A
Accessory bone
See Accessory ossicle.
Accessory ossicle
Small extra bone that occurs in various parts of the skeleton and is due to nonfusion of parts of a bone that is normally whole. Accessory ossicles commonly occur in skull sutures (e.g. Wormian bones).
Accumulated Degree Days
The average daily temperature derived from the sum of all days during which a body decomposed.
Acetabular fossa
Depressed circular roughened area in the center of the acetabulum.
Acetabulum
Circular depression on the os coxa for articulation with the femoral head; the hip socket.
Acromial end
Lateral end of the clavicle that articulates with the scapula.
Acromion
Large laterally projecting process on the superior end of the scapular spine.
Adipocere
Wax-like hydrated fatty acids.
Ala
Lateral protrusion of the first segment of the sternum that contains the articular surface for the os coxa.
Alveolar ridge
Ridges on the maxillae or mandible containing sockets for the teeth.
Anatomical position
The position of the body, either standing or lying, with the arms arranged straight along the side and the palms of the hands facing forward. In addition, the legs are extended straight, with the feet arranged as though they were flat on the ground (as in standing).
Anemia
A condition where there are low levels of iron in the hemoglobin molecules located on the red blood cells; in some cases, it can cause lytic lesions in bone.
Antemortem
Occurring before death; as used here, antemortem refers to any injuries or conditions that occurred when the person was living that are unaffected by death events.
Antemortem trauma
Refers to trauma that occurred before death such that there is partial or complete healing of the injury.
Anterior crest of the tibia
Ridge along the anterior surface of the tibial diaphysis.
Anterior inferior iliac spine
Anterior protrusion of bone below the anterior superior iliac spine.
Anterior sacral foramen
Openings on the anterior side of the sacrum between the lateral projections of the sacral segments.
Anterior superior iliac spine
Anterior-most protrusion of the ilium; it is superior to the anterior inferior iliac spine.
Anterior temporal
Refers to a buttress (thickening) of the skull on the anterior part of the temporal, forward to the lateral part of the frontal bone.
Anthroposcopy
The visual inspection of the human body, sometimes with the aid of x-rays (radiographs) or a hand-held lens, for the purpose of identifying traits of a qualitative (i.e., nominal or ordinal scale) nature.
Antiformalin solution
Uses chemicals that break down formalin; effective in dissolving the soft tissues of the human body.
Apex (auricualar surface)
The anterior-superior corner of the auricular surface; it is located where the arcuate line intersects the auricular surface of the posterior ilium.
Apex (patella)
Pointed inferior end of the patella opposite the base.
Appendicular Skeleton
As used here, the parts of the skeleton composed of the bones of the arms, legs, shoulder, and pelvis.
Apposition
Deposition of bony matrix onto the ends of the metaphyses of long bones, causing bone growth.
Architecture
As used here, refers to shape differences between nonhuman and human bones of approximately the same size (e.g., architectural difference between the femora of adult humans and elk).
Arcuate line
Raised area extending from the apex of the auricular surface of the os coxa to the posterior pubis.
Articular facet (for rib)
Facet or demifacet on the body of vertebrae for the head of the rib.
Articular facets (of the ribs)
Articular surface on the head of the ribs; ribs 2 through 9 are separated into two sections called demifacets.
Articular surface for the manubrium
Flat surface on the medial end of the clavicle for articulation to the sternum.
Articulate
Connect together; all bones (except the hyoid) articulate with at least one, and in many cases more than one, bone.
Ascending ramus
Vertical part of the mandible that articulates with the skull.
Asterion
The point where the posterior segment of the squamosal suture (technically the parietomastoid suture) ends at the lambdoid suture.
Atlas
First cervical vertebra.
Auricular surface
Raised L-shaped roughened area on the medial surface of the os coxa for articulation with the sacrum.
Autolysis
The term used to describe the degeneration of body tissues by the digestive fluids normally residing in the intestinal tract.
Axial Skeleton
As used here, the bones of the torso: sternum, ribs, and bones of the vertebral column.
Axis
Second cervical vertebra.
B
Base of the patella
Superior end of the patella opposite the apex.
Basion
The most inferior point on the anterior border of the foramen magnum.
Bayesian statistics
A branch of statistics that deals with probability based on data gathered from the world (as opposed to classical statistics).
Beveling
Angling of the surface of a hole caused by a projectile when it perforates bone; it causes the hole to be funnel shaped.
Billows
As used here, these are mounds of bone on the surface of the symphyseal face and auricular surface.
Bipartite patella
Condition of the patella (kneecap) where one of the centers of ossification does not fuse to the rest of the bone; it most usually manifests as a notch in the superior-lateral corner.
Bipedal
A form of movement involving two feet; humans are bipedal, in direct contrast to the four-footed movement of most animals.
Blast trauma
The effects of explosions on living tissue; as used here, the effect of explosions on the human body.
Blunt trauma
Refers to any injury caused by a low-velocity force that has a wide area of impact on bone.
Bone bruise or occult intraosseous fracture
Not often seen in the forensic context, they appear to be microfractures to trabecular bone due to compression forces.
Bow fracture or plastic deformation
An infraction caused by compression along the long axis of a bone (most commonly the forearm of children).
Breakaway spur
Small, pointed section of bone remaining on one of the cut surfaces of a bone, where the saw exited the bone.
Bregma
The point where the sagittal suture ends anteriorly at the coronal suture in the sagittal plane.
Bridge of the nose
The ridge of bone formed by the nasals; it extends from the root to the ends of these bones.
Buccal
Anatomical direction that refers to "near the cheek"; the buccal surface of teeth is the outer surface.
Bullet wipe
A small amount of bullet material (usually lead) that may be scraped off and embedded into the bony surface when a bullet travels through bone.
Bushman canine
An additional cusp on the lingual side of the crown of the maxillary canine; occurs most often in Blacks.
Butterfly fracture
Occur on long bones around the site of bullet impact on diaphysis; it appears as lozenge-shaped lines extending along the long axis of the bone.
Button osteoma
A nonmalignant neoplasm found on the skull that appears as a raised area; most often seen on the frontal.
C
Cadaver dogs
Specially trained dogs that are sensitive to the smell of decomposition.
Calcaneous
The heel of the foot, which articulates superiorly with the talus and anteriorly with many of the remaining bones of the ankle.
Calcination
The heating of a bone such that all materials are burned away except the calcium salts deposited during growth.
Caliber
Refers to the diameter of a bullet and/or barrel of a handgun or rifle. This size is usually given in hundredths of an inch; however, in recent years, metric calibers have become popular.
Callus
As used here, a raised area of (usually) disorganized and rough bone that covers the end of broken bones (if the break is sufficiently immobilized).
Cancellous
See trabecular bone.
Canid
Animals of the dog family; also called canines.
Canine
Doglike animals; can be used to refer to coyotes and wolves.
Canine fossa
Depressed area posterior to the root of the canine tooth on the maxilla.
Canine teeth
The pointed teeth next to the second incisor; sometimes called “eye teeth" or cuspids.
Capitulum
Knob on the lateral-inferior end of the humerus.
Carapals
Small bones of the wrist.
Carotid canal
Opening in the petrous portion of the temporal bone.
Carpals
The bones of the wrist; there are eight carpals in each hand.
Cartilaginous precursors
Cartilage that appears early in life in the place of bones; it provides a base for deposition of bony matrix.
Cause of death
Refers to the force that causes the death of an individual (e.g., blunt force trauma to the skull).
Centrum
Body of the vertebra, including those of the sacrum.
Certainty
As used here, refers to a statement that indicates certainty (e.g., the configuration of tooth amalgams indicates a positive identification).
Cervical vertebrae
Vertebrae that compose the neck.
Chain of custody
The process by which evidence is controlled, so that it is neither contaminated by matter not found at the scene nor lost after being removed from the recovery scene. Also called the chain of evidence.
