Abangan Javanese Muslims who do not follow Islamic prescriptions strictly and follow many traditional Javanese customs; often called “statistical Muslims.”

Abbasid caliphate (750–1258) Line of caliphs claiming descent from Muḥammad’s uncle with their capital in Baghdad; the early period was one of the high points of Muslim political power, while the whole dynasty saw major cultural achievements. A shadow line of Abbasids continued until 1517 in Egypt.

‘Abd al-Rāziq, ‘Alī (1888–1966) Wrote a controversial but influential book defending secular­ism on Islamic grounds in Egypt in 1925.

‘Abduh, Muḥammad (1842–1905) Egyptian modernist reformer, influential throughout the Muslim world.

Abū Bakr (d. 634) The first caliph or successor to Muḥammad as leader of the umma.

Abū Ḥanīfa (d. 767) One of leading early faqīhs (jurists); understood to be the founder of the Ḥanafī madhhab.

Aḥmad al-Badawī (1200?-1276) The most popular of the Sufi walīs (“saints”) in Egypt and founder of the Ahmadiyya Badawiyya ṭarīqa. His mawlid (“birthday” festival) attracts vast numbers each October to Tanta in the Nile Delta.

Ahmadiyya or Ahmadiyya Badawiyya. Very popular ṭarīqa in Egypt, see above.

Ahmadiyya. Followers of the Indian reformer, Ghulam Ahmad (1835-1908), thought to be a prophet by some of his followers. For this reason they are often persecuted by other Muslims. The movement is an actively proselyting one.   No connection with the Egyptian Ahmadiyya.

‘Āda (or adat) Custom; may be seen as a source of fiqh or as an alternative or complement to the Sharī‘a, also called ‘urf.

Adab Proper manners and behaviour, especially of the courtier or bureaucrat; literature, belles lettres. There is also an adab for Ṣūfīs, faqīhs and other groups.

Adam The first man according to the Qur’ān; also understood to be the first prophet.

Adhān The call to ṣalāh (prayer) five times a day.

Ahl al-sunna wa-l-jamā ‘a The Sunnīs, as opposed to the Shī‘īs, literally: the people of the sunna and the [main stream] community.

Ahl al-ḥadīth Among the early ‘ulamā’, those who insisted on basing their view and judgments on ḥadīth, as opposed to ahl al-ra’y, who based their views on considered opinion and reason. Ahl al-ḥadīth include Ibn Ḥanbal and al-Shāfi‘ī. Often called traditionalists.

Ahl-i Ḥadīth Movement in South Asia, dating from the late nineteenth century, who hold strictly to the Quran and ḥadīth as authority; today generally considered salafī.

Akbar (r. 1556–1605) Ruler of the Mughal Empire at its height; open minded toward other religions and philosophies.

Akhbārī Twelver Shī‘ī school of fiqh that emphasizes the authority of the akhbār (reports of Muḥammad and the Imāms).

AKP Turkish acronym for the Justice and Development Party (Adalet ve Kalkinma Partisi), a “post-Islamist” party formed by younger members who split from Erbaken’s  Islamist party. Combines a moderate secularism with an Islamic ethos.

‘Alawīs (or Nuṣayrīs) Sect recognizing ‘Alī as the highest manifestation of the divine but separate from the Alevis; currently they dominate the government of Syria.

Alevis Sect recognizing ‘Alī as the highest manifestation of the divine; located in Turkey, ex­periencing a cultural revival since the 1980s.

‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib (d. 661) Cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muḥammad, fourth caliph in the Sunnī reckoning and first Imām in the Shī ‘ī reckoning.

‘Ālim Singular of ‘ulamā’, q.v.

Al-Kulaynī (d.940) Compiler of the main collection of Twelver Shī‘ī Ḥadīth and akhbār.

Allāh Arabic word for the One God and the one mostly used by Muslims; used in other Islamic languages beside Arabic.

Ameer Ali (1849–1928) Indian modernist, whose book The Spirit of Islām has been quite influential.

Amīr Military commander; title of some rulers; in modern times often means prince (heir apparent to a king), can be used for religious leaders.

