Glossary

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Abangan	Javanese Muslims who do not follow Islamic prescriptions strictly and follow many traditional Javanese customs; often called "statistical Muslims."
Abbasid caliphate	(750–1258) Line of caliphs claiming descent from Mu?ammad´s uncle with their capital in Baghdad; the early period was one of the high points of Muslim political power, while the whole dynasty saw major cultural achievements. A shadow line of Abbasids continued until 1517 in Egypt.
´Abd al-Raziq, ´Ali	1888–1966) Wrote a controversial but influential book defending secular­ism on Islamic grounds in Egypt in 1925.
´Abduh, Mu?ammad	(1842–1905) Egyptian modernist reformer, influential throughout the Muslim world.
Abu Bakr	(d. 634) The first caliph or successor to Mu?ammad as leader of the umma.
Abu ?anifa	(d. 767) One of leading early faqihs (jurists); understood to be the founder of the ?anafi madhhab.
A?mad al-Badawi	(1200?-1276) The most popular of the Sufi walis ("saints") in Egypt and founder of the Ahmadiyya Badawiyya ?ariqa. His mawlid ("birthday" festival) attracts vast numbers each October to Tanta in the Nile Delta.
Ahmadiyya or Ahmadiyya Badawiyya	Very popular ?ariqa in Egypt
Ahmadiyya	Followers of the Indian reformer, Ghulam Ahmad (1835-1908), thought to be a prophet by some of his followers. For this reason they are often persecuted by other Muslims. The movement is an actively proselyting one.   No connection with the Egyptian Ahmadiyya.
´Ada (or adat)	Custom; may be seen as a source of fiqh or as an alternative or complement to the Shari´a, also called ´urf.
Adab	Proper manners and behaviour, especially of the courtier or bureaucrat; literature, belles lettres. There is also an adab for ?ufis, faqihs and other groups.
Adam	The first man according to the Qur´an; also understood to be the first prophet.
Adhan	The call to ?alah (prayer) five times a day
Ahl al-sunna wa-l-jama ´a	The Sunnis, as opposed to the Shi´is, literally: the people of the sunna and the [main stream] community.
Ahl al-?adith	Among the early ´ulama´, those who insisted on basing their view and judgments on ?adith, as opposed to ahl al-ra´y, who based their views on considered opinion and reason. Ahl al-?adith include Ibn ?anbal and al-Shafi´i. Often called traditionalists.
Ahl-i ?adith	Movement in South Asia, dating from the late nineteenth century, who hold strictly to the Quran and ?adith as authority; today generally considered salafi.
Akbar	(r. 1556–1605) Ruler of the Mughal Empire at its height; open minded toward other religions and philosophies.
Akhbari	Twelver Shi´i school of fiqh that emphasizes the authority of the akhbar (reports of Mu?ammad and the Imams).
AKP	Turkish acronym for the Justice and Development Party (Adalet ve Kalkinma Partisi), a "post-Islamist" party formed by younger members who split from Erbaken´s  Islamist party. Combines a moderate secularism with an Islamic ethos.
´Alawis (or Nu?ayris)	Sect recognizing ´Ali as the highest manifestation of the divine but separate from the Alevis; currently they dominate the government of Syria.
Alevis	Sect recognizing ´Ali as the highest manifestation of the divine; located in Turkey, ex­periencing a cultural revival since the 1980s.
´Ali ibn Abi ?alib	(d. 661) Cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Mu?ammad, fourth caliph in the Sunni reckoning and first Imam in the Shi ´i reckoning.
´Alim	Singular of ´ulama´, q.v.
Al-Kulayni	(d.940) Compiler of the main collection of Twelver Shi´i ?adith and akhbar.
Allah	Arabic word for the One God and the one mostly used by Muslims; used in other Islamic languages beside Arabic.
Ameer Ali	1849–1928) Indian modernist, whose book The Spirit of Islam has been quite influential.
Amir	Military commander; title of some rulers; in modern times often means prince (heir apparent to a king), can be used for religious leaders.
Amir al-mu´minin	"Commander of the faithful", title of caliphs and other rulers, usually im­plying a serious commitment to religion (e.g. Tablighis).
Andalus	Areas of Spain and Portugal under Muslim rule from 711 to 1492. Site of a flourishing and relatively tolerant civilization.
An?ar	"Helpers", the Medinan supporters of Mu?ammad; name also taken by other groups, e.g. the supporters of the Sudanese Mahdi.
Ash´aris (Ash´arites or Ash´ariyya)	The most prominent school of Sunni kalam (theology), founded by Abu al-?asan ´Ali al-Ash´ari (d. 935), who sought to demonstrate traditionalist theses by rational methods.
Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal	(1881–1938) Founder of the Turkish Republic; instituted far reach­ing secularist reforms. Atatürk is a title given to him, meaning "Father of the Turks".
Aya	"Sign", verse of the Qur´an; also used in the Qur´an for the signs of nature that point to God and for some miracles.
Ayatollah	"Sign of God", title given to high ranking Shi ´i ´ulama´ in the U?uli school of fiqh; Grand Ayatollah (Ayatollah ´Uzma) is the title given to those with the highest rank.
Azhar, al-	Mosque and madrasa, now University, in Cairo. Founded in the tenth century CE, it has long been considered the greatest traditional madrasa/university, drawing students from throughout the Muslim world. It is considered the most authoritative official Islamic institution in Egypt.
Baha´is	Followers of Baha´ullah (1817–1892), who in 1863 claimed to be one promised by God, effectively the next prophet after Mu?ammad. The movement began among Iranian Shi ´is but is now a separate, world-wide religion.
Baraka	"Blessing"; a sacred power, derived from Allah, believed to be present in the Qur´an, the actions and tombs of ?ufi saints (walis) and elsewhere.
Bektashis	?ufi ?ariqa, eclectic in doctrine and practice, closely associated with the Janissaries in the Ottoman Empire, suppressed in the 1820s.
Bid´a	"Innovation", something not practiced in the earliest days of Islam and therefore viewed as heresy; some, however, recognize the existence of "good innovations."
al-Bukhari, Mu?ammad ibn Isma´il	(d. 870) Compiler of one of the two most authoritative collections of ?adith, known as ?a?i? Bukhari.
Buyid, Buwayhid	Dynasty of Twelver Shi´i amirs ruling in Baghdad under Sunni Abbasid caliphs from 945 to 1045. They supported Shi´i interests and patronized Shi´i scholarship.
