Chapter Information

Introduction

Linda Woodhead

This extended introduction pulls together some of the main themes arising from the chapters which follow. In doing so, it offers a framework for thinking about religion in post-war Britain, and relates what has been happening to wider social changes. 

It suggests that religion in the first part of the period was chiefly shaped by its relation to the state, but that the relation with the market became increasingly important after the 1970s. A crucial development for the whole period is the formation of the welfare state, which became a focus of unity and national hope in Britain, and a faith in its own right. Although many forms of Christianity allied themselves with this project, ‘welfare utopianism’ also developed secular forms and commitments which sowed the seeds for later secular-religious controversy. Although religion seemed to many people to have gone away in the 1960s–1990s, and though narratives of secularization were prevalent, the chapter shows that the religious field was in fact transforming outside the control of state and church and in relation to new opportunities of market and media. This time of ‘de-regulation’ allowed new religious actors to emerge – both ethnic minorities and women – so that when religion came to public notice again after the late 1980s, it was more varied and multifaceted than before. The result was growing controversy, some significant misunderstandings, and urgent attempts by state and law in the twenty-first century to ‘re-regulate’ religion and bring it under control. But new forms of religious organization and identity, new religious actors, new uses of media, and transnational rather than national religious linkages have changed the terms of engagement.

See also: Further Reading, Key Terms and Discussion Questions

Chapter One: Controversies as a Lens on Change

Malory Nye and Paul Weller

Conflicts and controversies over religion offer a useful lens on wider developments in the post-war period. This chapter charts the development of such controversies over time, showing how they have intensified in recent decades, and analyzing them by considering their changing nature and the issues and parties involved. It shows that ‘cults’ or ‘New Religious Movements’ were the focus of public controversies in the 1960s and 1970s, but that from the 1980s, especially with the Rushdie Affair, attention shifted to Islam, issues of free speech, the question of how far religion could be publically manifest, and what privileges and exemptions it could claim. Terrorism associated with religion, both Irish nationalist and Islamist, endures as a public and political concern. The chapter sets this in broader context, showing how in a society which is now Christian, secular and religiously plural the place and ‘rights’ of religion become complex and contested. Although there is a tendency to see religious conflict as something new, the chapter also mentions earlier historical examples – like the Gunpowder Plot – to show that violent conflict is hardly novel in British history. As in the Introduction and Chapter Twelve, it is noted that the tendency to see religion as uniquely violent – and to ignore the more common non-religious forms of violence, whether domestic/gender-based or political – is itself a viewpoint which grows out of secular-religious conflict.

See also: Further Reading, Key Terms and Discussion Questions

Chapter Two: Christianity: Loss of Monopoly

Mathew Guest, Elizabeth Olson and John Wolffe

In looking at controversies over religion, the previous chapter gave an indication of how ‘religion’ looks from the perspective of majorities in post-war Britain, and showed how politicians, media and cultural elites have dealt with religious change. Part One of the book takes a different perspective: that of the religions themselves and those who live by them. It is interested in tactical as well as strategic religion, and in examining how everyday religion has changed in post-war Britain, for majorities as well as minorities.

This chapter traces the way in which Christianity in Britain has undergone a major shift in its national status and role since 1945. It shows that there has been a sharp decline in traditional Christian practices, including regular church attendance, recruitment to ordained ministry and participation in rites of passage. Nevertheless, it also documents how historical and institutional peculiarities ensure Christianity retains influence over the cultural life of Britain, particularly in terms of language, art, music, landscape, literature and some everyday practices. Moreover, it discusses areas of resurgence and innovation which reflect Christianity’s continuing significance, not least as a powerful marker of ethnic and social class difference, both in relation to old identities and to new and emerging ones related to Britain’s new position in a postcolonial and increasingly connected global order.

See also: Further Reading, Key Terms and Discussion Questions

Case Study One: The Formation of the United Reformed Church

Stephen Orchard

A central theme of discussion and aspiration in Christian circles in the 1950s–1970s was ecumenism: the attempt to unify Christian churches, especially Protestant denominations. Its most important result in Britain was the creation of the United Reformed Church in 1972 by a union of a number of previously separated historic Protestant churches. This case study discusses the background of this union, its history and significance. As well as reflecting on the fate of the ecumenical ideal, it illustrates a number of other wider issues, including the process by which what were once (Christian) religious minorities in Britain move closer to the ‘majority’, with new, non-Christian ‘minorities’ taking their place; and the dilemma which faces churches in a ‘religious marketplace’ over whether to continue the pursuit of unity, or to emphasize difference and distinctiveness. The aspiration to unity fits with the period in which state–church relations and linkages were particularly important; that for diversity fits more closely with the imperatives of the market.