Amīr al-mu’minīn “Commander of the faithful”, title of caliphs and other rulers, usually im­plying a serious commitment to religion (e.g. Tablighis).

Andalus Areas of Spain and Portugal under Muslim rule from 711 to 1492. Site of a flourishing and relatively tolerant civilization.

Anṣār “Helpers”, the Medinan supporters of Muḥammad; name also taken by other groups, e.g. the supporters of the Sudanese Mahdī. See also Muhājir.

Ash‘arīs (Ash‘arites or Ash‘ariyya) The most prominent school of Sunnī kalām (theology), founded by Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī al-Ash‘arī (d. 935), who sought to demonstrate traditionalist theses by rational methods.

‘Ashūrā’ Tenth day of Muḥarram, the first month of the Muslim year; the death of Ḥusayn on this day is commemorated by Shī ‘īs.

Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal (1881–1938) Founder of the Turkish Republic; instituted far reach­ing secularist reforms. Atatürk is a title given to him, meaning “Father of the Turks”.

Āya “Sign”, verse of the Qur’ān; also used in the Qur’ān for the signs of nature that point to God and for some miracles.

Ayatollah “Sign of God”, title given to high ranking Shī ‘ī ‘ulamā’ in the Uṣūli school of fiqh; Grand Ayatollah (Ayatollah ‘Uzma) is the title given to those with the highest rank (see mar­ja‘-i taqlid).

Azhar, al- Mosque and madrasa, now University, in Cairo. Founded in the tenth century CE, it has long been considered the greatest traditional madrasa/university, drawing students from throughout the Muslim world. It is considered the most authoritative official Islamic institution in Egypt.

Baha’is Followers of Baha’ullah (1817–1892), who in 1863 claimed to be one promised by God, effectively the next prophet after Muḥammad. The movement began among Iranian Shī ‘īs but is now a separate, world-wide religion.

Baraka “Blessing”; a sacred power, derived from Allāh, believed to be present in the Qur’ān, the actions and tombs of Ṣūfī saints (walīs) and elsewhere.

Bektashis Ṣūfī ṭarīqa, eclectic in doctrine and practice, closely associated with the Janissaries in the Ottoman Empire, suppressed in the 1820s.

Bid‘a “Innovation”, something not practiced in the earliest days of Islām and therefore viewed as heresy; some, however, recognize the existence of “good innovations.”

al-Bukhārī, Muḥammad ibn Ismā‘īl (d. 870) Compiler of one of the two most authoritative collections of Ḥadīth, known as Ṣaḥīḥ Bukhārī.

Buyid, Buwayhid. Dynasty of Twelver Shi‘i amīrs ruling in Baghdad under Sunni Abbasid caliphs from 945 to 1045. They supported Shi‘i interests and patronized Shi‘i scholarship.

Byzantine Empire The later Roman Empire with its capital at Constantinople; Greek speak­ing and Christian, it lost territory to the first wave of Muslim conquest, then held out until con­quered by the Ottomans in 1453.

Caliphs Sunnī rulers, at least in name, of the whole Islamic empire until 1258 (see Abbasid, Umayyad); title claimed by Ottoman sulṭāns in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. See khalīfa.

Chishtis (Chishtiyya) Ṣūfī tariqa widespread in India; the tomb of its founder, Mu‘in al-Din Chishti (d. 1236), is a popular site for pilgrimage (ziyāra).

Christ (Ar: Masīḥ) In the Muslim view the last of the prophets before Muḥammad, Christ’s revelation is the Injīl (Gospel) and he is often referred to as Jesus the son of Mary (‘Īsā ibn Maryam).

Crusades A series of expeditions by Western Christians (“Franks”) beginning in 1099 against the Muslims in the Near East with the initial goal of reconquering the Holy Land; today Islamists often refer to Western imperialists as crusaders.

Dār al-Islām The “Abode of Islam”, the whole geographical area ruled by Muslims, tradition­ally contrasted with Dār al-ḥarb, “the abode of war”. Some have recognized an intermediate position, Dār al-ṣulḥ or Dār al-ahd, “Abode of treaty (viz. with a non-Muslim ruler or state). In modern times areas that have passed out of Muslim rule but where Muslims can still prac­tice their religion are considered part of Dār al-Islām by most. The term is also used for cer­tain movements in Indonesia between 1948 and 1965.