Chemical methods
Variety of methods involving the determination of the chemical makeup of certain structures of the skeleton and associated matter (e.g., the ground beneath a decomposing body).
Chronological age
The amount of time in days, months, and years since birth.
Clavicle
The collarbone; it articulates medially with the sternum and laterally with the scapula. (Plural: clavicles)
Clavicle sternal end
The medial end of the clavicle.
Clavicular notch
Concave area on the manubrium for articulation with the clavicle.
Cleft
As used here, a notch in bone caused by vertically applied dynamic sharp force, usually the result of hacking actions with such implements as axes, meat cleavers, and machetes.
Coccyx
Structure composed of (usually) four undeveloped vertebrae that attaches to the inferior end of the sacrum.
Colles's fracture
A fracture of the distal radius, which results in posterior displacement of the wrist and hand.
Commingled
As used here, the intermixing of the bones of multiple persons.
Comminuted fracture
Bone break that results in the production of multiple fragments of bone.
Compact bone
See cortical bone.
Complete fractures
Break that results in the complete separation of segments of a bone.
Concentric fracturing
A series of concentric circles (or, more normally, parts of a circle), which may appear at various intervals away from the entry or exit wound of the skull.
Condyles
A rounded prominence for articulation with another bone.
Confidentiality
As used here, refers to professional ethic of forensic workers (including anthropologists) that involves refraining from communicating case findings to others before they have been made public by the proper authorities.
Congenital pseudarthrosis
A fibrous joint between two sections of bone that fail to unite normally into a single structure (e.g., a pseudarthrosis between the medial and lateral sections of the clavicle).
Conoid tubercle
An inferiorly pointed projection on the inferior-distal surface of the clavicle.
Consistency in size
Refers to ensuring that bones within individuals are of similar proportions.
Consistent
As used here, refers to a statement that imparts an agreement with a possibility that is less confining than a numerical probability (e.g., consistent with homicide; consistent with age of mid- to late forties).
Contemporary
As used here, refers to the remains of persons who died within the last 50 years.
Coracoid process
Small laterally projecting process rising from the anterior-superior border of the glenoid fossa of the scapula.
Coronal suture
Suture that separates the frontal and parietals; it ends at the point where the frontal meets the greater wing of the sphenoid.
Coronoid fossa
Depression on the inferior posterior surface of the humerus, just superior to the trochlea and opposite the olecranon fossa.
Coronoid process of the mandible
Superior extension of the mandible, located anterior to the mandibular condyle.
Coronoid process of the ulna
Protrusion extending anteriorly from the inferior border of the trochlear notch of the ulna.
Corpus sterni
Main part of the sternum, rectangular in shape; also called the body.
Cortex
As used here, the outer layer of a bone, usually composed of cortical bone.
Cortical bone
The dense bone of the cortex; also known as compact bone.
Cortical bone involution
The loss of cortical bone; also known as osteoporosis.
Costal cartilage
Cartilage that connects the anterior ends of the ribs to the sternum.
Costal notches
Seven concave areas in the edge of the sternal body for articulation with the costal cartilage that attaches to the anterior ribs.
Cranial
Referring to the skull.
Crest
A narrow, prominent ridge of bone (e.g., nuchal crest formed from an unusually large nuchal line).
Crosscut saws
Saws designed to cut across the grain of the material being worked. To accomplish this, the edges of the teeth angle approximately 70° to the long axis of the saw.
Cross-examination
Part of a courtroom testimony usually performed by the opposing attorney in an attempt to discredit the testimony of the forensic anthropologist given during direct examination.
Crown
Part of the teeth that is visible above the gum; it is covered with white enamel and is peaked in some teeth into points called cusps.
Cryoturbation
The mixing of materials from various horizons of the soil down to the bedrock due to freezing and thawing.
Cusp 7
A small cusp located between the lingual cusps of the lower molar teeth; occurs most often in Blacks.
Cusps
The area on the occlusal surface of some teeth that are peaked into points.
D
Datum point
A permanent structure, such as a tree or building, at a recovery scene that is used as a reference point for all material evidence.
Decalcification
The loss of calcium and other minerals in bone that occurs, particularly with long removal from the body and/or burial for extended periods. This loss of both fluids and calcium salts causes bone to become light in weight with the passage of time.
Decedents
People who have died; also referred to as the "deceased."
Deciduous dentition
The early teeth that appear; also called the baby or milk teeth.
Decision matrix
A two-dimensional table used to help pick one choice out of two or more; see section in Chapter 1 for more details.
Deformation
As used here, refers to changes in bone shape, usually the result of repeated stress.
Deformative lesion
Pathological condition that involves abnormal contours or shapes of bones; rickets (insufficient vitamin D in children) is the most well known of this type of lesion.
Deltoid tuberosity
Raised oval structure on the lateral surface of the humerus, about midway between the superior and inferior ends (see Figure 15.27b for an unusually well-developed example of this feature).
Dens (Odontoid process)
Superior projection of the body of the axis that articulates with the posterior side of the anterior Atlas in midline.
Dentin
A bonelike material composing the majority of a tooth; the top part of the dentin is covered with enamel to form the tooth crown.
Depressed fracture
Break identifiable by segments of bone that point inwardly; seen most often in the skull due to compressive forces.
Dermestid beetles
Insects, and their larva, that will eat skin, internal organs, muscle, and even tendons and cartilage (if given enough time).
Diaphysis
The shaft of a bone. (Plural: diaphyses)
Diploe
Spongelike structure that occurs between the inner and outer cortical surfaces of the cranial vault; it is composed of trabecular bone.
Direct examination
Part of a courtroom testimony performed by the contacting attorney where the forensic anthropologist presents the evidence and opinions concerning the human remains.
Direction
As used here, refers to the direction from which the force contacts the bone; that is, does the force originate from the side, top, bottom, or some combination?
Disarticulation
The separation of articulated bones; this is done early in the forensic anthropological process, after the removal of bulk soft tissue.
Discriminant function analysis
A multivariate statistical method for calculating group assignment from measurements of a specimen.
Displacement
As used here, refers to the result of a traumatic event when surfaces that once were continuous no longer meet or meet at an unnatural angle.
Distal
Anatomical direction referring to the part of a bone that is farthest from where it articulates with the body; also, the surface of teeth farthest from the midline.
Distal fibular articular facet
Facet on the distal end of the fibula; forms the lateral part of the ankle.
Dorsal tubercle of the radius
Bump on the posterior surface of the distal end of the radius.
Dowager’s hump
A type of fatigue fracture of the vertebrae in older persons where the spinal column is angled so prominently forward as to appear to form a hump on the back.
Duplication
As used here, involves ensuring that no two bones of the same type and side are present in the skeleton.
Dynamic force
Force that is delivered powerfully and at high speed.
E
Ectocanthion
The point where the upper border meets the lateral border of the eye.
Ectocranium
Refers to the outside of the skull, especially the vault.
Electrical resistivity kit
Device that uses resistance meters to detect grave material so that it can be mapped before (instead of after) excavation.
Enamel
The white material covering the crowns of teeth; it is the hardest substance in the human body and contains the highest percentage of minerals.
Endocranium
Refers to the inside of the skull.
Endosteal
The interior surface of the medullary cavity tubular (e.g., limb) bones.
Epicanthic fold
A fold of skin over the superior and lateral parts of the eyes; appears most often in Asians.
Epiphyseal fracture
Type of break that can separate epiphyses from their respective metaphyses, and divide either of these structures into two or more pieces.
Epiphysis
Section of bone that caps the end of the limb bones. (Plural: epiphyses)
Epipteric bone
Accessory ossicle (sutural bone) that occurs in the area around pterion.
Establishing qualifications
Part of a courtroom testimony that involves a review of the forensic anthropologist’s education, background, publications in the field, membership in professional organizations, certifications, and experience in casework to establish qualifications for being an expert witness.
Ethmoid
Complex bone that forms the posterior-medial part of the eye orbits.
