This chapter gives a brief description of what forensic anthropologists do and how they fit into the medicolegal community, and the field of jurisprudence. It also gives a history of the field, from its earliest times (in the 1800s) to the present, mentioning the most important people who influenced its development from a time when it was of secondary importance to biological anthropologists, to the more professional field, staffed by specially trained experts, that it is today. Finally, the information that forensic anthropologists attempt to derive from human bones are listed as well as how this influenced the layout of this book.

This chapter presents basic information needed by readers to understand all subsequent information and methods. The basics of human osteology are presented, including bones, their articulations, landmarks, and features, along with a description of within-bone structures. Basics of dentition are also described, including anatomy, types, and fundamental structure. Next, various measurements of the skull and postcranial bones are listed with figures illustrating their endpoints. Finally, methods used to analyze forensic anthropological data are presented, including anthroposcopy and statistical methods.

This chapter describes the earliest analyses done by forensic anthropologists, that is: determining if an object found is of medicolegal significance. The steps by which this determination is made can be carried out sequentially as: determine if it is made of bone, determine if the bone is human or nonhuman, and if it is human, determine if the person is recent or nonrecent. The methods used in each of these steps are discussed, with special emphasis on easily visible traits, but mention is made of more complex methods requiring special instruments.

This chapter deals with the methods of forensic archaeology, which are used to find and recover human remains and evidence relevant to a forensic investigation. First the preliminary issues of planning for recovery of remains are discussed, followed by the methods used to locate surface and buried human remains. This is followed by a description of mapping and collecting methods, as well as techniques for grave excavation. The final section deals with mass fatality events and the modifications to the previously described methods that are needed to deal with the size and scale encompassed in these types of incidents.

This chapter deals with estimating the time that has passed since the death of an individual represented by remains being analyzed by forensic anthropologists. Commonly called the postmortem interval (PMI), estimating the time that has passed since a body was first deposited where it was found helps law enforcement in looking through missing persons files who have been missing since the beginning of that interval. First, the process of decomposition is described, followed by discussions of early attempts at estimating PMI by comparing the amount of decomposition seen in a case with schedules of stages observed in previous cases. Next, the more modern method of estimating time since death using Total Body Score (TBS) and Accumulated Degree Days in conjunction with temperature records is presented, for both surface and submerged remains. How PMI can be estimated by the results of animal scavenging is then described, followed by a discussion of other methods that can aid in estimating this statistic.

This chapter describes how human remains that have been recovered are treated and readied for full forensic anthropological analysis. Specifically, it describes what observations should be made on the remains before any processing begins, then describes how soft tissue should be removed so that any bone injuries and/or anomalous traits will become visible. The process for sorting multiple individuals is described, along with the methods used to help re-articulate skeletons into distinct individuals (when possible) and methods for inventorying all bones. A final section deals with how highly fragmented remains are handled.

This chapter outlines the controversy surrounding the word “race” and present reasons why it is no longer used in forensic anthropology. Instead, population affinity and (to a lesser extent) ancestry is used to describe the various subgroups of humans that society in general refer to as White, Black, Asian, Hispanic and others. It then presents anthroposcopic (also called, morphoscopic) traits of the skull and teeth that are used to estimate the most likely subgroup from which a case originates. Then methods that employ metric measurements for this purpose are discussed, followed by a brief description of genetic methods.

This chapter describes methods used to estimate the sex of decedents from their skeletal remains. It describes both anthroposcopic and metric methods for estimating sex from the pelvis, skull, and postcranial skeleton of adults. It also covers the ambiguity surrounding subadult sexing, emphasizing why most forensic anthropologists avoid estimation of sex of subadults.

This chapter describes methods used by forensic anthropologists to estimate the approximate age at death of individuals from their teeth and skeletons. It is divided into two main sections, the first dealing with assigning age to the skeletons of persons approximately 18 years of age or younger, and the second dealing with age estimation on adults. The estimation of age at death in subadults uses features of the growing skeleton and dentition, specifically bone lengths, ossification of skeletal elements, and tooth formation and eruption. Estimating the age of adults from the deterioration associated with aging in the skeleton involves the pubic face, auricular surface of the ilium, and ossification of the sternal rib ends. Although not often used, other methods exist and are briefly discussed.