Dasta Procession of Shi‘i young men who flagellate themselves to demonstrate their support for Husayn, especially during the celebrations leading up to ‘Ashu. (q.v.).

Da‘wa, Dakwa Inviting people to Islam, whether non-Muslims to become Muslims or Muslims to become better and more active Muslims.

Darwish (or dervish) Persian word for “poor” or “poor in spirit”; a term used for a Ṣūfī.

Deobandi A modern traditionalist movement based on the madrasa at Deoband in India (founded in 1867).

Dhawq “Taste”, the experience of the divine that Ṣūfīs seek and some have.

Dhikr (zikr) “Remembering”; awareness of God; the rituals used by Ṣūfīs to achieve this awareness.

Dhimmīs (zimmis) Non-Muslims with a covenant of protection (dhimma) that allows them to live in a Muslim society under specified conditions; particularly Christians and Jews but others often have this status in practice.

Druze A sect who believe that the Fatimid ruler of Egypt, al-Hakim, was the earthly manifes­tation of God. They live mainly in Lebanon, some live in Israel and some in diaspora.

Du‘ā’ Prayer other than ṣalāh, may be free prayer or formal.

Elijah Muhammad (1897–1975) Founder of the “Nation of Islam” movement in the United States, commonly known as the “Black Muslims”.

Erbakan, Necmettin (b. 1926) Founder of the milli görüş (national vision) ideology in Turkey and several political parties associated with it, e.g. the Welfare Party.

Falsafa Philosophy, the Neo-Platonic and Aristotelian philosophy received from late antiquity and developed and taught by Muslim Philosophers (faylasūfs). See also ḥikma.

Fanā’ Annihilation or passing away in God, the Ṣūfī experience of union with God; some say it is to be followed by baqā’, continuance in God.

Faqīh Expert in fiqh (law, jurisprudence).

Faqīr Poor, poor in spirit, term for a Ṣūfī, cf. darwish.

al-Farabi (c. 870–950) One of the early Muslim Philosophers.

Farḍ Obligatory, one of the five Sharī‘a valuations (aḥkām); also called wājib.

Farḍ ‘ayn An obligation that applies to every individual under the Sharī‘a.

Farḍ kifāya An obligation that applies to a “sufficient number”, e.g. teaching; until there are enough teachers in a community everyone is under obligation to become one; when there are enough the obligation is lifted from the rest.

Fātiḥa The opening sūra or chapter of the Qur’ān; recited on many occasions.

Fāṭima Daughter of Muḥammad and wife of ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib; she was the mother of the next two Shī‘ī Imāms and ancestress of the others and is considered ma‘sūm (protected from sin) by Shī‘īs. She is highly respected by all Muslims.

Fatimid Dynasty Ismā‘īlī dynasty that ruled Egypt from 969 to 1171.

Fatwa An advisory opinion by a qualified faqīh stating whether an action is permitted or forbidden by the Sharī‘a.

Fez A brimless hat worn by Muslim men in Turkey from 1826 to 1925 and in other countries for some time after that; not much used today.

Fiqh “Understanding”, viz. of the Sharī‘a; working out the details of commands and prohibi­tions through the sources (see uṣūl al-fiqh); the substance of the law so worked out.

Fiṭra The created nature of humans that leads them to seek God.

Firdowsi (d. c. 1020) Author of the Shahnameh (Book of Kings), a long epic poem about the pre-Islamic Persian kings; one of the first works in the revival of Persian literature after the Muslim conquest and one of the greatest works of Persian literature.

Ghayba Disappearance or occultation of the twelfth Shī‘ī Imām; during the Lesser Occultation (872–939) he was in contact with people through deputies; during the Greater Occultation he is in the world but out of touch with people until his return as the mahdī.

al-Ghazālī, Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad (1058–1111) One of the greatest Muslim scholars of all time; he played a major role in reconciling the streams of fiqh, theology and Ṣūfīsm and selec­tively adopting falsafa.

Ghāzī Warrior who engages in jihād, usually on the frontiers of Dar al-Islam.