Everted lips
Outwardly turned lips; appear most often in Blacks.
Evidence
In forensic anthropology, evidence consists of the physical remains (skeletons) of individuals as well as associated material (e.g., clothing, shell casings).
Exit wound
As used here, a wound caused by a projectile or other penetrating object when it leaves a bone.
Extended burial
A burial where individuals are lying on their backs, with their arms by their sides (or crossed over their chest) and legs in line with the torso and extended their full length.
External acoustic meatus
Opening in the temporal bone for the ear; also called the external auditory meatus.
External occipital protuberance
Protrusion, sometimes forming a bony hook (called an inion hook), that extends inferiorly from the superior part of the nuchal area of the occipital in the sagittal plane (mainly seen in males).
Extremities of the pubic face
The upper and lower margins of the symphyseal surface.
F
Facet for the coccyx
Articular facet on the inferior end of the sacrum for articulation with the coccyx.
Facets
Small areas for the articulation of bones; seen on the vertebra and some limb bones (e.g., tibia, fibular). Teeth can also have facets where they meet each other (e.g., between adjacent teeth, on occlusal surface).
False start kerfs
Shallow kerfs (saw marks) caused by bouncing of the saw blade off the bone during a push stroke.
Fat pads
Thickened areas below the eyes composed of fatty tissue; appear most often in Asians.
Fatigue fractures
Fractures that occur in bones that are exposed to intermittent stress over a long period of time.
Felid
Animals from the cat family; also called felines.
Feline
Catlike animals; can be used when referring to lions, tigers, bobcats, pumas, etc.
Femoral head
The ball-like end of the femur for articulation with the hip socket (the acetabulum).
Femoral neck
Constricted area that connects the femoral head to the diaphysis (shaft).
Femur
Bone of the upper leg; the thigh bone. (Plural: femora)
Fibula
A thin bone that articulates with the tibia on the lateral side. (Plural: fibulae)
Fibular groove
Groove on the inferior end of the fibular that is posterior to the maleollar articular surface.
Fibular head
Superior end of the fibula that articulates with the tibia.
Fibular neck
Part of the fibula that connects the head to the diaphysis (shaft) of the fibula.
Fibular notch
Concave section on the inferior-lateral part of the distal end of the tibia for articulation with the inferior fibula.
Flexed burial
Also called semiflexed burial. A relaxed version of tightly flexed burial. In these positions, the elbows are not as close to the torso and the hands extend somewhat outward. Similarly, the knees extend outward close to right angles with the rest of the body, while the feet, although at the level of the buttocks, also extend somewhat away from the body.
Floating ribs
The eleventh and twelfth ribs of humans; so called because they do not articulate with the sternum (i.e., they appear to "float").
Focus (bone trauma)
Refers to the size of the surface on which the force impacts (i.e., wide or narrow).
Fontanelle
Gap that appears between skull bones in newborns (e.g., the frontal fontanelle is a gap in the area of bregma).
Foramen
Holes in bone to allow the passage of blood vessels and other structures.
Foramen magnum
Large oval opening in the occipital for passage of the spinal column into the cranial vault.
Foramen of Huschke
A foramen that occurs occasionally located on the floor of the ear canal; this opening is visible at birth, but usually closes by 5 years of age. However, in a small number of adults, it remains open into adulthood.
Foramen ovale
Small opening in the sphenoid.
Forensic Anthropology
According to the SWGANTH: " … the application of anthropological methods and theory—particularly those relating to the recovery and analysis of human remains—to resolve legal matters."
Forensic Archaeology
A subspecialty of archaeology where archaeological methods are used to locate and retrieve human skeletal material while following the rules of evidence established by law enforcement agencies.
Forensic Botany
The study of plants in relation to crime scenes.
Forensic Entomology
The study of insects, their life cycle and succession, on cadavers for the purpose of determining PMI.
Forensic Odontologists
Dentists who specialize in identifying persons from their dentition (i.e., teeth).
Forensic Taphonomy
As used here, the study of changes to the human body after death, especially in an uncontrolled environment (e.g., outside).
Fovea capitis
Depression on the lateral surface of the femoral head.
Fracture
As used here, a discontinuity (i.e., break) in a bone.
Fracture lines
Lines of discontinuity in bones; these usually originate near the point of impact, where they help dissipate the contacting force across the bone surface.
Frontal
The forehead bone that comprises the front part of the braincase and the upper part of the eye orbits.
Frontal eminence
Bulging paired (right and left side) areas on the frontal, located approximately one-third of the way between the eye orbits and parietals.
Frontal process
Superior projection of the maxilla that forms the side of the nasal aperture (piriform aperture).
Frontal sinus
A complex open area inside the frontal bone, that lies both above the upper border of the eye orbits and in the lower portion of the frontal in the midline.
Full-metal jacket
Coating of bullet, usually of copper, that covers the entire projectile.
Fume hood
A ventilation device used to help remove the strong odors that can be generated by decomposing bodies and the chemicals used to process them.
Furrows (animal scavenging)
Refers to grooves in bone caused by the teeth of a carnivore while chewing on the bone.
Furrows (pubic bone)
As used here, the grooves that lie between billows.
G
Gauge
Refers to the maximum weight of a lead ball that would fit down the barrel of a weapon (e.g., a 12-gauge shotgun would admit a lead ball weighing a twelfth of a pound).
General tendency
As used here, refers to statements about the majority of human remains manifesting certain characteristics (e.g., the majority of females have a wide subpubic angle and narrow ischiopubic ramus).
Generalized bone disease
Term used to describe bone disease of an unknown, or incompletely, known cause; used mainly as a label for small plaques of bone that occur on the limb bones, especially the tibia.
Geographic Information System
A system used to gather, store, and analyze geographic information; these systems are used in forensic anthropology to map evidence at a recovery scene and to aid in the determination of the Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI) among commingled remains. Called GIS for short.
GIS
See Geographic Information System.
Glabella
The most anterior point on the frontal on the midline, located between the browridges (when present).
Glenoid cavity
See Glenoid fossa.
Glenoid fossa
Oval shaped articular area on the superior-lateral corner of the scapula; also called the glenoid cavity.
Gnathion
The lowest point on the mandible on the midline.
Gonial angle
Posterior-inferior corner of the mandible.
Gonion
The point where the ascending ramus meets the horizontal ramus.
GPR
See Ground-penetrating radar.
Greater horns
Tube-shaped bones, extending posteriorly from the body of the hyoid.
Greater sciatic notch
Notch formed by the posterior protrusion of the ilium and the posterior side of the ischium.
Greater trochanter
Hook-like projection of bone on the superior end of the femur.
Greater tubercle
Knob of bone on the anterior-lateral surface of the humerus near the superior end.
Greater wing of the sphenoid
Section of the sphenoid between the temporal and the zygomatic bones, and bordered superiorly by the frontal.
Green bone response
The type of response that is seen when bone is injured while it is still covered with soft tissue and still contains the fluids present in life. Generally, green bone will bend and snap back into place more often than bone that is damaged postmortem.
Greenstick fracture
Break in bone where separation between the broken ends does not occur; most commonly seen in subadults.
Grid square
Square area, usually marked by string attached to wooden stakes, in a recovery scene within which human remains and other evidence are mapped.
Grooves
As used here, refers to grooves in a usually smooth surface, such as a bone or tooth.
Ground-penetrating radar
Device used to detect grave material; called GPR for short.
H
Hanging
A type of strangulation that occurs when a body is suspended by a flexible material (e.g., rope).
Haversian canal
A tube within a Haversian system for the passage of a blood vessel.
Haversian system
A roughly cylindrical structure within bone composed of concentric rings of lamellar bone around a central blood vessel (Haversian canal); also called an osteon.
Hematoma
Pool of clotted blood formed when veins and arteries are ruptured; usually due to trauma.
Hinge fracture
A type of infraction where part of the fractured area is still attached to its original bone.