Chapter Three: Judaism, Sikhism, Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism: Post-War Settlements

Having considered the ‘majority’ faith of Christianity in the last chapter, this chapter deals with what are sometimes called ‘minority’ religions. Although most had a presence in Britain long before the Second World War, their numbers and visibility increased dramatically in the post-war period. This is particularly the case for religions associated with territories which had been part of the British Empire, and whose followers came to Britain after the Second World War from Commonwealth countries, often as British citizens. Despite their differences, the traditions considered here have in common a categorization as ‘world religions’, which gives them a status denied to other forms of religion, like those forms of ‘spirituality’ discussed in the next chapter.

As well as supplying basic facts and figures about the different religious communities, the chapter explores how they have gone about achieving ‘settlements’ in Britain – how they ‘make space’ for themselves in a society and culture which has not been shaped around them. It begins with Judaism, which has not only had the longest presence in Britain (since medieval times), but which also has been most successful in becoming ‘established’ in British society – so much so that some members of the community now worry that it has been too fully assimilated. It then considers Sikhism, which effected a settlement in the post-war period by political action, and was classified as a ‘racial’ or ‘ethnic’ group rather than a religious group. Turning to Islam, the chapter shows how and why its settlement has been more controversial (especially since the 1980s), but also how, away from headlines and national debates, it has been established in many arenas of British society, such as hospital and prison chaplaincies. The stories of Hinduism and Buddhism are different again, partly because both traditions have been selectively absorbed into the wider culture for over a century (see the next chapter), and partly because of other factors, including their different global political linkages. Buddhism is considered last because it has been the least active in making political claims, and has not shaped itself according to state demands. In that sense, it remains the least like a ‘religion’, and in some of its manifestations more like the ‘spirituality’ discussed in the next chapter. But all the contributions pay attention to everyday religion as well as more strategic forms of religious activity at the national level, and show how being Jewish, Sikh, Muslim, Hindu or Buddhist makes a difference to life in Britain.

See also: Key Terms and Discussion Questions

Judaism

David J. Graham

Of all minority religious traditions, Judaism has had the longest presence in Britain – from medieval times onwards. It has suffered intermittent persecution and forms of disadvantage and intolerance, but today members of the Jewish community are prominent at all levels of British social, economic and political life, and Jewish institutions have become an integral part of British society. At the start of the twenty-first century, Britain’s 295,000 Jews made up 0.5 per cent of the general British population. Two-thirds live in London and the south east, and almost a quarter live in just two London boroughs. British Judaism is far from homogeneous. There are six main denominational strands ranging from Liberal through strictly Orthodox as well as a large subsection that does not affiliate to any synagogue. There has always been a pressure on Judaism to become more like a (state) church in order to gain privileges, but this has also been resisted. Although there is a Chief Rabbi, there is no overall rabbinical leadership recognized by all. The main bodies that claim to speak on behalf of Jews in Britain are the Board of Deputies of British Jews, Office of the Chief Rabbi, and the Jewish Leadership Council; they are as much a reaction to the state as a desire by the community to speak with a unified voice. Jewish identity is a complex mixture of ethnic, cultural and religious allegiance. One need not have any Jewish ‘confession’ or ‘faith’ to be considered Jewish by the most Orthodox of Jewish authorities. Over half of Jews in Britain describe themselves as ‘secular’ or ‘somewhat secular’, and the community has assimilated into British society so effectively that some worry that Jewish continuity and identity is being eroded.

See also: Further Reading

Sikhism

Gurharpal Singh

Sikhs in Britain represent a remarkable case of a small and visible minority of South Asian origin which has partly succeeded in establishing a distinctive position in British society and governance in the post-war period. Often described as the ‘pioneers’ of British multiculturalism, British Sikhs have overcome formidable challenges to build a vibrant and prosperous community in an often hostile and unfriendly environment. At the same time, the experience of living in Britain has had a profound effect on Sikh religious institutions, values and traditions, and in shaping the emergence of a vocal and activist Sikh diaspora (Tatla 1999). This dual process – of settlement and emergence as a self-conscious community – provides a fascinating example of how a minority, non-European religious tradition has been able to make a lasting impact on post-war Britain.