Ghaznavids (961–1186) A Sunnī dynasty ruling in Afghanistan and sometimes much of Iran and northwest India. They patronized scholars such as Firdowsi.

Ghusl Complete washing of the body for ablution from major pollution.

Gülen, Fathullah Leader of a branch of the Nurcu movement in Turkey and elsewhere; stressing tolerance in its teachings, it has a network of businesses, media outlets and charitable organizations but is known especially for its schools, which are non-sectarian in their teaching.

Ḥadd Special class of penalties specifically imposed by God in the Qur’ān or Sunna, e.g. cut­ting off of the hand of a thief.

Ḥadīth A report of something the prophet said, did or approved of, or the sum total of these reports. See also Sunna and Akhbārī.

Ḥadīth Qudsī Hadith whose words are ascribed to God rather than to the Prophet.

Ḥāfiẓ One who has memorized the whole of the Qur’ān.

Ḥajj Annual pilgrimage to Mecca; to be done at least once in a lifetime if possible. One of the five Pillars.

Ḥājj or Ḥajjī One who has performed the Ḥajj.

Ḥalāl Permitted, includes all of the Sharī‘a valuations except forbidden; also specifically used for food that may be eaten.

Ḥamās Acronym (in Arabic) for “Islamic Resistance Movement”, the main Islamist move­ment among the Palestinians; appeared in 1988 and currently (2013) controls Gaza.

Ḥanafī (or Hanafite) Follower of the madhhab of Abū Ḥanīfa.

Ḥanbalī Follower of the madhhab of Ibn Ḥanbal.

Ḥanīfs Figures mentioned in the Qur’ān, taken to be pre-Islamic monotheists in Arabia; also used for any practicer of pure monotheistic worship, e. g. the prophet Ibrāhīm.

Ḥarām Forbidden, one of the five Sharī‘a valuations (aḥkām). Also used for things in that category, e.g. food.

Ḥijāb The most general term for female “Islamic” garb, which according to conservative in­terpretation must cover all of the body but the hands and the face; sometimes used particularly for the head covering.”

Hijra The emigration or flight of Muḥammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina in 622. The year in which it occurred is the first year of the Muslim or hijrī calendar. See also muhājir.

Ḥikma “Wisdom”; may refer to Islamic Philosophy (falsafa) or to the later “theosophy” partly based on it; the term may also be used for a “wise saying” or for the reason something is done, especially something done by God.

Ḥizb al-Taḥrīr (Liberation Party) Islamist organization founded in 1952 by the Palestinian judge, Taqī al-Dīn al-Nabhānī (1909–1977); it seeks to restore the caliphate, is active in many countries and banned in many.

Hizbollah “Party of God”; name of several Islamist groups in modern times; the best known is the Shī ‘ī Islamist party in Lebanon, which is currently (2008) a strong force there.

Ḥukm (pl. aḥkām) “Judgment, valuation, governance”, here particularly used for the valua­tion placed by the Sharī‘a on actions; thus there are five aḥkām, commanded (farḍ), recom­mended, permitted (neutral), disapproved, forbidden (ḥarām).

Ḥusayn ibn ‘Alī (d. 680) The younger son of ‘Alī and Fāṭima; was martyred at Karbalā’ by the forces of the Umayyad caliph Yazīd; focus of intense Shī‘ī piety and considered a symbol of self-sacrifice in the cause of justice.

‘Ibādāt(sing. ‘ibāda)“Acts of worship”, those actions, such as ṣalāh, done specifically for God, in contrast to mu‘āmalāt, duties owed to other humans. More generally, ‘ibāda refers to any action, whether ritual or ethical, and may be translated “service”. It is related to the word ‘abd, servant or slave.

Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhāb, Muḥammad (1703–1792) Reformer in Central Arabia and founder of the movement called “Wahhābī”.

Ibn ‘Arabī, Muḥyī al-Dīn (1166–1240) Considered the greatest of the Sunnī Ṣūfī theoso­phers, known among other things for his controversial doctrine of waḥdat al-wujūd (the unity of existence).