Histology
The study of microscopic structures of living tissue. In forensic anthropology, this specialty involves the size and arrangement of Haversian systems, osteons, and other such structures.
Hollow-points
Bullets with indentations on their tips; hollow-point bullets are more common in handguns.
Honesty
As used here, refers to the professional ethic of forensic workers (including anthropologists) that involves providing a complete and accurate assessment of forensic cases, without contributing information or opinions that cannot be substantiated by data.
Hoop fractures
Type of fracture lines, most common in high-velocity projectile wounds, that form concentric rings around the area of impact.
Humeral head
Semi-spherical structure at superior end of the humerus.
Humerus
Bone of the upper arm. (Plural: humeri)
Hyoid
A small U-shaped bone that is suspended in the neck, at the same level as the inferior edge of the mandible. In young individuals, it is composed of three segments, which fuse later in life.
Hyoid body
Central section of the hyoid.
Hypertrophy
Unusual enlargement of a structure; as used here, an area of attachment of a tendon that is enlarged and rugged.
I
Identification by exclusion
A method for identifying an individual in cases of multiple bodies; when the names all individuals are known (e.g., airplane passenger manifest) and all but one person is identified, the remains of the last person must be that of the unidentified person.
Iliac crest
Superior edge of the ilium.
Iliac fossa
Concave section of the iliac bone below the iliac crest.
Iliac pillar
Thickening of the ilium running from the acetabulum to the iliac tubercle.
Iliac tubercle
Thickened area of the iliac crest at the terminus of the iliac pillar.
Iliopubic eminence
Raised area where the pubis and ilium join.
Iliopubic ramus
Section of the pubis from the ilium to the symphyseal surface.
Ilium
Upper flared bone of the os coxa.
Impeach
Involves finding inconsistencies in evidence offered, or proving that the methods used are inadequate, in order to discredit the witness’ testimony.
Incisions
As used here, cuts in bone that are longer than they are wide.
Incisive foramen
Circular opening between the right and left maxillae in the anterior palate.
Incisive suture
The suture that separates the part of the palate containing the upper incisors from the rest of the maxilla.
Incisors
The flat, chisel-like teeth in the front of the mouth that are easily visible when persons are smiling or talking.
Inconsistent
As used here, refers to a statement that imparts disagreement with a possibility (e.g., the remains are inconsistent with a person over 6 feet tall).
Indexes
A method for standardizing skeletal measurements for two dimensions, formed by dividing one measurement by another and multiplying by 100.
Individualization
As used here, refers to any bony feature that can add to the profile of a decedent.
Inferior
Point or region below another point or region.
Inferior angle of the scapula
Inferior tip of the scapula.
Inferior articular facet
Area on the vertebra for articulation with the inferior adjacent vertebra.
Inferior costal demifacet
Half facets on thoracic vertebrae 1 through 8, located on the inferior body for articulation with head of ribs.
Infraction
A fracture that does not result in a discontinuity (i.e., break) in a bone; an incomplete fracture.
Infraspinous fossa
The plane formed by the body of the scapula below the spine on the anterior surface. Also called the ventral infraspinous plane.
Inion hook
An unusually enlarged external occipital protuberance that takes the form of a bony “hook" protruding inferiorly from the occipital.
Intercept
The point where a line passes through an axis on a graph; in a regression line, the intercept is the point where the line meets the Y-axis when the X value is zero.
Intercondylar eminence
Raised area with two spikes projecting superiorly between the medial and lateral condyles of the tibia.
Intercondylar fossa
Depression on the posterior surface of the distal end of the femur that separates the medial and lateral condyles.
Intercostal cartilage
See Costal cartilage.
Intertrochanteric crest
Ridge connecting the greater and lesser trochanters of the femur.
Intertubercular groove
Groove between the greater and lesser tubercles of the humerus.
Interval
Level of measurement composed of units on a fixed scaled and no natural zero point.
Inventory
As used here, a complete list of the osteological and odontological remains, including a judgment as to the number of individuals present.
Inward beveling
Inward beveling is seen in bone wounds at the site of a bullet’s entry into a bone. The outer hole on the bone’s surface is smaller than the inner hole, which can be quite large.
Irregular bullet wounds
Those wounds that do not show any general pattern (i.e., are not circular as in a projectile entry wound).
Ischial spine
Posterior protrusion of bone, superior to the ischial tuberosity.
Ischial tuberosity
Thickened area of the posterior-inferior corner of the ischium.
Ischiopubic ramus
Section of bone composed of the inferior pubis and anterior ischium.
Ischium
The bone of the lower (inferior) and back (posterior) part of the hip bone (os coxae).
Ischium–pubic index
Index calculated by dividing the length of the pubis by the length of the ischium (as measured from the acetabulum) and multiplying by 100; developed as a way of quantifying the longer, more stretched character of the pubic bone in females when compared to males.
J
Jacket
As used here, refers to a thin metal coating on a bullet.
Joint surface concurrence
As used here, the method for ensuring that the articular surfaces of the bones that join together match in size.
Jugular notch
Concave area on the superior edge of the manubrium.
K
Kerf
Groove in a material caused by the cutting action of a saw.
Keyhole bullet wounds
Holes usually caused by projectiles that have the appearance of old-fashioned keyholes; that is, they are circular on one end and triangular on the other.
Kyphosis
Condition in which the vertebral column curves forward to a degree greater than normal.
L
Labial
Toward the lips; as used here, the outer surface of the teeth that are near the lips rather than the cheeks.
Lacrimal
Paired bones of the anterior medial eye orbits. (Plural: lacrimals)
Lambda
The point where the sagittal and lambdoid suture meet; this point on the rear of the skull is in the midline.
Lambdoid suture
The lambdoid suture separates the parietals and occipital bone; it curves across the back of the skull, ending where the occipital and parietals meet the temporals.
Lamellar
A strong, well-organized bone that is laid down in thin layers that run parallel to the long axis of a bone.
Lamina
Long segments of the vertebral arch between the pedicle and spinous process.
Landmarks
As used here, landmarks are points on the skull, used in description or in measurement.
Lateral
Away from the midline; the radius is the lateral bone of the lower arm in the anatomical position.
Lateral border of the scapula
Lateral edge of the scapular body.
Lateral articular facet of the patella
Articular area on the posterior-lateral side of the patella.
Lateral condyle of the femur
Large knob on the lateral surface of the distal end.
Lateral condyle of the tibia
Lateral flare of bone on the superior end of the tibia.
Lateral epicondyle of the femur
Convex area on the lateral side of the lateral condyle of the femur.
Lateral epicondyle of the humerus
Knob on lateral side of inferior end of the humerus.
Lateral malleolus
Inferior part of the fibula.
Lateral supracondylar line
Line connecting the linea aspera to the lateral condyle of the femur.
LeFort 1
Fracture resulting in the separation of the alveolar area of the maxilla from the rest of the bone.
LeFort 2
Fracture resulting in the separation of the midface (maxillae and nasals) from the rest of the skull.
LeFort 3
Fracture resulting in the separation face from the cranial vault.
LeFort fractures
Fractures resulting in the separation of part or all of the face from the rest of the skull.
Lesser sciatic notch
Indented area below the ischial spine of the ischium.
Lesser trochanter
Posteriorly and laterally projecting knob of bone on the posterior surface near the superior end of the femur.
Lesser tubercle
Smaller knob on the anterior part of the superior end of the humerus.
Ligature
Occurs when cordage of some kind is placed around the neck, tightened, and held in place by a force.
Linea aspera
Roughened ridge on the posterior surface extending along the middle of the diaphysis (shaft) of the femur.
Lingual
Toward the tongue; as used here, refers to the inner surface of teeth.
Lipping
As used here, refers to curling of the ventral and dorsal margins of the symphyseal face until they form distinct lips.
Lumbar vertebrae
The (usually) five bottom (inferior) bones of the spinal column, above the sacrum.