Byzantine Empire	The later Roman Empire with its capital at Constantinople; Greek speak­ing and Christian, it lost territory to the first wave of Muslim conquest, then held out until con­quered by the Ottomans in 1453.
Caliphs	Sunni rulers, at least in name, of the whole Islamic empire until 1258; title claimed by Ottoman sul?ans in the nineteenth and early twentieth
Chishtis (Chishtiyya)	?ufi tariqa widespread in India; the tomb of its founder, Mu´in al-Din Chishti (d. 1236), is a popular site for pilgrimage (ziyara).
Christ (Ar: Masi?)	In the Muslim view the last of the prophets before Mu?ammad, Christ´s revelation is the Injil (Gospel) and he is often referred to as Jesus the son of Mary (´Isa ibn Maryam).
Crusades	A series of expeditions by Western Christians ("Franks") beginning in 1099 against the Muslims in the Near East with the initial goal of reconquering the Holy Land; today Islamists often refer to Western imperialists as crusaders.
Dar al-Islam	The "Abode of Islam", the whole geographical area ruled by Muslims, tradition­ally contrasted with Dar al-?arb, "the abode of war". Some have recognized an intermediate position, Dar al-?ul? or Dar al-ahd, "Abode of treaty (viz. with a non-Muslim ruler or state). In modern times areas that have passed out of Muslim rule but where Muslims can still prac­tice their religion are considered part of Dar al-Islam by most. The term is also used for cer­tain movements in Indonesia between 1948 and 1965.
Dasta	Procession of Shi´i young men who flagellate themselves to demonstrate their support for Husayn, especially during the celebrations leading up to ´Ashu. (q.v.).
Da´wa, Dakwa	Inviting people to Islam, whether non-Muslims to become Muslims or Muslims to become better and more active Muslims.
Darwish (or dervish)	Persian word for "poor" or "poor in spirit"; a term used for a ?ufi.
Deobandi	A modern traditionalist movement based on the madrasa at Deoband in India (founded in 1867).
Dhawq	"Taste", the experience of the divine that ?ufis seek and some have.
Dhikr (zikr)	"Remembering"; awareness of God; the rituals used by ?ufis to achieve this awareness.
Dhimmis (zimmis)	Non-Muslims with a covenant of protection (dhimma) that allows them to live in a Muslim society under specified conditions; particularly Christians and Jews but others often have this status in practice.
Druze	A sect who believe that the Fatimid ruler of Egypt, al-Hakim, was the earthly manifes­tation of God. They live mainly in Lebanon, some live in Israel and some in diaspora.
Du´a´	Prayer other than ?alah, may be free prayer or formal.
Elijah Muhammad	(1897–1975) Founder of the "Nation of Islam" movement in the United States, commonly known as the "Black Muslims".
Erbakan, Necmettin	(b. 1926) Founder of the milli görüs (national vision) ideology in Turkey and several political parties associated with it, e.g. the Welfare Party.
Falsafa	Philosophy, the Neo-Platonic and Aristotelian philosophy received from late antiquity and developed and taught by Muslim Philosophers (faylasufs).
Fana´	Annihilation or passing away in God, the ?ufi experience of union with God; some say it is to be followed by baqa´, continuance in God.
Faqih	Expert in fiqh (law, jurisprudence).
Faqir	Poor, poor in spirit, term for a ?ufi, cf. darwish.
al-Farabi	(c. 870–950) One of the early Muslim Philosophers.
Far?	Obligatory, one of the five Shari´a valuations (a?kam)
Far? ´ayn	An obligation that applies to every individual under the Shari´a.
Far? kifaya	An obligation that applies to a "sufficient number", e.g. teaching; until there are enough teachers in a community everyone is under obligation to become one; when there are enough the obligation is lifted from the rest.
Fati?a	The opening sura or chapter of the Qur´an; recited on many occasions
Fa?ima	Daughter of Mu?ammad and wife of ´Ali ibn Abi ?alib; she was the mother of the next two Shi´i Imams and ancestress of the others and is considered ma´sum (protected from sin) by Shi´is. She is highly respected by all Muslims.
Fatimid Dynasty	Isma´ili dynasty that ruled Egypt from 969 to 1171.
Fatwa	An advisory opinion by a qualified faqih stating whether an action is permitted or forbidden by the Shari´a.
Fez	A brimless hat worn by Muslim men in Turkey from 1826 to 1925 and in other countries for some time after that; not much used today.
Fiqh	"Understanding", viz. of the Shari´a; working out the details of commands and prohibi­tions through the sources (see u?ul al-fiqh); the substance of the law so worked out.
Fi?ra	The created nature of humans that leads them to seek God.
Firdowsi	(d. c. 1020) Author of the Shahnameh (Book of Kings), a long epic poem about the pre-Islamic Persian kings; one of the first works in the revival of Persian literature after the Muslim conquest and one of the greatest works of Persian literature.
Ghayba	Disappearance or occultation of the twelfth Shi´i Imam; during the Lesser Occultation (872–939) he was in contact with people through deputies; during the Greater Occultation he is in the world but out of touch with people until his return as the mahdi.
al-Ghazali, Abu ?amid Mu?ammad	1058–1111) One of the greatest Muslim scholars of all time; he played a major role in reconciling the streams of fiqh, theology and ?ufism and selec­tively adopting falsafa.
Ghazi	Warrior who engages in jihad, usually on the frontiers of Dar al-Islam.
Ghaznavids	(961–1186) A Sunni dynasty ruling in Afghanistan and sometimes much of Iran and northwest India. They patronized scholars such as Firdowsi.
Ghusl	Complete washing of the body for ablution from major pollution.
Gülen, Fathullah	Leader of a branch of the Nurcu movement in Turkey and elsewhere; stressing tolerance in its teachings, it has a network of businesses, media outlets and charitable organizations but is known especially for its schools, which are non-sectarian in their teaching.
?add	Special class of penalties specifically imposed by God in the Qur´an or Sunna, e.g. cut­ting off of the hand of a thief.
?adith	A report of something the prophet said, did or approved of, or the sum total of these reports.
?adith Qudsi	Hadith whose words are ascribed to God rather than to the Prophet.
?afi?	One who has memorized the whole of the Qur´an.
?ajj	Annual pilgrimage to Mecca; to be done at least once in a lifetime if possible. One of the five Pillars.