Ibn Ḥanbal, Aḥmad (d. 855) Ḥadīth scholar and traditionalist opponent of the Mu‘tazila, held that the Qur’ān is uncreated and that the divine attributes and actions in the Qur’ān should be accepted bilā kayf (without asking how), i.e. without metaphorical explanation. He suffered for his beliefs in the miḥna (inquisition).

Ibn Isḥaq (d. 770) Author of the best known sīra (biography) of Muḥammad; extant in the form revised and edited by Ibn Hishām (d. 833).

Ibn Khaldūn (1332-1406) West African scholar and author of a universal history, Kitāb al-‘Ibar (Book of (historical) Lessons), whose introduction presents a highly regarded theory of political history focusing on ‘aṣabiyya, group solidarity.

Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (1126–1198) Spanish Islamic philosopher and judge; presented the most purely Aristotelian version of Islamic philosophy; wrote a refutation of al-Ghazālī’s refu­tation of philosophy; influential in the West.

Ibn Sīnā, Abū ‘Alī (Avicenna) (980–1037) Perhaps the greatest of the Islamic philosophers (faylasūf).

Ibn Taymiyya, Taqī al-Dīn ((1263–1328) Hanbali reformer during the Mamluke period who criticizes many popular religious practices as shirk and defended the traditionalist position in theology. Has provided inspiration for many modern reformers.

Ibrāhīm Qur’ānic prophet, the biblical Abraham. Possibly viewed as the most important fig­ure in the preaching of tawḥīd (monotheism) before Muḥammad; his near sacrifice of his son is commemorated on ‘Īd al-Aḍḥā.

‘Īd al-Aḍḥā One of the two major festivals in the Muslim year; commemorates Ibrāhīm’s near sacrifice of his son with the sacrifice of an animal and distribution of its meat; done by those on Ḥajj on the tenth of Dhū al-Ḥijja, and by Muslims everywhere.

‘Īd al-Fiṭr The other major festival of the Muslim year; one to three day celebration after the fast of Ramaḍān. 305 | Appendix I: Glossary of Names and Terms

Ifṭār Evening meal after the daily fast in Ramaḍān.

Iḥrām Garment consisting of two pieces of plain cloth worn by men during the Hajj.

Ijāza “Permission”; the authorization given by a teacher to a student to teach one or more books the student has studied under him.

Ijmā ‘ “Consensus”, in its fullest form, the unanimous agreement of all the mujtahids of a giv­en age on a point of law; traditionally according to Sunnīs binding on future generations, but modernists disagree. In fact, the consensus is usually within a given madhhab.

Ijtihād “Effort”, specifically the effort of the faqīh to discover the Sharī‘a judgment on a mat­ter. Absolute ijtihād involves going directly to the Qur’ān and Sunna for this. More restricted ijtihād involves following the principles of one’s madhhab. In Uṣūlī Shī‘ī fiqh, ijtihād is the effort to derive judgments from all of the sources of fiqh (uṣūl al-fiqh). See also taqlīd.

Ilhām Inspiration or revelation that may come to Ṣūfīs, as distinct from waḥy, which comes only to prophets.

‘Ilm Knowledge, learning, science; basically knowledge of the Qur’ān and the Sunna and thence of the disciplines such as fiqh and kalām based on them; also exoteric knowledge as op­posed to esoteric knowledge, ma‘rifa. See also ‘ulamā’.

‘Ilm al-tawḥīd Science of tawḥīd, theology; cf. kalām.

Imām “Leader”; leader at the performance of ṣalāh; according to Shī‘īs the divinely chosen leader of the umma; in Sunnī usage a synonym for caliph; title of respect for a great religious scholar.

Īmān Faith, true faith in God. See also mu’min.

Intoxication (sukr) Among Ṣūfīs, the state of ecstasy in which the Ṣūfī does not have rational control of himself but is presumably caught up in God. Contrasted with “sobriety” (ṣaḥwa).

Iqbal, Muhammad (1876–1938) Indian Muslim poet and philosopher, probably the greatest of the Indian modernists; also viewed as the spiritual father of Pakistan.

Iran(ian), Persia(n) These terms are used more or less interchangeably in most of this book, except that Persian is always used for the language and literature and Iran(ian) is always used after this became the official name of the country under Reza Shah in the 20th century.