Lunate surface
Crescent-shaped articular surface within the acetabulum.
Lytic lesions
Pathological conditions that involve an abnormal loss of bone, that is, erosion and/or destruction of cortical or trabecular bone.
M
Maceration
The softening of tissues so that they can be removed from the bone.
Macroporosity
As used here, refers to the large perforations on the auricular surface that occur as a person ages.
Magnetometer
Instrument to measure the magnetic properties of a material; forensic anthropologists can use these to detect buried metal.
Malar eminences
Thickened area of the zygomatic bone, situated near where zygomatic bone meets the maxilla.
Malleolar articular surface
Triangular area on the distal end of the ulna for articulation with the inferior tibia.
Mammillary process
Knob of bone projecting posteriorly from the superior articular process of the lumbar vertebrae.
Mandible
Lower jaw bone.
Mandibular body
The main, horizontal part of the mandible that holds the teeth; also called the horizontal ramus.
Mandibular condyle
Expanded end of the ascending ramus of the mandible; for articulation with the condylar fossa of the temporal.
Mandibular fossa
Depression on the temporal for attachment of the mandibular condyles.
Manner of death
Refers to the way a person died; there are five manners used in forensics: homicide, suicide, accident, natural, and unknown.
Manual strangulation
Occurs when the throat is squeezed by human hands until death occurs.
Manubrium
Superior part of the sternum, roughly triangular in shape.
Markers of occupational stress
Bone conditions that appear to be caused by atypical body movements. These include facets, hypertrophies, lytic lesions, and other such defects.
Mastication
The act of chewing.
Mastoid process
Knob of bone behind the ear opening that extends inferiorly from the temporal bone.
Maturity
As used here, a means for distinguishing animals whose mature bones are approximately the same size as subadult humans; subadult human bones will have unfused or missing epiphyses, while those of nonhumans will display fused epiphyses.
Maxilla
Complex paired bones of the upper jaw (right and left) that articulate with the frontal, zygomatics, and palatines; they also form the hard palate (i.e., roof the mouth), the inferior part of the eye orbits, and the lateral side of the nasal aperture (piriform aperture). (Plural: maxillae)
Maxillary sinuses
Open areas inside the body of the maxilla.
Maxillofrontale
The point at which the fronto-maxillary suture meets the anterior lacrimal crest.
Medial
Toward the midline; the inside bone of the lower arm in the anatomical position (the ulna) is called the medial bone because it is closest to the middle of the body.
Medial articular facet of the patella
Articular area on the posterior-medial side of the patella.
Medial border of the scapula
Medial edge of the scapular body.
Medial condyle of the femur
Large knob on the medial surface of the distal end of the femur.
Medial condyle of the tibia
Medial flare of bone on the superior end of the tibia.
Medial epicondyle of the femur
Convex area on medial side of the medial condyle of the femur.
Medial epicondyle of the humerus
Large knob extending medially from the inferior-lateral surface of the humerus.
Medial malleolus
Projection of bone that extends inferiorly from the medial surface of the distal end of the tibia.
Medial supracondylar line
Line connecting the linea aspera to the medial condyle of the femur.
Median palatine suture
Suture that separates the right from the left maxillary and palatine bones.
Medicolegal community
Professionals who deal with matters of human deaths of unknown causes; these include medical examiners, coroners, forensic pathologists, forensic anthropologists, and forensic odontologists.
Medullary cavity
The tube that runs through the center of all long bones; in life, it is filled with fatty tissues.
Mental eminence (protuberance)
Anterior protrusion of the mandible that forms the chin.
Mesial
Closest to the midline; the mesial surface refers to those parts of the teeth closest to the midline.
Metacarpals
Five bones of the palm.
Metaphysis
Flared structure at each end of the diaphysis where the epiphysis attaches to the bone. (Plural: metaphyses)
Metapodials
The metacarpals and metatarsals of ungulates, such as deer, sheep, cow, and elk.
Metatarsals
Five bones of the foot, not including the ankle or toes.
Metopic suture
Suture between the right and left halves of the frontal bone of the skull; this suture is visible at birth, but is usually closed and obliterated by adulthood.
Metopism
Condition where metopic suture is visible in adulthood.
Metric methods
As used here, methods that attempt to quantify, using ratio level scales, many of the anthroposcopic characteristics helpful in the identification of aspects of the skeleton.
Microporosity
As used here, refers to the small perforations on the auricular surface that occur in young persons.
Midfrontal
Refers to a buttress (thickening) of the skull in the midline on the frontal bone.
Midoccipital
Refers to a buttress (thickening) of the skull in the midline on the occipital bone.
Mineralization
Deposition of various salts into skeletal elements by ground water.
Minimal (suture closure)
A condition of suture closure where there is anywhere from one bony bridge between the two sides to as much as 50% fusion.
Minimum Number of Individuals
The minimum number of individuals represented by a collection of bone; called MNI for short.
Modeling
As used here, large-scale modifications to bone shape that occur during growth.
Molars
The square-to-rectangular chewing teeth found at the rear of the mouth.
Mummification
As used here, rapid dehydration of the skin and internal organs.
N
Narrow focus
As used here, force applied to a single point or a thin line (e.g., ice picks, knives, axes, meat cleavers, machetes, or swords).
Nasal
Pair of bones that forms the bridge of the nose. (Plural: Nasals)
Nasal concha
Turbinal bone in the nasal aperture; there are three on each side of the aperture: superior, middle, and inferior. (Plural: Nasal conchae)
Nasion
The point where the internasal suture meets the nasofrontal suture in the midsagittal plane.
Nasofrontal processes
Thickened area (buttress) of the maxilla, running parallel to the zygomaxillary suture.
Neck of the tooth
Section of a tooth where the crown meets the root(s).
Necrosis
Localized bone death.
Neural arch
See Vertebral arch.
Nominal
Refers to a scale of measurement where data is classified into discrete (usually) non-overlapping categories.
Noncontemporary
As used here, refers to the remains of persons who died more than 50 years ago.
Nuchal area
Roughened area on the posterior-inferior part of the occipital.
Nuchal crest
An unusually enlarged superior nuchal line that forms a bony ridge arching horizontally across the occipital.
Nutrient foramen
Opening (foramen) in a bone for the passage of the nutrient artery into the medullary canal.
O
Obelion
Landmark located in the midsagittal plane where a line drawn between the right and left parietal foramina bisects the sagittal suture.
Oblique fracture
Fracture passes through the shaft of the bone at an angle approximating 45°.
Obliteration (suture closure)
As used here, the complete fusion between cranial bones with no discernible gap; the suture that separated the bones either appears as a line drawn on the bones or is no longer visible.
Obturator foramen
The open area formed the encircling effect of the ilium, ischium, and pubis.
Occipital
Bone that forms the rear and base of the skull vault (braincase).
Occipital condyles
Oval knobs on the inferior occipital, adjacent to the anterior foramen magnum, for articulation of the skull to the Atlas.
Occlusal
The chewing surface of teeth.
Odontology
The study of dentition; this entails the recognition of the deciduous (baby) and permanent teeth as well as their placement in the mouth, their major features, and the variations seen in persons of different ancestry.
Olecranon
Hook-like end of the ulna that articulates with the trochlea proximally.
Olecranon fossa
Depression on the inferior-anterior surface of the humerus, just superior to the trochlea and opposite the coronoid fossa.
Open (suture closure)
As used here, refers to sutures where there is no evidence of closure.
Opinion
As used here, refers to any interpretations about human remains developed from the methods used by forensic anthropologists.
Opisthocranion
The farthest point on the back of the skull from the glabella in the sagittal plane.
Orale
Midpoint of a line drawn tangent to the lingual borders of the central incisors.
Ordinal
Scale of measurement that involves discrete non-overlapping categories that can be ordered (e.g., small, medium, or large).