See also: Further Reading

Islam

Sophie Gilliat-Ray

The past and present of Islam in Britain are bound up with Britain’s colonial past and postcolonial present. After showing how this history brought about distinctive patterns of settlement in the UK, this section explores the ensuing diversity of British Muslims in terms of socio-economic status, ethnicity, language and adherence to a particular school of thought. Such diversity has often been an obstacle to the formation of organizations that might represent Muslim interests to politicians and civil society. However, as noted in Chapter One, the impact of the Rushdie Affair in the early 1990s was an important catalyst for the formation of more effective bodies, such as the Muslim Council of Britain, and the British Muslim Forum. The deepening involvement of British Muslims in the religious, economic, political and cultural life of the UK is explored, including examples such as involvement in chaplaincy departments in hospitals. The changing role of Islam in British Muslim lives is also considered, and generational shifts towards more international, individualized, ‘media-ted’ and in some ways more conservative forms of Islamic identity are discussed (see also Chapter Five, for more on British Muslim thought and ‘God-change’).

See also: Further Reading

Hinduism

John Zavos

British colonial domination of South Asia provides an important historical context for understanding not only Sikhism and Islam in Britain, but also Hinduism. British Hindus are diverse in terms of region of origin (although Gujaratis form the majority), pattern of migration and settlement, caste status, language use, and religious practice. Data from the 2001 Census demonstrate that the Hindu population is generally economically secure and well qualified. The development of temples and other community institutions has occurred both through local community organization and through the intervention of transnational devotional organizations. A broad ecumenical profile is developing in British Hinduism, but eclectic devotional practices are sustained in both home and temple environments, with women playing a prominent role. The twenty-first century has witnessed the development of a more assertive Hindu identity in Britain, associated with emerging representative groups that claim to encompass internal diversity and the establishment of a range of spectacular purpose-built temples.

See also: Further Reading

Buddhism

Robert Bluck

There are a number of significant differences between Buddhism and the religions discussed so far in this chapter, and it exemplifies a different – and often much closer – majority–minority relationship. Buddhism did not come to Britain primarily through migration. The first Buddhists in London were white converts rather than the Asian Buddhist immigrants who began to arrive some decades later. ‘Convert’ and ‘ethnic’ Buddhists tend to practise their religion in rather different ways (the continuing influence of Buddhism on alternative spirituality in Britain is discussed in the chapter which follows). The process of adaptation has included the growing influence of lay (as opposed to monastic) Buddhists. As this section shows, there is a great deal of additional diversity in British Buddhism, including the differences between Theravada, Tibetan, Zen and other Buddhist traditions. There are also both traditional forms of monasticism and new Buddhist movements. In many ways Buddhism does not fit neatly into the category of ‘religion’ at all: as well as being highly diverse, it is mainly non-theistic, with teachings to be explored and practised rather than beliefs to be accepted. All this, together with the fact that Buddhism has also tended to be less concerned than other minority traditions in Britain with engaging with the state, means that descriptions of Buddhism as a ‘faith community’ are problematic. In general, Buddhists in Britain focus on spiritual practice rather than on seeking public recognition or making political claims. Although some Buddhists accept being treated as a ‘world religion’, take part in interfaith bodies, and accept the inclusion of Buddhism on religious syllabuses in schools, the discussion shows why the Buddhist ‘settlement’ in Britain remains importantly different from other examples discussed in this chapter (see also Chapter Four on alternative spiritualities).

See also: Further Reading

Case Study Two: The Inter Faith Network and the Development of Interfaith Relations in Britain

Brian Pearce

This case study traces the formation and growth of the Inter Faith Network for the UK (IFN), which came into being in 1987. One of the interesting features of this story is the way in which this national body which encourages good relations between different faiths has found itself, as part of this, engaging a great deal with government and other public bodies. The story of the IFN provides an interesting window onto an important aspect of the development of ‘multi-faith’ Britain, and the organizational forms which have been created for government to liaise with religion, in a period when older forms of church–state relation ceased to be sufficient.