Irfān  A form of philosophical mysticism, practiced especially by Iranian Shi‘i scholars; considered distinct from Sufism.

‘Īsā (Jesus) See Christ.

‘Ishq Passionate love; used by many Ṣūfīs to describe their love of God; contrasted with ḥubb or maḥabba, which suggests something more restrained.

Islām Submission or commitment to God, specifically in accordance with the teaching of Muḥammad. The one who submits is a Muslim.

Islamic Law Used in this book to refer in a general way to fiqh, Shari‘a or both.

Islamicist Academic scholar who studies about Islām; to be distinguished from Islamist.

Islamist Modern Muslim activist for whom Islām is a political and social ideology covering all areas of life. Islamists criticize modernists for accepting too many Western ways and usu­ally call for an “Islamic state”.

‘Iṣma Protection, viz. from error or sin; according to Sunnīs the prophets have ‘iṣma (i.e. are ma‘ṣūm); according to Shī‘īs the Imāms and Fāṭima are also ma‘ṣūm.

Ismā‘īl Son of Ibrāhīm, the biblical Ishmael. Muslims believe that it was he, not Isḥaq (Isaac), who was almost sacrificed at God’s command.

Ismā‘īlīs Division of the Shī ‘a (q.v.) that accepts Ismā‘īl the son of Ja‘far as the next Imām and a continuing line of Imāms after him, often in concealment. One group, the Qarmatis, was in power in Bahrain from c 900 to 1077 and another, the Fatimids, was in power in Egypt from 969 to 1171 and mounted a revolutionary movement in Syria and else­where at the same time. Two lines that continue today are the Nizāris, the followers of the Agha Khan, and the Bohras.

Jamā‘a Islāmiyya (Islamic Group) Name of several Islamist groups in Egypt, including stu­dent groups in the 1970s and a group under the guidance of Omar Abdel Rahman involved in the violence of the 1990s. The same phrase in its Indonesian spelling, Jemaah Islamiyah, refers to the Islamist group responsible for the Bali bombings in 2002 and later.

Jama‘at-i Islami (Islamic Society) Islamist movement in India and Pakistan, founded in 1941 by Abul ‘Ala’ Mawdudi, has been ideologically influential but had limited success in Pakistani politics.

Jamāl al-Dīn “al-Afghānī”, known as “Asadabadi” in Iran (1838–1897) Modernist reform­er and anti-imperialist activist, mentor of Muḥammad ‘Abduh and extremely influential on a wide range of Muslim movements since his time.

Jihād “Striving”, i.e. striving in the way of God. Usually applied to warfare in a perceived re­ligious cause, including anti-imperialist struggles in modern times, but also applied to striving against the individual’s anti-ethical tendencies (the “greater jihād”) and striving to build soci­ety (e.g. jihād for construction).

Jinn (sing. Jinnī) Invisible beings, made of fire according to the Qur’ān, more powerful than humans, usually evil but capable of good and of faith in God.

Jizya Head tax paid by dhimmīs to the Muslim ruler or state, in part in return for not doing military service but also a sign of subordination.

Jum‘a Congregation, gathering, also Friday; short for ṣalāt al-jum‘a, the Friday noon ṣalāh, to be done in congregation.

Ka‘ba Square building in Mecca toward which ṣalāh is made and which is circumambulated during the Ḥajj; believed to have been built, or rebuilt, by Ibrāhīm and Ismā‘īl; believed also to be a copy of the heavenly Ka‘ba circumambulated by angels.

Kāfir See kufr, takfīr

Kalām “Words”, theology. Mutakallim is a theologian.

Karbalā’ Place in Iraq where Ḥusayn was martyred; a shrine city for Shī‘īs today.

Khalīfa “Successor, deputy”. In the Qur’ān Adam (and thus humanity) is khalīfa of God on earth; a Muslim ruler as successor of the Prophet or Deputy of God; deputy to the shaykh of a Ṣūfī ṭarīqa. Khilāfa means caliphate.