Os coxa
Hip bone. (Plural: os coxae)
Os japonium
An accessory ossicle that occurs on the inferior border of the zygomatic bone; it is seen most frequently among Japanese people. Also called os japonicum.
Os triangulare
A used here, a condition of the ulna formed by nonfusion of the styloid process; also called persistent ulna styloid ossicle.
Os trigonum
The nonfusion of the posterior process of the talus.
Ossific nodules
As used here, “blobs" of bone that can appear on the symphyseal surface.
Ossify
To turn into bone or bony tissue.
Osteogenic
Refers to the bone-forming activity of cells.
Osteology
The study of the bones of the skeleton, including their names, placement, articulations with other bones, visible features, and so forth.
Osteomalacia
Softening of bone in adults usually due to a vitamin D deficiency.
Osteometry
The measurement of human bone on a quantitative scale (usually millimeters and centimeters) using calipers or an osteometric board.
Osteon
Bone cell found throughout the lamellar bone of the cortex; see Haversian system.
Osteophyte
Outgrowth of bone linked to osteoarthritis as well as to general deterioration due to age.
Osteophytosis
A condition in which small spurs or ridges of bone project from an area that is normally smooth or flat.
Outward beveling
Outward beveling is seen in bone wounds at the site of a bullet’s exit from a bone. The outer hole on the bone’s surface is larger than the inner hole.
Oval bullet wounds
Bullet wounds with an elliptical outline that occur when either the angle of bullet trajectory is not perpendicular to the bone’s surface or when the bullet is tumbling when it strikes the bone.
P
Palate
The roof of the mouth formed by the maxillae and palatines.
Palatine
Bone forming the posterior part of the palate; there is a right and a left palatine. (Plural: palatines)
Parietal
Middle bone of the skull vault; there is a right and left parietal. (Plural: parietals)
Parietal foramen
Opening in the parietal near the sagittal suture.
Parry fracture
Fracture of the ulna that (usually) is caused when persons hold their arms up, bent at the elbow, to ward off a blow.
Patella
Kneecap. (Plural: patellae)
Patellar surface
The superior part of the anterior articular surface on the distal end of the femur.
Pathological conditions
Non-normal, unhealthy conditions.
Pathological fractures
Breaks that occur in bones that are weakened by disease.
Patterned injuries
Type of trauma where the imprint of the impacting instrument or surface is clearly visible on the affected tissue.
Pedicle
Short segment of vertebral arch that connects the lamina of the vertebral arch to the vertebral body.
Pellets
Solid balls made of lead and, in some cases, steel usually expelled from a shotgun.
Pelvic inlet
The area enclosed by the os coxae and sacrum when viewed superiorly; it is heart shaped in males, but more oval in females.
Penetrating (entry) wound
As used here, wound caused by a bullet that strikes with enough energy to break through a bone.
Perimortem
At, or near, the time of death.
Perimortem trauma
Refers to injuries that occurred at or around the time of death.
Periosteal surface
The exterior of surface of bone.
Periosteum
Tissue that covers bone, and forms bone during growth; also creates new bone that bridges the gap between broken segments after fracture.
Permanent dentition
Dentition that replaces the deciduous teeth; these are the teeth of adults.
Petrous portion of the temporals
Medially and anteriorly projecting part of the temporal bone.
Phalanges (of the feet)
The toe bones; each foot has 14 phalanges.
Phalanges (of the hand)
Finger bones; there are 14 phalanges in each hand.
Physiological age
As used here, the age estimated from bone based on its stage of development or deterioration; correlated with, but not the same as, chronological age.
Pits (carnivore activity)
As used here, punctures caused by carnivore activity that do not penetrate the cortical surface of bone.
Plateau
As used here, the posterior extension of the symphyseal face that occurs with aging.
PMI
See Postmortem interval.
Popliteal line
Roughened line running inferior and medially along the superior posterior surface of the tibia.
Popliteal surface
Triangular area between the medial and lateral supracondylar lines of the femur.
Porosity
As used here, holes in bone caused by aging, especially on the auricular surface of the ilium.
Porotic hyperostosis
A pathological condition, most often found on the occipital, that is composed of small to large openings (pores).
Positive identification
As used here, association of human remains with one person to the exclusion of all others; also called personal identification.
Possible
As used here, refers to any opinion on a characteristic or event that is possible; this has a higher certainty than speculation, but still represents an unlikely situation.
Postcranium
Referring to all the bones below the skull.
Posterior inferior iliac spine
Posterior protrusion of the ilium below the posterior superior iliac spine.
Posterior process (talus)
A process on the posterior surface of the talus.
Posterior superior iliac spine
Posterior protrusion of the ilium above the posterior inferior iliac spine.
Posterior temporal
Refers to a buttress (thickening) of the skull in the posterior part of the temporal bone, including the mastoid process.
Postmortem damage
As used here, refers to damage to bone that occurs after death.
Postmortem injuries
See Postmortem damage.
Postmortem interval
The amount of time that has elapsed since the death of the decedent; in forensic anthropology, this is usually the time between when persons were last seen alive and when their remains are found.
Preauricular sulcus
Groove running along the inferior edge of the ilium below the auricular surface.
Premaxilla
Part of the maxilla containing the upper incisors.
Premolars
Teeth located between the canines and the molars; called bicuspids by some dentists.
Pretrial meeting
Refers to a meeting between a forensic anthropologist and the contacting attorney, either prosecutor or defense attorney, to discuss the anthropologist’s courtroom testimony.
Primary centers
As used here, the main centers within cartilaginous precursors where ossification begins.
Primary osteons
The first bone cells that appear during growth; over time they die and become fully or partially replaced by secondary osteons.
Primary vascular canals
The canals interspersed within the layers of the primary lamellar bone of the cortex that carry minerals and nutrients to and from the osseous tissues.
Probable
As used here, refers to opinions with the highest level of certainty that can be applied to any data determined from the human skeleton.
Probable identification
Identification of an individual where there is so great a match between antemortem and postmortem data that there is a high probability that human remains are those of one person.
Projectile trauma
Trauma caused by projectiles (e.g., bullets) that have enough energy to cause a wound to appear.
Proliferative lesions
Pathological conditions that take the form of excess bone being deposited at various locations throughout the skeleton.
Pronasale
The tip of the nose.
Prosthion
The most anterior point on the intermaxillary suture in the midsagittal plane.
Proximal
Area closest to the articulation point of the body (e.g., the proximal end of the humerus is the shoulder end).
Pterion
The region where the greater wing of the sphenoid meets the frontal, parietal, and temporal.
Pterygoid plates (medial and lateral)
Thin wing-like structures that project inferiorly from the body of the sphenoid.
Pubic tubercle
Knob on superior surface of the pubic bone, close to the symphyseal surface.
Pubis
The ventral and anterior bone of the os coxa.
Puncture (sharp force trauma)
As used here, injury to bone caused by the vertical impact of a pointed instrument.
Punctures (carnivore activity)
Areas of bone that have collapsed under the force of carnivore tooth pressure.
Putrefaction
The process by which a body is broken down by the action of the microorganisms normally residing within the body.
Q
Quadrants (mouth)
As used here, the four parts of the mouth: upper left and right, and lower left and right.
Quadrupedal
Animals that have a four-footed stance.
R
Radial head
The disk-shaped proximal end of the radius that articulates with the radial notch on the ulna.
Radial neck
The constricted area below the head of the radius that connects it to the diaphysis.
Radial notch
Small oval notch on the lateral side of the trochlear notch of the ulna for articulation of the head of the radius.
Radial styloid process
Inferior protrusion of bone on the lateral surface of the radius.
Radial tuberosity
The oval-shaped bump on the anterior-medial side near the proximal end of the radius for attachment of the biceps muscle.
Radiating fracture lines
Fracture lines that radiate, in a starburst pattern, from a site of impact.
Radius
Lateral bone of the lower arm in the anatomical position. (Plural: radii)
Radius interosseous border
Sharp medial side of the radius.