Chapter Four: Alternative Spiritualities: Marginal and Mainstream

Graham Harvey and Giselle Vincett

For most of the post-war period, it was the historic relation between state and church, and the distinctive and mutually shaping organizational forms of national churches and nation state which dominated the imagination about ‘religion’ – whether that was a secular or a religious perspective. As the Introduction has argued, however, one effect of the secular orientation of the 1960s–1980s was to turn a blind eye to religious change, and – in effect – to de-regulate the religious field. In the context of the market, new actors and new forms of religiosity were free to develop and flourish. One of the most significant was the multifaceted phenomenon called ‘alternative spirituality’. This chapter explains the various forms and streams of such spirituality, and reveals their historic roots, which often go back to the nineteenth century. It shows how such spirituality inhabits a different space in society, and has a different status, from the forms of religion reviewed in the two preceding chapters (the ‘world religions’). In some ways it is truly ‘alternative’ to majority religion and culture, and it is very important in supporting various minority identities. Women are prominent. It is not included in some of the most important interfaith bodies, such as the Inter Faith Network for the UK, is rarely taken seriously at government level, and is sometimes ridiculed. But in other ways it is part of the majority, not least in terms of the class and ethnicity of those who are involved, and the pervasiveness of elements of spirituality in the wider culture – including complementary and alternative medicine (CAM). This chapter assesses its significance, and discusses some of its distinctively British origins and linkages (see also Chapter Five on God-change and alternative spirituality, and the Introduction on CAM in healthcare).

See also: Further Reading, Key Terms and Discussion Questions

Chapter Five: God-Change

Mark Chapman, Shuruq Naguib and Linda Woodhead

The Introduction suggests that ‘God’ became taboo in post-war Britain in many public settings: it was possible to talk about God, but not to invoke God or imply that God mattered. Yet surveys show that a majority of people continued to believe in God, even though numbers believing in a ‘personal God’ declined. This chapter looks more closely at how God changed in the post-war community, not only for Christians but also for British Muslims and for those involved in alternative spirituality. It illustrates the growing variety of Gods of the British, and considers not just personal relationships with God, but also political Gods and Gods of civic ritual. Although it finds that there was a tendency for God to become softer, friendlier and more immediately concerned with the individual during this period, it also notes counter-tendencies including the politicization of God, and the invocation of God for purposes of minority as well as majority cultural and ethnic defence.

See also: Further Reading, Key Terms and Discussion Questions

Case Study Three: The Religiosity of Young People Growing up in Poverty

Giselle Vincett and Elizabeth Olson

Starting with the baby boomers (roughly, born between the end of the war and 1964), the subsequent generations of the post-war period are characterized as ‘Generation X’ and ‘Generation Y’. Research is starting to shed light on the religious or secular commitments of Generation Y, and has pointed out that, of all the post-war generations, this is the one which is least likely to have direct experience of church. So far, however, research has concentrated on young people from middle-class backgrounds. This case study reports on findings from a research project funded by the AHRC/ESRC Religion and Society Programme and completed in 2011 which explored the religiosity – or secularity – of children growing up in deprived areas of Glasgow and Manchester. It found that young people made active use of a range of religious practices and resources, applied in the context of their own personal lives, rather than in orchestrated collective settings such as churches or mosques.

Chapter Six: Changing British Ritualization

Douglas Davies

This chapter turns the spotlight on changes and continuities in the ritual life of Britain and the British – majorities as well as minorities. It suggests that rituals express and intensify cultural and personal values and identity and often implicate emotions. It considers both the historic Christian context of ritualization in Britain, and more recent developments in both personal and collective ritual. It notes the importance of ‘political’ rituals and rituals which reinforce identities (from Orange marches in Northern Ireland to the recent invention of tradition in Wootton Bassett), the role of religion in ritualizing national celebrations and tragedies, the growth of secular rites and rituals associated with new forms of spirituality, and even the ritual practices that now take place in relation to security in airports. Contextualizing these developments, the chapter shows how ritualization has come to be framed by a celebrity culture fostered by new forms of media with their increased opportunity of publicity.