?ajj or ?ajji	One who has performed the ?ajj.
?alal	Permitted, includes all of the Shari´a valuations except forbidden; also specifically used for food that may be eaten.
?amas	Acronym (in Arabic) for "Islamic Resistance Movement", the main Islamist move­ment among the Palestinians; appeared in 1988 and currently (2013) controls Gaza.
?anafi (or Hanafite)	Follower of the madhhab of Abu ?anifa.
?anbali	Follower of the madhhab of Ibn ?anbal.
?anifs	Figures mentioned in the Qur´an, taken to be pre-Islamic monotheists in Arabia; also used for any practicer of pure monotheistic worship, e. g. the prophet Ibrahim.
?aram	Forbidden, one of the five Shari´a valuations (a?kam). Also used for things in that category, e.g. food
?ijab	The most general term for female "Islamic" garb, which according to conservative in­terpretation must cover all of the body but the hands and the face; sometimes used particularly for the head covering."
Hijra	The emigration or flight of Mu?ammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina in 622. The year in which it occurred is the first year of the Muslim or hijri calendar.
?ikma	Wisdom"; may refer to Islamic Philosophy (falsafa) or to the later "theosophy" partly based on it; the term may also be used for a "wise saying" or for the reason something is done, especially something done by God.
?izb al-Ta?rir (Liberation Party)	Islamist organization founded in 1952 by the Palestinian judge, Taqi al-Din al-Nabhani (1909–1977); it seeks to restore the caliphate, is active in many countries and banned in many.
Hizbollah	"Party of God"; name of several Islamist groups in modern times; the best known is the Shi ´i Islamist party in Lebanon, which is currently (2008) a strong force there.
?ukm (pl. a?kam)	"Judgment, valuation, governance", here particularly used for the valua­tion placed by the Shari´a on actions; thus there are five a?kam, commanded (far?), recom­mended, permitted (neutral), disapproved, forbidden (?aram).
?usayn ibn ´Ali	(d. 680) The younger son of ´Ali and Fa?ima; was martyred at Karbala´ by the forces of the Umayyad caliph Yazid; focus of intense Shi´i piety and considered a symbol of self-sacrifice in the cause of justice.
´Ibadat (sing. ´ibada)	Acts of worship", those actions, such as ?alah, done specifically for God, in contrast to mu´amalat, duties owed to other humans. More generally, ´ibada refers to any action, whether ritual or ethical, and may be translated "service". It is related to the word ´abd, servant or slave.
Ibn ´Abd al-Wahhab, Mu?ammad	(1703–1792) Reformer in Central Arabia and founder of the movement called "Wahhabi".
Ibn ´Arabi, Mu?yi al-Din	(1166–1240) Considered the greatest of the Sunni ?ufi theoso­phers, known among other things for his controversial doctrine of wa?dat al-wujud (the unity of existence).
Ibn ?anbal, A?mad	(d. 855) ?adith scholar and traditionalist opponent of the Mu´tazila, held that the Qur´an is uncreated and that the divine attributes and actions in the Qur´an should be accepted bila kayf (without asking how), i.e. without metaphorical explanation. He suffered for his beliefs in the mi?na (inquisition).
Ibn Is?aq	(d. 770) Author of the best known sira (biography) of Mu?ammad; extant in the form revised and edited by Ibn Hisham (d. 833).
Ibn Khaldun	1332-1406) West African scholar and author of a universal history, Kitab al-´Ibar (Book of (historical) Lessons), whose introduction presents a highly regarded theory of political history focusing on ´a?abiyya, group solidarity.
Ibn Rushd (Averroes)	(1126–1198) Spanish Islamic philosopher and judge; presented the most purely Aristotelian version of Islamic philosophy; wrote a refutation of al-Ghazali´s refu­tation of philosophy; influential in the West.
Ibn Sina, Abu ´Ali (Avicenna)	(980–1037) Perhaps the greatest of the Islamic philosophers (faylasuf).
Ibn Taymiyya, Taqi al-Din	(1263–1328) Hanbali reformer during the Mamluke period who criticizes many popular religious practices as shirk and defended the traditionalist position in theology. Has provided inspiration for many modern reformers.
Ibrahim	Qur´anic prophet, the biblical Abraham. Possibly viewed as the most important fig­ure in the preaching of taw?id (monotheism) before Mu?ammad; his near sacrifice of his son is commemorated on ´Id al-A??a.
´Id al-A??a	One of the two major festivals in the Muslim year; commemorates Ibrahim´s near sacrifice of his son with the sacrifice of an animal and distribution of its meat; done by those on ?ajj on the tenth of Dhu al-?ijja, and by Muslims everywhere.
´Id al-Fi?r	The other major festival of the Muslim year; one to three day celebration after the fast of Rama?an.
If?ar	Evening meal after the daily fast in Rama?an.
I?ram	Garment consisting of two pieces of plain cloth worn by men during the Hajj.
Ijaza	"Permission"; the authorization given by a teacher to a student to teach one or more books the student has studied under him.
Ijma	"Consensus", in its fullest form, the unanimous agreement of all the mujtahids of a giv­en age on a point of law; traditionally according to Sunnis binding on future generations, but modernists disagree. In fact, the consensus is usually within a given madhhab.
Ijtihad	"Effort", specifically the effort of the faqih to discover the Shari´a judgment on a mat­ter. Absolute ijtihad involves going directly to the Qur´an and Sunna for this. More restricted ijtihad involves following the principles of one´s madhhab. In U?uli Shi´i fiqh, ijtihad is the effort to derive judgments from all of the sources of fiqh (u?ul al-fiqh).
Ilham	Inspiration or revelation that may come to ?ufis, as distinct from wa?y, which comes only to prophets.
´Ilm	Knowledge, learning, science; basically knowledge of the Qur´an and the Sunna and thence of the disciplines such as fiqh and kalam based on them; also exoteric knowledge as op­posed to esoteric knowledge, ma´rifa.
´Ilm al-taw?id	Science of taw?id, theology; cf. kalam.
Imam	"Leader"; leader at the performance of ?alah; according to Shi´is the divinely chosen leader of the umma; in Sunni usage a synonym for caliph; title of respect for a great religious scholar.
Iman	Faith, true faith in God.
Intoxication (sukr)	Among ?ufis, the state of ecstasy in which the ?ufi does not have rational control of himself but is presumably caught up in God. Contrasted with "sobriety" (?a?wa).