Rampart
As used here, the mound of bone that forms on the ventral edge of the symphyseal face.
Range chart
A method that involves the making of a visual representation of multiple ranges of estimates (e.g., age ranges) so that a central tendency can be determined.
Ratio
A scale of measurement that has a zero point and is comprised of units of measurement that are of fixed width.
Redirect examination
Part of a courtroom testimony where the consulting attorney clarifies issues brought up during cross-examination to avoid unnecessary loss of credibility.
Regression
A statistical method for showing the relationship between variables; uses the values of one or more variables (e.g., limb bone lengths) to estimate another (e.g., stature).
Remodeling
As used here, the process whereby bone shape and structure changes after it is fully formed.
Residual soft tissue removal
Removal of remnants of soft tissue left after most has been cut away by scalpels and tissue scissors.
Respect
As used here, refers to the professional ethic of forensic workers (including anthropologists) that involves treating the remains of a decedents and their families with sensitivity and respect.
Retroauricular area
The section of the ilium that is posterior to the auricular surface; this oddly shaped region varies in contour from flat to fairly wavy.
Reverse beveling
As used here, beveling in the opposite direction expected for an entrance or exit wound caused by a projectile (e.g., outward beveling at an entrance wound).
Rib articular facet
Articular facet or demifacet on the head of the ribs for articulation with the vertebral body.
Rib head
Posterior part of the rib that articulates with the vertebrae.
Rib neck
Area that joins the head to the shaft (body) of the rib.
Rib shaft
The main part of the rib from the tubercle to the anterior end; also called the body of the rib.
Rib sternal end
Anterior end of the rib that articulates with the sternum by way of the costal cartilage.
Rib tubercle
Knob of bone that has a facet for articulation with the transverse process of the vertebra.
Ribs
Curved bones that form the thorax (chest). (Singular: rib)
Rickets
The softening and weakening of bones in children, usually because of an extreme and prolonged vitamin D deficiency.
Ridges
As used here, ridges of bone that occur on the symphyseal face in early adulthood.
Rifling
Spiral grooves running from one end to another that are cut into the internal surface of gun barrels; used to impart a spin so that the bullet will travel straighter for a longer period of time.
Rim
As used here, refers to the raised circle of bone around the outer edge of the symphyseal surface.
Rim contour
As used here, refers to the contour of the rim of the rib, which starts out straight and becomes wavy with age, eventually having “fingers" of bone.
Ring fracture
A special type of break that occurs on the base of the skull resulting in separation of the area around the foramen magnum.
Rip saws
Saws designed to cut along the grain of a material.
Root of the nose
The area of the nose where the nasals meet the frontal (i.e., area at nasion).
Root of the tooth
The part of the tooth that is embedded in the jaw, composed of a bonelike material called dentin.
Round bullet wounds
As used here, bullet holes in bone that are circular in shape; these are most likely to occur when both the angle of trajectory and the angle of bullet axis are perpendicular to the bone’s surface.
S
Sacrum
Central bone of the pelvis composed of fused vertebrae; serves to attach the vertebral column to the pelvis.
Sagittal suture
Suture that separates the right and left parietal bones; it starts at the coronal suture and ends where the parietals meet the occipital.
Scalloping
The distinctive configuration of the upper border of the frontal sinuses believed to be unique to each individual person.
Scapula
Triangular bone that forms the shoulder blade. (Plural: scapulae)
Scapular neck
Area connecting the glenoid fossa to the scapular body.
Scapular spine
Ridge running from the center of the medial boarder to the superior-lateral border on the posterior surface of the scapula.
Schmorl’s nodes
Cavitations on the superior and inferior surfaces of the vertebral bodies.
Scoliosis
Pathological condition in which the vertebral column exhibits lateral curvature(s).
Scoring (animal activity)
As used here, scratches across the cortical surface of bones, usually appearing as a group of parallel lines, caused by the teeth of various animals.
Secondary centers
Areas in cartilaginous precursors where ossification occurs that eventually unite with the primary centers to form a complete bone.
Secondary osteons
Bone cells that occur later in a bone's life, and either fully or partially replace primary osteons.
Sectioned bone cuts
Deep kerfs in bone that indicate that a number of strokes have been executed within the same groove.
Sectioning point
Value on a scale, usually derived during discriminant function analysis, that divides one group from another, such as the sectioning point between males and females.
Secular changes
As used here, the changes in body proportions that have occurred over the last 100 or so years.
Segmental fracture
A type of fracture resulting in three segments of bone: a medial and a lateral piece, which are separated by a section between their two ends.
Semiflexed burial
See flexed burial.
Semijacket of bullet
Bullet coating, usually of copper, that covers only part of the projectile.
Septal aperture
Hole through the olecranon fossa of the humerus.
Septum
As used here, wall that divides the right and left sides of the frontal sinus.
Sharp trauma
Trauma caused by an implement with a point or narrow edge.
Shovel-shaped incisor
Incisor with raised edges on their lingual side.
Significant (suture closure)
As used here, condition of suture closure where there is more than 50% fusion between the bones but there is still some separation.
Sill (nose)
As used here, a narrow wall of bone between the floor of the nose and the anterior maxilla.
Simometer
A special kind of sliding caliper that has a center part for measuring the height of an anatomical feature as well as its width.
Simple fracture
A type of fracture resulting in a bone broken into two segments.
Sinuses
Pockets of air within sections of some of the cranial bones. The frontal, ethmoid, temporals, sphenoid, and maxillae all exhibit such pockets.
Site survey
Type of ground search where a group of searchers walk side by side in a line while scanning the ground for any indication of previous human incursion (e.g., human remains).
Skeletal anomalies
Skeletal conditions that deviate from the normal or standard for the particular bone.
Slope
As used here, the number in a regression equation that is multiplied by the independent variable.
Soil compaction
As used here, any of three telltale signs indicating a grave: cracks along the perimeter of the burial pit, a primary depression formed by the decomposition of the body, and a secondary (and smaller) depression formed in the middle of the primary depression due to the collapse of the abdominal cavity.
Speculation
As used here, refers to any statement about human remains that is based on few, if any, data.
Speed (bone trauma)
Refers to the speed at which a force is applied to a bone; there are two types: dynamic and static.
Sphenoid
Complex bone between the cranial vault and facial bones that also forms the posterior-lateral part of the eye orbits.
Spina bifida
A condition in which the sacrum exhibits separation between the right and left halves of what would be the neural arch in this structure.
Spine (nose)
As used here, a projection of bone emanating from both the floor of the nasal aperture and the anterior part of the maxillae.
Spinous process
Posterior projection of the vertebral arch in midline.
Spiral fracture
Refers to a fracture that is caused by excessive torsional force on a bone.
Spondylolysis
Vertebral anomaly in which there is separation of the vertebral (neural) arch from the body of a vertebra.
Squama
The flared part of a bone; seen in the temporal or occipital bones.
Squamous suture
Suture that separates the squamous portion of the temporal from the parietal.
Standard error
A measure of variability for a statistic, such as mean or regression coefficient; see any probability and statistics textbook for more information.
Static force
As used here, refers to stress to a bone that is applied slowly; typically, this force starts low and builds to the point where the bone breaks. This usually results only in displacement of bones, with few, if any, fracture lines. In the forensic context, the most common injury caused by static force is breaking of the hyoid bone during manual strangulation.
Stature
The living height of an individual.
Sternum
The breastbone that serves as an anchor for the anterior ends of the ribs.
Stress fractures
Bone breaks caused by overuse.
Striae
Lines or streaks that run parallel to each other.
Striations
See striae.
Stryker saw
A vibrating saw in which the blade reciprocates rapidly with a small amplitude.
Styloid process (temporal)
Inferior projection of bone on the temporal posterior to the mandibular fossa.
Styloid process (Ulna)
Inferior projection of bone on the distal end of the ulna.
