your supervisor.
• Develop visual displays for your data, depending on whether you are pursuing a ‘what’, ‘why’ or ‘how’ type of project. You should:
• Experiment with alternative matrices and networks
• Develop displays for various level of analysis
• Revisit previous displays as the analysis progresses and your understanding of the data improves
• Draw out and review the trustworthiness of your conclusions
• Keep a log of what you do and save relevant output for your report.

Chapter 15

This may be the final stage of your research project, but it is nonetheless a very important one. You need to communicate what you have done clearly and effectively. These activities will help you ensure that your research gets noticed and that your audience will take note of your findings and conclusions.

Activity 15.1 Planning how you will communicate

Before you start writing or preparing your presentation, it is important to understand what is required and to plan how you are going to structure your message.
As your first activity, undertake the following tasks:

• Locate any guidance document that you have been given by your institution for your qualification or other requirements for your research report. Read it thoroughly and find out the following:
• Is there a required/suggested structure for the document? If so, look at it and consider how the proposed chapters/sectors relate to your own research.
• If there is no template structure provided to you, look back at Table 15.1 and Table 15.2 and create an outline structure for your report.
• Use one or more of the planning techniques discussed in this chapter to develop the overall structure for your report. Make notes of the content that will sit in each section.

Activity 15.2 Techniques for writing

Now, you need to start writing your dissertation or reports. The chapter discusses various techniques to help you overcome the most common problems faced by writers.

As your next activity:

• Choose one of the sections of your report and try free writing on the topic for 10–15 minutes.
• After your session, reflect on the process and recognise the degree to which your ‘internal editor’ is influencing your flow of writing.
• Set out a time schedule for your writing and aim to generate some form of written output on a regular schedule (daily, every two days or weekly).

Activity 15.3 Presenting your research

In addition to submitting a written document, you may be required or wish to present orally the findings from your research project to your audience.

Follow these activities:

• If you are not already required to do so, find an opportunity to present your research to interested parties, for example at a research colloquium or seminar.
• Use the opportunity to get feedback on your research to date.