Iqbal, Muhammad	(1876–1938) Indian Muslim poet and philosopher, probably the greatest of the Indian modernists; also viewed as the spiritual father of Pakistan.
Iran(ian), Persia(n)	These terms are used more or less interchangeably in most of this book, except that Persian is always used for the language and literature and Iran(ian) is always used after this became the official name of the country under Reza Shah in the 20th century.
Irfan	A form of philosophical mysticism, practiced especially by Iranian Shi´i scholars; considered distinct from Sufism.
´Ishq	Passionate love; used by many ?ufis to describe their love of God; contrasted with ?ubb or ma?abba, which suggests something more restrained.
Islam	Submission or commitment to God, specifically in accordance with the teaching of Mu?ammad. The one who submits is a Muslim.
Islamic Law	Used in this book to refer in a general way to fiqh, Shari´a or both.
Islamicist	Academic scholar who studies about Islam; to be distinguished from Islamist.
Islamist	Modern Muslim activist for whom Islam is a political and social ideology covering all areas of life. Islamists criticize modernists for accepting too many Western ways and usu­ally call for an "Islamic state".
´I?ma	Protection, viz. from error or sin; according to Sunnis the prophets have ´i?ma (i.e. are ma´?um); according to Shi´is the Imams and Fa?ima are also ma´?um.
Isma´il	Son of Ibrahim, the biblical Ishmael. Muslims believe that it was he, not Is?aq (Isaac), who was almost sacrificed at God´s command.
Isma´ilis	Division of the Shi ´a (q.v.) that accepts Isma´il the son of Ja´far as the next Imam and a continuing line of Imams after him, often in concealment. One group, the Qarmatis, was in power in Bahrain from c 900 to 1077 and another, the Fatimids, was in power in Egypt from 969 to 1171 and mounted a revolutionary movement in Syria and else­where at the same time. Two lines that continue today are the Nizaris, the followers of the Agha Khan, and the Bohras.
Jama´a Islamiyya (Islamic Group)	Name of several Islamist groups in Egypt, including stu­dent groups in the 1970s and a group under the guidance of Omar Abdel Rahman involved in the violence of the 1990s. The same phrase in its Indonesian spelling, Jemaah Islamiyah, refers to the Islamist group responsible for the Bali bombings in 2002 and later.
Jama´at-i Islami (Islamic Society)	Islamist movement in India and Pakistan, founded in 1941 by Abul ´Ala´ Mawdudi, has been ideologically influential but had limited success in Pakistani politics.
Jamal al-Din "al-Afghani", known as "Asadabadi" in Iran	(1838–1897) Modernist reform­er and anti-imperialist activist, mentor of Mu?ammad ´Abduh and extremely influential on a wide range of Muslim movements since his time.
Jihad	"Striving", i.e. striving in the way of God. Usually applied to warfare in a perceived re­ligious cause, including anti-imperialist struggles in modern times, but also applied to striving against the individual´s anti-ethical tendencies (the "greater jihad") and striving to build soci­ety (e.g. jihad for construction).
Jinn (sing. Jinni)	Invisible beings, made of fire according to the Qur´an, more powerful than humans, usually evil but capable of good and of faith in God.
Jizya	Head tax paid by dhimmis to the Muslim ruler or state, in part in return for not doing military service but also a sign of subordination.
Jum´a	Congregation, gathering, also Friday; short for ?alat al-jum´a, the Friday noon ?alah, to be done in congregation.
Ka´ba	Square building in Mecca toward which ?alah is made and which is circumambulated during the ?ajj; believed to have been built, or rebuilt, by Ibrahim and Isma´il; believed also to be a copy of the heavenly Ka´ba circumambulated by angels.
Kalam	"Words", theology. Mutakallim is a theologian.
Karbala´	Place in Iraq where ?usayn was martyred; a shrine city for Shi´is today.
Khalifa	"Successor, deputy". In the Qur´an Adam (and thus humanity) is khalifa of God on earth; a Muslim ruler as successor of the Prophet or Deputy of God; deputy to the shaykh of a ?ufi ?ariqa. Khilafa means caliphate.
Khariji (pl. khawarij)	"Seceders, rebels". Party that broke with ´Ali over the arbitration with Mu´awiya. Held that the leader could be of any descent but must be chosen by the community and be free of serious sin. Formed various oppositional and even "terrorist" groups in the early centuries. A moderate branch, the ´Ibadis, continues in small numbers to the present. The term is often used today as a pejorative label for radical Islamists.
Khan, Sir Sayyid Ahmad	(1817–1898) Early Indian modernist reformer; sought to improve the Muslims´ relations with their British rulers and learn from them.
Khanqah (or khanaqah, etc.)	?ufi hostel or retreat center, with facilities for dhikr, retreat, ac­commodation for some. Also called tekke (Turkish), zawiya (Arabic).
Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah Musavi	(1902–1989) Grand Ayatollah and leader of the Islamic Revolution in Iran in 1979.
Khul´	A form of divorce requested by the wife in return for compensation, such as renouncing her right to the unpaid part of the mahr.
Khums	A tax of one fifth of one´s income paid by Shi´is to the descendants of the Prophet and to the ´ulama´ as representatives of the Twelfth Imam.
Khu?ba	Sermon given at ?alat al-jum´a; may cover a range of topics but somewhat more for­malized than the usual Christian sermon.
Kiai (or kiyayi)	Traditional ´alim in Java; commonly head of a pesantren.
Kufic	"From Kufa (a city in Iraq)". Refers to an early form of Arabic script, squarish rather than rounded.
Kufr	Unbelief, refusal to submit to God, with a connotation of ingratitude. Opposite of iman, faith.
Kuttab	Traditional Islamic elementary school, primarily for reciting the Quran. Called maktab in some places.
Madhhab	School or tradition of fiqh or kalam, but the term is usually used for fiqh; there are four Sunni madhhabs of fiqh that are today recognized as equally valid.
Madrasa (medrese in Turkish)	Upper level school primarily for the teaching of fiqh, but other subjects are also taught. In Arabic the term often refers to a secular school today.
Mahdi (Mehdi in some languages)	"Guided", for Sunnis usually refers to a figure appointed by God as a reformer or the one who will destroy evil at the end of time; for Shi´is the Twelfth Imam on his return.