Subnasal
The point on the lower margin of the anterior nasal aperture in the midline.
Subpubic angle
Angle formed between the right and left ischiopubic rami.
Superciliary arches
Thickened areas arching over each eye orbit that are more prominent in males than females; more commonly called browridges or supraorbital tori.
Superficial false start scratches
The scratches caused when the blade of a saw is drawn across a bone (usually on the pull stroke) without much pressure.
Superior
Toward the head, also referred to as cranial.
Superior angle of the scapula
Superior medial corner of the scapula.
Superior articular facet
Articular area of the vertebrae for articulation with the superior adjacent vertebra or, on the atlas, the skull.
Superior costal demifacet
Half facet on thoracic vertebrae 2 through 9 located on the superior body near the pedicle; used for articulation with the head of ribs.
Superior fibular articular facet
Flat area for articulation of the superior end of the fibula on the inferior part of the lateral condyle of the tibia, facing posterior-laterally.
Supernumerary teeth
Extra teeth that appear as small, peglike structures usually located in the area between the normal teeth.
Supramastoid crest
Ridge extending from the posterior of the zygomatic arch over the external acoustic meatus of the temporal.
Supraspinous fossa
Depressed area superior to the scapular spine.
Surface bone
As used here, refers to the surface of the rib end, which is smooth in youth and becomes granular and porous with age.
Surface contour
As used here, refers to the surface of the rib end, which is wavy (billowy) in youth, becomes flat, and eventually indented later in life.
Surgical neck
Constricted segment of the humerus, inferior to the head that connects it to the shaft (diaphysis).
Sutures
Joint between two bones of the skull.
Symphyseal surface
Medial face of the pubic bone; it articulates with its opposite to form the pubic symphysis.
T
Talus
The top tarsal bone, which has a superior and medial articular facet for the tibia and lateral malleolus of the fibula.
Tarsals
The bones of the ankle; each side (right or left) has seven tarsals.
Temporal
Side bones of the lower part of the skull vault that contain the ear opening and the mastoid process, among other features. (Plural: temporals)
Temporal line
Ridge of bone originating from the superior-lateral corner of the eye orbit and arcing posteriorly along the frontal.
Temporal squama
Semi-circular wing-like part of the temporal bone.
Temporomandibular joint
Joint formed between the lower jaw and the temporals; called TMJ for short.
Texture
As used here, refers to the texture of the auricular surface, which starts out granular in youth but becomes more coarse with age.
Thoracic vertebrae
Vertebrae of the upper back; there are usually 12 thoracic vertebrae.
Thorax
Anatomical area composed of the vertebral column and rib cage.
Tibia
Large bone of the lower leg; the "shin" bone. (Plural: tibiae)
Tibial tuberosity
Anteriorly projecting knob on the superior-anterior surface of the tibia.
Tightly flexed burial
Burial position in which the elbows are drawn into the torso and flexed so that the hands lie against the upper thorax, close to the base of the neck and the knees are drawn up to the abdomen, while the feet are in the proximity of the buttocks.
TMJ
See Temporal mandibular joint.
Toddler’s fracture
An oblique or spiral fracture where the ends do not separate; seen most often in the lower limbs (especially the tibia) of infants and toddlers.
Tooth set
Lateral deviation of saw teeth from the main axis of the blade that causes the kerf to be wider than the blade, preventing binding while sawing.
Tori
A raised area of a bone (e.g., supraorbital tori).
Torus or buckling fracture
Torus or buckling fracture is the result of compressive forces that cause an outward buckling of the cortex around the circumference of a bone.
Total Body Score
A method for determining the decompositional state of a human body, constructed by adding the numeric score associated with each of three body segments: head and neck, trunk, and limbs.
Trabecular bone
Bone that looks like a sponge that is found on the inside of bony structures, such as the head of the femur; it reinforces those structures while keeping them light in weight. Also called cancellous bone and spongy bone.
Transverse costal facets
Facets on the transverse processes of thoracic vertebrae 1 through 10 for articulation with the tubercle of the ribs.
Transverse foramen
Opening in the transverse process unique to the cervical vertebrae.
Transverse fracture
A type of fracture that crosses the diaphysis at right angles to the long axis of the bone.
Transverse organization
As used here, refers to series of billows and/or striations that traverse the auricular surface.
Transverse palatine suture
The transverse palatine suture separates the maxillae from the palatines.
Transverse process
Process that projects laterally from either side of the vertebral arch near the pedicle.
Transverse ridges
Raised lines on the anterior sacrum where the sacral bodies fuse.
Trauma
A pathological category defined as injury caused to living tissue by an outside force.
Trauma-induced pseudarthrosis
A pseudarthrosis resulting from improper healing between two segments of a broken bone.
Trephination
Holes cut through the braincase that are the result of a surgery on a living person. Also called trepination.
Trochlea
Articular surface on the inferior part of humerus for articulation with the ulna and radius.
Trochlear notch
The half-moon shaped articular surface of the proximal end of the ulna.
Tubercle
A small, round projection or protuberance in a bone for attachment of a tendon.
Tuberosity
A large raised and roughened area on the bone that is usually the site of the attachment of ligaments or tendons.
U
Ulna
Medial bone of the lower arm in the anatomical position. (Plural: ulnae)
Ulnar head
Rounded part on the inferior end of the ulna, for articulation with wrist bones.
Ulnar interosseous boarder (crest)
The sharpest edge of the ulnar diaphysis.
Ulnar notch
Notch on the medial surface of the distal end of the radius that articulates with the ulna.
Ulnar styloid process
A small, inferiorly extending protrusion on the posterior side of the inferior end of the ulna.
Uncinate processes
Raised rim on the lateral side of the superior vertebral body that forms a saddle for articulation with the body of the adjacent vertebra; unique to the cervical vertebrae.
Ungulates
Hoofed animals, such as cows, deer, and elk.
USGS quadrangle
A map developed by the U.S. Geological Survey office that depicts geographic features on a scale of 1 centimeter per quarter kilometer.
V
Ventral arc
Raised area on the anterior surface of the pubis that is more prominent in females than males.
Ventral infraspinous plane
See infraspinous fossa.
Vertebrae
Bones of the spinal column. (Singular: vertebra)
Vertebrae body
The oval, weight-bearing part of the vertebrae; also called the centrum.
Vertebral arch
Part of the vertebrae that arches away from the body (centrum), forming the vertebral foramen that allows for passage of the nerve column down the spine.
Vertebral body (Centrum)
Main weight-bearing part of vertebra.
Vertebral foramen
Opening between the body and vertebral arch.
Vertex
Highest point on the midline of the skull when it is held in the Frankfort horizon; there is a skull landmark by the same name.
Vertical fracture
Fracture caused by compressive forces which split a bone along its long axis.
Visual assessment
As used here, the process of scanning the ground for human remains and their associated materials.
Vomer
Bone that separates the posterior part of the nasal aperture into right and left halves.
W
Wastage
Refers to fragments separated from the main section of the bone; most commonly seen in trauma caused by chopping instruments (e.g., axes).
Wedging
Deformity of the vertebrae, where the anterior part of the body is thinner than the posterior part; seen in many older persons.
Wide focus
As used here, indicates that force is delivered over a large area of bone.
Word qualifiers
As used here, refers to words that imply probability (e.g., “it is unlikely that he was over six feet tall").
Wormian bones
Accessory bones in the lambdoid suture; they are most common in people of Asian origin.
X
Xiphoid process
Tab of cartilage that extends inferiorly from the corpus sterni; can ossify in older people.
Z
Zygomatic
The cheekbone; it articulates with the maxilla and temporal, and forms the anterior, lateral margin of the eye orbit. (Plural: zygomatics)
Zygomatic arch
Arch of bone composed anteriorly of the zygomatic bone and posteriorly by a projection of the temporal, called the zygomatic process.
Zygoorbitale
The point at which zygomaxillary suture contacts the lower border of the eye.