See also: Further Reading, Key Terms and Discussion Questions

Case Study Four: Multi-Faith Spaces as Symptoms and Agents of Change

Ralf Brand

The multi-faith building is the most distinctive form of religious architecture to have developed in the post-war period. Future generations may view it as characteristic of the period. Yet it is a dilemma in stone: how can all faiths and none be accommodated in a single space? This case study, based on a research project on the AHRC/ESRC Religion and Society Programme (1) discusses various buildings and spaces which have been constructed in an attempt to answer that question. Most have arisen from grassroots initiatives rather than through central planning by government or a religious body. Many struggle with limited resources, and take their place within existing structures – shopping centres, airports, hospitals, universities, prisons, private companies and even football stadiums. What do they tell us about the religious and secular sensibilities of their times, and how are they being used and abused?

(1). The project ‘Multi-Faith Spaces – Symptoms and Agents of Religious and Social Change’ was carried out at the Manchester Architecture Research Centre (MARC) at the University of Manchester in collaboration with a colleague at the Liverpool School of Architecture. It was funded by the AHRC/ESRC Religion and Society Programme between 2009 and 2012. Principal Investigator Ralph Brand, Co-Investigator Andrew Crompton, Theological Associate Terry Biddington, Research Associate Chris Hewson. For further information see www.manchester.ac.uk/mfs

PART TWO: WIDER INFLUENCES

Chapter Seven: The Changing Faces of Media and Religion

Kim Knott and Jolyon Mitchell

Having considered the changing forms of religion, Part Two of the book broadens the focus to look at how religion has interacted with wider social arenas. It begins by looking at the changing relationship between media and religion since 1945, focusing on the overlapping fields of audience, protagonist, content and production. Although it concentrates on Britain, it necessarily makes international connections. Many factors, including rapid technological innovation, are shown to have affected the mediation of religion. Presenting findings from a project on the AHRC/ESRC Religion and Society Programme, it shows that media coverage of Christianity in Britain has grown less deferential and more irreverent, that representations of religion in the media have diversified rather than disappeared, and that the BBC still plays a major role. Overall, the chapter shows the changing and growing importance of media for religion in the post-war period, and how the use of different media helps to shape different forms of religious organization, power, commitment and identity.

See also: Further Reading, Key Terms and Discussion Questions

Case Study Five: Religion, Youth Cultures and Popular Music 

Brendan Stuart and Chris Partridge

This case study maps the relationship between youth cultures, popular music, religion and spirituality in post-war Britain. It brings into a focus several key themes explored elsewhere in the book, especially in Chapters Four (Alternative Spiritualities) and Ten (Cultural Perspectives). It examines how youth cultures – particularly those not associated with traditional forms of religion – have expressed and reflected changes in the expression of, and attitudes towards religion, from the collective youth cultures of the 1960s, through Generation X’s more individualistic turn, to Generation Y’s apparent disengagement.

Chapter Eight: Religion, Welfare and Education

Adam Dinham and Robert Jackson

Continuing this part of the book’s theme of religious change in various social arenas, this chapter looks at religion in relation to welfare and educational provision. The Introduction highlighted the dominating influence of the welfare project in the post-war period. This chapter discusses its impact on religion’s traditional roles in providing welfare, charity, philanthropy and education. Particularly in the immediate post-war period, the state took control of many of these functions. But religious providers remained important, despite talk of the ‘privatization’ of religion. After the late 1970s, as the ideal of an overarching welfare state gave way to the idea of a ‘mixed economy’ of provision, what started to be called ‘faith-based services’ came back into fashion. Yet they did so in different forms (not solely church-based), with new constraints, and in new relations to the state and the market.

See also: Further Reading, Key Terms and Discussion Questions

Case Study Six: The Role of Faith-Based Organizations in Service Provision for Homeless People 

Sarah Johnsen

The provision of services to homeless people and other vulnerable groups is one of the longest-standing means by which faith communities have sought to contribute to the welfare of society, and Faith-based Organizations (FBOs) continue to be key players in the homeless sector. Yet some ‘secular’ agencies – including local authorities – remain suspicious of this faith-based provision. They often assume that it comes ‘with strings attached’, imagine that it may not be as professional as secular provision, and fear that it may discriminate against certain groups. The AHRC/ESRC Religion and Society-funded project which informs this case study (1) found little support for this view: indeed, it concluded that secular provision is more likely to attach conditions to the support offered. Above all, however, the study sheds light on the sheer diversity of contemporary provision in the UK, and the blurred boundaries between the religious and secular in practice, including within the faith sector itself.