This chapter covers methods used to estimate the living height (stature) of persons from bones and body segments. It discusses the findings for recent studies that show that this component of the biological profile is less used and less accurate than other components. It then describes the reasoning behind stature reconstruction and presents the two most common methods used for this purpose. The last sections deal with less (if ever) used methods and adjustments that can be made to stature estimates.

This chapter introduces basic information on skeletal trauma and what forensic anthropologists should know to aid authorities in determining cause and manner of death. First, cause and manner of death are defined. Next, the basic types of trauma-inducing forces are described, and types of fractures they cause are discussed. Third, the four basic types of trauma (projectile, blunt, sharp, miscellaneous) are defined. Last, the characteristics used to recognize the timing of fractures in relation to death (antemortem, perimortem, postmortem) are presented.

This chapter deals with the effects of projectiles, especially bullets, on human bone. First, basic information on firearms and projectiles (bulletes, pellets) is presented. This is followed by a description of entrance and exit wounds as well as fracturing in the skull and other bones. The major topics in projectile wound analysis (i.e., wound size, placement, and direction of fire) are presented and discussed. Pellet wounds and projectiles from bows and crossbows as well as miscellaneous instruments are also discussed.

This chapter will cover the general attributes of instruments and surfaces that can cause blunt trauma, including a discussion of their size, shape, and weight. A typology of fractures is also presented as well as the effects of instruments on bone, starting first with injuries to the cranium followed by discussions of the effects of blunt trauma to the postcranial skeleton. Finally, elements germane to wound analysis will be presented, with an emphasis on estimating the characteristics of causative implements and/or surfaces.

This chapter describes the characteristics of sharp and other forms of trauma not discussed in previous chapters. Specifically, it describes how sharp instruments, such as knives and axes, affect bone and the characteristics of the wounds they cause. Also, blast trauma is discussed as a separate category of trauma because it can take on characteristics of all three types of trauma: projectile, blunt, and sharp trauma. Finally, the effects of strangulation, ligature, and hanging on the anatomical structures of the throat are discussed.

This chapter deals with various anomalous conditions found in human bone that are unrelated to perimortem trauma (despite some of them appearing as such). Specifically, common pathological conditions seen in bone that cause areas of bone loss, bone gain, or bone deformation are described. Also described are skeletal anomalies, such as extra small bones (ossicles), nonfusion of normally whole bone segments, small bone openings, and other anomalies. Lastly, occupational stress markers, or indicators of repetitive activity, are discussed.

This chapter describes postmortem changes that can occur in bones due to the actions of humans or the natural environment. First, dismemberments by cutting through bone are described, including information on how to estimate characteristics of the saw used (e.g., blade width, blade shape, cut direction). Next, animal scavenging is discussed, especially that due to carnivores, but rodent scavenging is also described. This is followed by descriptions of the effect of fire, weathering, burial, and water transport on bone.

This chapter presents three methods to help identify a decedent when methods from the previous chapters have not yielded an identification. Specifially, the method used to reproduce the living likenesses of individuals from their skulls is described. Next, the up and coming method of reproducing living likeness from DNA is described. Last, the use of stable isotopes for helping to identify, or exclude, region of origin of persons is presented.

This chapter deals with the methods used to obtain a positive or probable identification. Methods for positive identification include doing a point-by-point comparison of antemortem radiographs with those of decedents, especially of frontal sinuses. Also, comparing serial numbers of surgical implants with antemortem records of implants can lead to a positive identification. Probable identification methods include combining information from multiple skeletal features to produce a probability of personal identification, and doing photographic superimposition of living faces to skulls. Lastly, miscellaneous methods are discussed.

This chapter covers a number of topics not discussed in previous chapters. Specifically, it outlines what the final report of a forensic anthropology case should contain as well as a sample summary page. Additionally, information on courtroom testimony is provided with a discussion of types of credentials forensic anthropologists should have, and the various parts of the testimony itself (direct examination, cross-examination, redirect examination). Finally, the future of forensic anthropology is discussed.