Khārijī (pl. khawārij) “Seceders, rebels”. Party that broke with ‘Ali over the arbitration with Mu‘awiya. Held that the leader could be of any descent but must be chosen by the community and be free of serious sin. Formed various oppositional and even “terrorist” groups in the early centuries. A moderate branch, the ‘Ibadis, continues in small numbers to the present. The term is often used today as a pejorative label for radical Islamists.

Khan, Sir Sayyid Ahmad (1817–1898) Early Indian modernist reformer; sought to improve the Muslims’ relations with their British rulers and learn from them.

Khilāfa  See khalīfa.

Khanqah (or khanaqah, etc.) Ṣūfī hostel or retreat center, with facilities for dhikr, retreat, ac­commodation for some. Also called tekke (Turkish), zāwiya (Arabic).

Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah Musavi (1902–1989) Grand Ayatollah and leader of the Islamic Revolution in Iran in 1979.

Khul‘ A form of divorce requested by the wife in return for compensation, such as renouncing her right to the unpaid part of the mahr.

Khums A tax of one fifth of one’s income paid by Shī‘īs to the descendants of the Prophet and to the ‘ulamā’ as representatives of the Twelfth Imām.

Khuṭba Sermon given at ṣalāt al-jum‘a; may cover a range of topics but somewhat more for­malized than the usual Christian sermon.

Kiai (or kiyayi) Traditional ‘ālim in Java; commonly head of a pesantren.

Kufic “From Kufa (a city in Iraq)”. Refers to an early form of Arabic script, squarish rather than rounded.

Kufr Unbelief, refusal to submit to God, with a connotation of ingratitude. Opposite of īmān, faith.

Kuttāb Traditional Islamic elementary school, primarily for reciting the Qurān. Called maktab in some places.

Madhhab School or tradition of fiqh or kalām, but the term is usually used for fiqh; there are four Sunnī madhhabs of fiqh that are today recognized as equally valid.

Madrasa (medrese in Turkish) Upper level school primarily for the teaching of fiqh, but other subjects are also taught. In Arabic the term often refers to a secular school today.

Mahdī (Mehdi in some languages) “Guided”, for Sunnīs usually refers to a figure appointed by God as a reformer or the one who will destroy evil at the end of time; for Shī‘īs the Twelfth Imām on his return.

Mahmud Muhammad Taha  (1909-1985) Sudanese reformer who held that the Meccan part of the Qur’an is the permanent message of Islam, while the Medinan part represents a temporary position respondding to the social realities of the time. He was executed by the government in 1985.

Mahr Sum of money paid by husband to wife, usually part at the time of marriage and part later, e.g. upon divorce or death.

Mālik ibn Anas (d. 795) Early scholar and faqīh, based in Medina, and considered the founder of the Mālikī madhhab.

Mālikī Madhhab of Sunnī fiqh, named for Mālik ibn Anas.

Manicheism Dualistic Iranian religion founded by Mani (d. c. 275), considered matter to be evil; often called zindīqs in Islamic times (though this term came to be applied more indis­criminately) and severely persecuted.

Mamlukes “Owned”. Slaves trained to serve the ruling dynasty and often becoming rulers themselves; particularly the Mamluke dynasties of Egypt (1250–1517) and the same group as its influence continued under the aegis of the Ottomans, but there were other examples of this in the Islamic world.

Ma‘rifa “Knowledge”, particularly direct personal knowledge as claimed by the Ṣūfīs and contrasted with ‘ilm, seen as second hand knowledge from books or reports.

Marja‘-i taqlid (Arabic form: marja‘ al-taqlīd) “Source of imitation”, in Uṣūlī Shī‘īsm, a leading ‘ālim who has a following of people who accept his fiqh judgments; has the title of Grand Ayatollah.

Maṣlaḥa “Welfare, benefit”. In fiqh, the welfare or benefit of the community as grounds for a judgment (ḥukm).

Ma‘ṣūm Protected from error or sins; characteristic of prophets; according to Shī‘īs, character­istic also of Imāms and Fāṭima. The precise interpretation of this concept varies.

Matn The substantive part of a ḥadīth; see also sanad. 309 | Appendix I: Glossary of Names and Terms

Māturīdīs Madhhab of kalām, founded by Abū Manṣūr al-Māturīdī (d. 944), popular among Ḥanafīs; their teachings are similar to those of the Ash‘arīs but they are more inclined to allow for rational knowledge of ethical duties and human free will.