Mahmud Muhammad Taha	1909-1985) Sudanese reformer who held that the Meccan part of the Qur´an is the permanent message of Islam, while the Medinan part represents a temporary position respondding to the social realities of the time. He was executed by the government in 1985.
Mahr	Sum of money paid by husband to wife, usually part at the time of marriage and part later, e.g. upon divorce or death.
Malik ibn Anas	(d. 795) Early scholar and faqih, based in Medina, and considered the founder of the Maliki madhhab.
Maliki	Madhhab of Sunni fiqh, named for Malik ibn Anas.
Manicheism	Dualistic Iranian religion founded by Mani (d. c. 275), considered matter to be evil; often called zindiqs in Islamic times (though this term came to be applied more indis­criminately) and severely persecuted.
Mamlukes	"Owned". Slaves trained to serve the ruling dynasty and often becoming rulers themselves; particularly the Mamluke dynasties of Egypt (1250–1517) and the same group as its influence continued under the aegis of the Ottomans, but there were other examples of this in the Islamic world.
Ma´rifa	"Knowledge", particularly direct personal knowledge as claimed by the ?ufis and contrasted with ´ilm, seen as second hand knowledge from books or reports.
Marja´-i taqlid (Arabic form: marja´ al-taqlid)	"Source of imitation", in U?uli Shi´ism, a leading ´alim who has a following of people who accept his fiqh judgments; has the title of Grand Ayatollah.
Ma?la?a	"Welfare, benefit". In fiqh, the welfare or benefit of the community as grounds for a judgment (?ukm).
Ma´?um	Protected from error or sins; characteristic of prophets; according to Shi´is, character­istic also of Imams and Fa?ima. The precise interpretation of this concept varies.
Matn	The substantive part of a ?adith; see also sanad.
Maturidis	Madhhab of kalam, founded by Abu Man?ur al-Maturidi (d. 944), popular among ?anafis; their teachings are similar to those of the Ash´aris but they are more inclined to allow for rational knowledge of ethical duties and human free will.
Mawdudi, Abul ´Ala´	(1903–1979) Leader of the Jama´at-i Islami in India and Pakistan and possibly the most influential Islamist thinker.
Mawlid (or mulid)	Birthday celebration of the Prophet Mu?ammad or ?ufi saints. Very popu­lar but criticized by some reformers.
Mecca (or Makka)	Birthplace of the Prophet Mu?ammad and place where his mission began. Location of the Ka´ba.
Medina (or Madina)	Short for madinat al-nabi, city of the Prophet; city to which the Prophet moved in the Hijra when forced to leave Mecca and where he established the first Islamic pol­ity; originally called Yathrib.
Mevlevi (Arabic: Mawlawi)	?ufi tariqa founded by Jalal al-Din Rumi (d. 1273); also known as the Whirling Dervishes.
Mi?na	"Trial, inquisition", refers usually to the effort of the Abbasid caliph al-Ma´mun and his successors (c. 833–850) to compel the ´ulama´ to accept the doctrine of the created Qur´an. See also Ibn ?anbal.
Mi?rab	Niche in the inner wall of a mosque indicating the direction to Mecca.
Millet	Communities into which dhimmis were organized in the Ottoman Empire; later formed the basis for some Eastern European nations.
Milli görüs (National Vision)	Islamist ideology of Erbakan and of several Turkish politi­cal parties led by him; name of several organizations following this ideology in the Turkish diaspora.
Minaret	Tower connected with a mosque from which the adhan is given
Minbar	Pulpit in the mosque from which the khu?ba is given.
Mosque (Ar. masjid)	"Place for prostration in prayer", place where Muslims gather for ?alah and other communal purposes.
Mu´amalat	Duties owed to other people, in contrast to ´ibadat, duties owed specifically to God.
Mu´awiya ibn Abi Sufyan	(d. 680) First Umayyad caliph, viewed by many as turning the Islamic caliphate into a worldly kingdom.
Muezzin (mu´adhdhin)	Person who gives the adhan, or call to ?alah.
Mufti	Faqih qualified to give a fatwa, an advisory opinion in fiqh.
Mughul Empire	(1526–1858) Muslim Empire ruling most of India at its height, under Akbar (r. 1556–1605).
Muhajir	Emigrant, one who makes Hijra; especially Mu?ammad´s Meccan followers who moved to Medina when he did; later groups also, e.g. the Indian Muslims who moved to Pakistan at the time of Partition..
Mu?ammad ibn Abdallah	(c. 570–632) Last prophet and messenger of God (rasul allah), first leader of the Muslim umma.
Mu?ammad ´Ali	Ottoman governor and de facto ruler of Egypt from 1805 to 1849, began the process of modernization.
Muhammadiya	Influential modernist movement in Indonesia founded in 1912.
Mujahid	Person who engages in jihad; "freedom fighter" often in the modern context.
Mujtahid	Faqih qualified to make fiqh judgments on his own, i.e. to practice ijtihad; generally given the title Ayatollah among U?uli Shi´is, especially in Iran.
Mullah	Title often given to ´ulama´, especially outside the Arab world; suggests a lower level ´alim.
Mu´min	Believer, person of faith"; Muslims more commonly call themselves mu´min than muslim.
Muqallid	One who is not a mujtahid and who therefore follows a present or past mujtahid.
Musa	Qur´anic prophet, the biblical Moses, prophet of the people of Israel.
Mu?alla	"Place for ?alah", small mosque not used for ?alat al-jum´a.
Muslim	One who submits or commits him- or herself to God, a member of the Muslim umma.
Muslim Brothers (Ar. al-ikhwan al-muslimun)	The leading Islamist organization in Egypt, founded by ?asan al-Banna in 1928.
Muslim ibn al-?ajjaj	(d. 875) Compiler of one of the two most authoritative Sunni collec­tions of ?adith, commonly known as ?a?i? Muslim.
Mustazafin (Ar. Musta?´afin)	"Oppressed", Qur´anic term (4:75) used in modern ideological contexts.
Mu´tazila	Rationalist school of theology noted for such doctrines as the created nature of the Qur´an; very influential in the early Abbasid period, later largely rejected by Sunnis.
Mut´a	"Pleasure", a marriage contracted for a limited period of time, valid in Shi´i fiqh.
Mutawatir	?adith with more than one sound line of transmitters (sanad), considered to be certain.
Mu´tazila	Rationalist madhhab in kalam, called themselves the "People of taw?id (monothe­ism) and justice"; taught that the Qur´an is created, among other things. Their views were re­jected by the Sunnis but have been influential among the Shi´is.