(1). The AHRC/ESRC Religion and Society Programme small grant ‘The Difference that “Faith” Makes’ led by Sarah Johnsen.

Chapter Nine: Religion, Politics and Law

Gladys Ganiel and Peter Jones

This chapter explores in depth the historic and contemporary intertwining of religion, politics and legislation in Britain, bringing to bear a particular focus on issues, events and trends already introduced in previous chapters, including Chapter One on conflicts and controversies. It discusses relations between religion, politics and law in the whole of the United Kingdom, including Northern Ireland. Although the latter is considered separately, in order to highlight some of the distinct features of its religio-political history in the post-war period, the use of the frame of ‘civil religion’ throughout the chapter helps to highlight common themes and linkages.

See also: Further Reading, Key Terms and Discussion Questions

Case Study Seven: Religion, Human Rights Law, and ‘Opting Out’ of Religious Education

Alison Mawhinney, Ulrike Niens, Norman Richardson and Yuko Chiba

Several chapters in this volume mention that religion in Britain is increasingly regulated by law (see for example, Chapters One and Nine, which discuss some recent controversial legal cases). The following case study reflects on one facet of this development, namely the operation of human rights law in relation to religious education. In particular, it reports on research carried out in Northern Ireland and funded by the AHRC/ESRC Religion and Society Programme to examine the effectiveness of the opt-out clause as a means of protecting the ‘right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion’. (1) International human rights law and domestic law rely on this opt-out mechanism to protect religious liberty when doctrinal religion is taught in schools.

(1). This research was funded by the AHRC/ESRC Religion and Society Programme. See Alison Mawhinney et al. (2010).

PART THREE: THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES 

Chapter Ten: Cultural Perspectives

Callum Brown and Gordon Lynch

Having reviewed changing forms of religion, and religion’s changing interactions with wider social arenas, this final part of the book considers theoretical perspectives put forward to explain these changes. One important way of explaining religious change in post-war Britain is in relation to wider cultural changes. This chapter argues that there was a major shift in post-war Britain from a dominant Christian culture associated with traditional views of gender, sexuality and the body to a new, more diverse cultural context in which far fewer people identified with this moral framework. This shift involves the clearer emergence of ‘non-religion’ in British society, the consolidation of conservative religious subcultures, and the growing importance of new forms of circulation and negotiation of the meanings and place of religion. Whilst these trends are unlikely to be reversed in coming decades, it is much harder to predict what the implications will be for social life and public institutions in Britain.

See also: Further Reading, Key Terms and Discussion Questions

Chapter Eleven: Social Perspectives

Elisabeth Arweck and James A. Beckford

This chapter discusses social factors which help to explain religious change in post-war Britain. Social perspectives focus attention on patterns in human life and the factors that shape them. The discussion begins by explaining what a social approach involves and by showing how the meanings attributed to religion in Britain are socially constructed and reproduced. The chapter then considers how religious change is associated with changes in social context and analyzes a range of theoretical perspectives which can explain the social dimensions of religious change in Britain (even though some of these theories are at variance with others). It also discusses various theories of secularization as well as criticisms and alternative perspectives. It considers how a range of social changes in post-war Britain have interacted with religion, including changing identities, gender relations, educational processes, forms of media, global interconnections, and shifting organizational forms.

See also: Further Reading, Key Terms and Discussion Questions

Chapter Twelve: The Religious and the Secular

David Martin with Rebecca Catto

It is a recurring theme of this book that, in the modern context, the religious cannot be understood apart from the secular. This chapter closes the book with an extended reflection on that theme. It begins by reflecting on the ‘standard model’ of secularization (and its recent rival theories of ‘de-secularization’). Here the ‘religious’ and the ‘secular’ are mutually constituted terms. In some versions of secularization, the religious is the superstitious and the secular the rational and scientific; in some the religious has to do with violent conflict and the secular with peaceful debate; in some the religious is repressive and the secular liberating. The chapter then complicates the story by showing how the religious–secular binary intersects with that of the sacred and profane, as well as with the Christian contrast between faith and the world. In its second part, it relates these observations to the history of modern Britain. The effect of this historical and sociological exploration of the religious and the secular is to destabilize the terms. It is no longer possible to employ them as neutral and unencumbered once their complicated genesis and entanglement with various modern projects is taken seriously.

See also: Further Reading, Key Terms and Discussion Questions