Muwa??idun	People of taw?id, name used by a number of reform groups, such as the Almohads in Morocco and Spain in the 12th and 13th centuries and the Wahhabis in Arabia from the 18th.
Nabi	Prophet, one who receives divine revelation (wa?y). According to traditional thinking there have been thousands sent before Mu?ammad´s time, one to every community or nation (umma); only a few are mentioned in the Qur´an. Mu?ammad is the "seal of the prophets".
Naqshbandiyya	Widespread Sufi ?ariqa named after Baha´ al-Din Naqshband (d. 1390), traces its silsila to Abu Bakr and noted for its "silent" dhikr, strong in Turkey and has spread to the West.
Nahdlatul Ulama	"Awakening of the ´Ulama´"; very influential traditionalist movement in Indonesia founded in 1926.
Na??	Authoritative text, i.e. the Qur´an and the ?adith. In Shi´ism, an Imam´s designation of his successor.
Nasta´liq	A very flowing form of Arabic script developed in Iran.
"Nation of Islam"	American movement led by Elijah Muhammad, claims to return African-Americans to their original religion and true identity. Name now used by Louis Farrakhan´s wing of the movement.
Ni´matullahis	Iranian Shi´i Sufi ?ariqa that has spread to the West under Javad Nurbakhsh (1927-2008).
Nu?	Qur´anic prophet, the biblical Noah, model of a prophet whose people reject his message and are destroyed.
Nurcus	Followers of Said Nursi, q.v.
"Occasions of revelation" (Ar. asbab al-nuzul)	The circumstances in which a particular verse or verses of the Qur´an were revealed; useful for interpreting these verses.
Ottoman (or Osmanli) Empire	(1281–1924) Sunni empire ruling much of the Arab, Greek and Balkan world for several centuries; strong vis-à-vis Europe for some time but in the 19th century the "sick man of Europe". Terminated by Atatürk´s reforms.
Pancasila	The "five principles" of the Indonesian constitution: belief in one God, humanity, national unity, democracy, social justice.
People of the Book (ahl al-kitab)	People who follow the scripture of a prophet before Mu?ammad, i.e. Jews and Christians. These scriptures are thought to have been corrupted and superseded but those with such a scripture have a higher status religiously than those without a scripture and are qualified to be dhimmis.
Perennialism	A movement among some Western intellectuals claiming to teach the "perennial philosophy" underlying all religions; partly derived from Sufism. Sometimes called "traditionalism" or "primordialism".
Pesantrens	Islamic boarding schools in Java.
Pillars of Islam	The most important obligations of Islam: shahada, ?alah, fast of Rama?an, ?ajj, zakah.
Plotinus	(205-c. 270 ce) Neo-Platonist philosopher and a major influence on Islamic philosophy.
Polygyny	Marriage in which one husband has two or more wives. Polyandry is where one wife has two or more husbands and polygamy is the general term covering both.
Priyayi	The old nobility of Java, strongly attuned to the Javanese traditions going back to pre-Islamic times.
Qadiriyya	Oldest of the Sufi ?ariqas, tracing its lineage to ´Abd al-Qadir Jilani (d 1166), spread world wide.
Qa?i	Judge, particularly for Shari´a law; appointed by the caliph or other ruler or government; may take advice from a mufti.
al-Qaeda	(al-qa´ida, literally "The base") Islamist organization or network carrying out or supporting "martyrdom" (aka "terrorist" and "suicide") attacks on the West, such as the one on the Twin Towers, September 11, 2001. Led, or fronted, by Bin Laden.
Qa?ida	Ode, popular form of poetry in pre-Islamic Arabia and among Muslims.
Qibla	The direction to Mecca.
Qiyas	Analogy, for Sunnis the most acceptable form of reasoning in fiqh; not acceptable to Shi´is.
Qur´an	"Recitation", the revelations that came from God to Mu?ammad between 610 and 632; memorizing and reciting the Qur´an is one of the most important religious activities for Muslims.
Quraysh	Mu?ammad´s tribe; Sunni caliphs were expected to be descended from this tribe
Qu?b, Sayyid	(1906–1966) Egyptian Islamist and martyr whose views on Islam, jahiliyya and jihad have influenced many, including the violent activists of groups such as al-Qaeda. Qu?b was influenced by Mawdudi but became more radical.
Rahman, Fazlur	(1919–1988) Pakistani scholar who later taught in the U.S.A.; one of the leading modernists who has influenced other modernists and many Islamicists.
Rak´a	A series of actions, including recitations, bowing and prostration, that constitute one cycle of ?alah. A ?alah usually consists of more than one rak´a.
Rama?an	The ninth month of the Muslim year, when Muslims fast during the daytime.
Rashid Ri?a	(1865–1935) Disciple of Mu?ammad ´Abduh, interpreted his teachings in a more conservative direction, preparing the way for the Islamism of ?asan al-Banna and others.
Rasul	"Messenger", specifically Mu?ammad as rasul allah, the Messenger of God. The terms rasul and nabi overlap in meaning in the Qur´an; generally there are understood to be fewer rasuls than nabis; Mu?ammad is both.
Ra´y	"Opinion", specifically the considered opinion (in the absence of more formal criteria) of an experienced faqih in making a judgment; accepted in the earlier centuries, viewed as too arbitrary later.
"Rightly Guided Caliphs" (Ar. al-Khulafa´ al- Rashidun)	In Sunni thinking the first four successors to Mu?ammad, viewed as the highest examples of proper leadership of the umma.
Rumi, Jalal al-Din	1207–1273) Generally considered the greatest of the Persian ?ufi adepts, author of several mystical poems including the Mathnawi and founder of the Mevlevi ?ariqa.
?adaqa	Free-will offering, alms, beyond the required zakah.
Safa and Marwa	Two hills in Mecca that the pilgrims run between in imitation of Hagar seeking water for Isma´il.
Safavids	Dynasty ruling Iran from 1501 to 1736; imposed Twelver Shi´ism, particularly strong in the 16th century.
?a?i?	"Sound", used of a ?adith whose sanad (chain of transmitters) is strong at all points; also, the informal title of collections of such ?adiths, e.g. ?a?i? Bukhari and ?a?i? Muslim.
Said Nursi, Badiuzzaman	(1876–1960) Author of a major commentary on the Qur´an stud­ied by his followers, the Nurcus. His immediate aim was to strengthen individual faith but the movement has had some involvement in Turkish politics. Cf. Gülen.
Salafi	Modern reform tendencies that seek to follow the model of the salaf, the righteous lead­ers of the early Islamic centuries; oppose bid´a (innovation); tend to be strict in interpreta­tion, may or may not be politically oriented; vary in the degree of willingness to accept mod­ern/western ideas and practices. Some are modernist, others strongly traditionalist or Islamist. Generally look back to the inspiration of Ibn Taymiyya.
?alah (or salat)	The formal prayer or worship that is to be done five times a day and on other occasions; consists of set movements and recitations. One of the Pillars of Islam.
?ala? al-Din al-Ayyubi	(d. 1193) Muslim leader who recaptured Jerusalem from the Crusaders (1187) and re-established Sunni rule in Egypt. Viewed as a hero by Arab Nationalists and Islamists. Also known as Saladin.
?alat al-jum´a	Congregational ?alah on Friday at noon; obligatory for men.
Sama´ (or sema)	"Hearing", sessions of music and dance that are part of some ?ufi rituals.
Samanid dynasty	Independent Persian dynasty (900-999) in Iran that the renaissance of Persian language and literature.
Sanad or isnad	Chain of transmitters that guarantees the authenticity of a ?adith; to be sound (?a?i?) the chain must be unbroken back to Mu?ammad and the transmitters must have been knowledgeable and trustworthy.
Santri	In Indonesia, a practicing Muslim. Contrast abangan.
Sasanian Empire	(226–651) Pre-Islamic Iranian empire, destroyed in the early Muslim con­quests but generally viewed in a positive light by later Iranian Muslims.
Shafi´i (or Shafi´ite)	Follower of the madhhab of al-Shafi´i.
al-Shafi´i, Mu?ammad ibn Idris	(d. 819) One of leading early faqihs; important in establish­ing the importance of ?adith in fiqh and in setting the main outlines of fiqh procedure (u?ul al-fiqh) for Sunnis; considered the founder of the Shafi´i madhhab.
Shahada	The Formula of Witness, "There is no god but God; Mu?ammad is the Messenger of God", by which a Muslim witnesses to his or her faith and a non-Muslim becomes a Muslim. The word also means "martyrdom".
Shari´a	Path leading to water"; the law or way of life laid out by God for human life; in principle covers all areas of life; involves the classification of actions as commanded, recom­mended, permitted (neutral), disapproved, or forbidden; Shari´a law is any law (e.g by a mod­ern legislature) that bases itself on the Shari´a. Islamists typically call for the "application of the Shari´a".
Shariati, Ali	(1933–1977) Iranian Islamic ideologue, influenced by Marx and "Third World" radicalism; played a major role in preparing the people, especially the youth, for the Islamic revolution.
Sha??	"Theopathic utterances", strange and often heretic statements made by Sufis in a state of ecstasy, e.g. Al-Hallaj´s statement, Ana al ?aqq (I am the Truth).
Shaykh	"Elder", may refer to various sorts of leaders, such as a tribal leader, a highly respect­ed teacher or, especially, a ?ufi teacher and guide.
Shi´is (or Shi´a or shi´at ´Ali)	The Party of ´Ali; those who believed that ´Ali should have suc­ceeded Mu?ammad as leader of the umma and whose movement developed into a separate division (or sect) of Islam over against the Sunnis. They are divided into Imamis or Twelvers, Isma´ilis or Seveners, and Zaydis or Fivers
Shirk	Associating anything with God in worship or obedience; outward shirk may be worship­ping a god or an idol; inward shirk may be giving too much attention to possessions, family or ambitions. Salafis see many popular customs as shirk. Islamists see secular government as shirk (obeying humans rather than God).
Shura	Consultation; the Muslim ruler is expected to consult with the leaders of the commu­nity; modernists interpret this as the basis for parliamentary government
Sib?a (also pronounced sub?a) or misba?a	String of beads used to count a recitation of the names of God or prayer formulae; a Muslim "rosary".
Silsila	"Chain", among ?ufis, the chain of teachers and disciples that links a given teacher back to the founder of the ?ariqa and thence to Mu?ammad.
Sira	A heroic biography, especially that of the Prophet.
Sirhindi, Ahmad	(d. 1664) Indian reformer and theosopher; criticized Ibn ´Arabi´s wa?dat al-wujud, claimed to be the "renewer" of the Islamic tradition after the first thousand years.
Siyasa	"Governance, politics", actions taken by a government for practical reasons that may be viewed as an alternative to the Shari´a or as under the general permission of the Shari´a.
Slametan	Feast given by Javanese abangans to placate spirits and achieve a state of tranquil­lity (slamet).
?ufi	Follower of the mystical or devotional movement called ?ufism or ta?awwuf; at the high­est level one seeks a direct knowledge of God (called ma´rifa, q.v.) through exercises called dhikr, q.v.
Suhrawardi, Shihab al-Din al-Suhrawardi	Sufi "theosopher" who taught a philosophy of "illumination" and focused on light as the true nature of all existence.
Suhrawardi, Abu Hafs al-	(1145–1234) Founder of the Suhrawardiyya ?ariqa, more willing than most to deal with political rulers.
Su?ur (or sa?ur)	Meal taken in the early morning before fasting in Rama?an.
Sul?an	"Authority, holder of authority", title of many Muslim rulers; implies less of a religious claim than caliph or amir al-mu´minin.
Sunna, viz. Sunna of the Prophet	Authoritative teaching and example of the Prophet Mu?ammad, as found in the ?adith; one of the sources of fiqh (see u?ul al-fiqh).
Sunnis	Majority division of Muslims, as opposed to Shi´is.
Sura	Chapter of the Qur´an; it is usually noted whether a sura was revealed in Mecca or Medina.
Syria	Until after the First World War refers to the area currently including Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Israel/Palestine, sometimes called "Greater Syria".
al-?abari, Ibn Jarir	(d. 922) Author of one of the best known commentaries (taf?irs) to the Qur´an.
Tablighi	Salafi movement started in India in the 1920s and now worldwide; emphasizes the faithful practice of the basic obligations of Islam; is not political and is less strict than some salafis.
Taf?ir	Interpretation of the Qur´an, exoteric in contrast to ta´wil.
?aha, Ma?mud Mu?ammad	(d. 1985) Leader of the Republican Brothers in the Sudan; taught that the Meccan suras supersede the Medinan suras today; executed in 1985; his fol­lower, Abdullah al-Na´im, is active in human rights concerns in the U.S. today.
Taha Hussein	(1889–1973) Leading Egyptian educator and literary figure; wrote a book on jahili poetry that questioned its authenticity; wrote a biographical study of Mu?ammad and other books on Islam, generally secularist with an appreciation of Islamic culture and civilization.
Tajwid	A relatively elaborate and "musical" recitation of the Qur´an, see also tar´til.
Takfir	Declaration that someone is kafir, no longer a Muslim.
Takfir wa-Hijra	Label given to a group in Egypt that declared the whole of society kafir and sought to separate from it in the hope of eventually taking it over. Disbanded by the govern­ment after assassinating a former government minister.
Taleban	"Students"; very traditionalist movement in Afghanistan founded by Mullah Omar in 1994; ruled Afghanistan from 1996 to 2001; became associated with al-Qaeda; they have con­tinued to struggle after being forced out of government by U.S. intervention.
Tanzimat	Series of reforms in the Ottoman Empire in the mid-19th century, designed to mod­ernize and strengthen the central government´s power.
Taqiya	"Prudent dissimulation"; keeping silent about one´s true views when they would en­danger oneself or one´s community; obligatory for Shi´is in certain circumstances.
Taqlid	Following the decision of another when one is not a mujtahid; in modernist parlance often a blind conservatism.
Tarawi?	Extra ?alahs performed at night in Rama?an by Sunnis.
?ariqa	"Path"; ?ufi practice. ?ufi lineage or "order" looking back to a particular founder and with distinctive practices; many are large and popular.
Tartil	Slower and more measured recitation of the Qur´an, in comparison to tajwid.
?awaf	Circumambulation of the Ka´ba during the ?ajj.
Taw?id	The affirmation of the unity of God, monotheism. ´Ilm al-taw?id is one name for theology.
Ta´wil	Esoteric interpretation of the Qur´an, in contrast to taf?ir.
Tayammum	Purification with sand rather than water.
Ta´ziya (lit.: consolation) or Shabih	Play reenacting the sufferings and death of Husayn and his followers at Karbala´, performed during the celebrations leading up to ´Ashura (q.v.). It evokes highly emotional responses.
Tekke	?ufi hostel or retreat center,
Traditionalists	In earlier times those such as Ibn Hanbal who wished to base interpretation as exclusively as possible on the Qur´an and ?adith; in modern times those who wish to hold to the existing tradition..
Traditionists (mu?addithun)	Experts in ?adith, to be distinguished from traditionalists
Twelvers (or Imamis)	Majority division of Shi ´a, that recognizes twelve Imams, the last of whom is in occultation (ghayba).
´Ulama´	"Those who know"; scholars, experts in religious knowledge, roughly equivalent to clergy or rabbis. Singular is ´alim.
´Umar ibn al-Khattab	Second of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, q.v. (r. 634–644).
Umayyad dynasty (Ar. Umawi)	Dynasty of caliphs (661–750) in Damascus founded by Mu´awiya, completed the first wave of conquests; Arab in orientation and style; a line of Umayyads continued in Spain after 750.
Umma	The whole community or nation of Muslims worldwide. In the Qur´an it may refer to the communities of earlier prophets. In modern times it may be used for nation in the modern sense.
´Umra	"Lesser pilgrimage"; first part of the pilgrimage to Mecca, including the circumambu­lation of the Ka´ba and the running between Safa and Marwa; may be done separately from the ?ajj at any time of the year.
U?ul al-fiqh	"The sources or roots of fiqh"; the sources on which fiqh judgments are based; conventionally given by Sunnis as the Qur´an, Sunna, qiyas (or ijtihad) and ijma´, with other sources, such as ´ada or ma?laha allowed by some. U?uli Shi´is give the sources as Qur´an, Sunna (including the Imams), ijma´ and reason.
U?uli	Twelver Shi´i school of fiqh that recognizes the authority of mujtahids; predominant in most of the Twelver world for the last two centuries.
´Uthman ibn ´Affan	(r. 644–656) Third of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, q.v.
Vilayat-i faqih (Ar. wilayat al-faqih)	The doctrine that a leading faqih should be the highest authority in the state; currently in effect in Iran.
Wa?dat al-wujud	Unity of existence, doctrine of Ibn ´Arabi.
Wahhabi	Usual name for the followers of Ibn ´Abd al-Wahhab and their successors to the present time in Arabia; extremely strict salafis, they call themselves muwa??idun.
Wa?y	Revelation, that which comes to a prophet, as distinct from the ilham that a ?ufi may receive.
Wali	"Friend of God", "saint", ?ufi adept believed to have attained union with God and whose baraka can benefit others; visits are therefore made to his tomb; also, in fiqh, a guardian, e.g. of a minor or a bride.
Waliullah of Delhi, Shah	(1701–1762) Indian reformer who sought to heal the divisions with­in the Muslim community and encouraged ijtihad.
Wazir (vizier)	Person in charge of the adminstration in pre-modern states; in modern Arabic a government minister.
Waqf (pl. awqaf)	Trust under the Shari´a, used to finance religious and community institu­tions; also used to protect family resources.
West (Western)	The cultures and civilization of Western and Central Europe and their offshoots in the Americas and elsewhere. "The West" is commonly contrasted to "Islam", a contrast that is imprecise and often tendentious but unavoidable.
Wu?u´	Minor ablution, when ghusl is not necessary.
Yazid	Second Umayyad caliph, responsible for the death of ?usayn at Karbala´; especially for Shi´is the symbol of an evil ruler.
Zakah (or Zakat)	"Alms" or "poor tax"; a set portion of one´s wealth to be given as a tax or charity for the poor and other specified recipients. One of the Pillars of Islam.
Zaydis	Fiver Shi´is; recognize Zayd ibn ´Ali Zayn al-´Abidin as fifth Imam; the Imam may be any descendant of ´Ali and Fa?ima who has knowledge and leads a revolt against Sunni authorities.
Ziyara	"Visit"; pilgrimage to shrine or tomb other than Mecca.
Zoroastrianism	Iranian religion going back to the prophet Zarathushtra; recognizing a creator God and an opposing cosmic force of evil; the state religion of the Sasanian empire at the time of the Muslim conquests. Zoroastrians were generally treated as dhimmis.