Mawdudi, Abul ‘Ala’ (1903–1979) Leader of the Jama‘at-i Islami in India and Pakistan and possibly the most influential Islamist thinker.

Mawlid (or mulid) Birthday celebration of the Prophet Muḥammad or Ṣūfī saints. Very popu­lar but criticized by some reformers.

Mecca (or Makka) Birthplace of the Prophet Muḥammad and place where his mission began. Location of the Ka‘ba.

Medina (or Madina) Short for madīnat al-nabī, city of the Prophet; city to which the Prophet moved in the Hijra when forced to leave Mecca and where he established the first Islamic pol­ity; originally called Yathrib.

Mevlevi (Arabic: Mawlawī) Ṣūfī tariqa founded by Jalal al-Din Rumi (d. 1273); also known as the Whirling Dervishes.

Miḥna “Trial, inquisition”, refers usually to the effort of the Abbasid caliph al-Ma’mūn and his successors (c. 833–850) to compel the ‘ulamā’ to accept the doctrine of the created Qur’ān. See also Ibn Ḥanbal.

Miḥrāb Niche in the inner wall of a mosque indicating the direction to Mecca.

Millet Communities into which dhimmīs were organized in the Ottoman Empire; later formed the basis for some Eastern European nations.

Milli görüş (National Vision) Islamist ideology of Erbakan and of several Turkish politi­cal parties led by him; name of several organizations following this ideology in the Turkish diaspora.

Minaret Tower connected with a mosque from which the adhān is given.

Minbar Pulpit in the mosque from which the khuṭba is given.

Mosque (Ar. masjid) ”Place for prostration in prayer”, place where Muslims gather for ṣalāh and other communal purposes.

Mu‘āmalāt Duties owed to other people, in contrast to ‘ibādāt, duties owed specifically to God. 310 | Appendix I: Glossary of Names and Terms

Mu‘āwiya ibn Abī Sufyān (d. 680) First Umayyad caliph, viewed by many as turning the Islamic caliphate into a worldly kingdom.

Muezzin (mu’adhdhin) Person who gives the adhān, or call to ṣalāh.

Muftī Faqīh qualified to give a fatwa, an advisory opinion in fiqh.

Mughul Empire (1526–1858) Muslim Empire ruling most of India at its height, under Akbar (r. 1556–1605).

Muhājir Emigrant, one who makes Hijra; especially Muḥammad’s Meccan followers who moved to Medina when he did; later groups also, e.g. the Indian Muslims who moved to Pakistan at the time of Partition. See also Anṣār.

Muḥammad ibn Abdallāh (c. 570–632) Last prophet and messenger of God (rasūl allāh), first leader of the Muslim umma.

Muḥammad ‘Alī Ottoman governor and de facto ruler of Egypt from 1805 to 1849, began the process of modernization.

Muhammadiya Influential modernist movement in Indonesia founded in 1912.

Mujāhid Person who engages in jihād; “freedom fighter” often in the modern context.

Mujtahid Faqīh qualified to make fiqh judgments on his own, i.e. to practice ijtihād; generally given the title Ayatollah among Uṣūlī Shī‘īs, especially in Iran.

Mullah Title often given to ‘ulamā’, especially outside the Arab world; suggests a lower level ‘ālim.

Mu’min “Believer, person of faith”; Muslims more commonly call themselves mu‘min than muslim.

Muqallid One who is not a mujtahid and who therefore follows a present or past mujtahid.

Mūsā Qur’anic prophet, the biblical Moses, prophet of the people of Israel.

Muṣalla “Place for ṣalāh”, small mosque not used for ṣalāt al-jum‘a.

Muslim One who submits or commits him- or herself to God, a member of the Muslim umma.

Muslim Brothers (Ar. al-ikhwān al-muslimūn) The leading Islamist organization in Egypt, founded by Ḥasan al-Bannā in 1928.

Muslim ibn al-Ḥajjāj (d. 875) Compiler of one of the two most authoritative Sunnī collec­tions of Ḥadīth, commonly known as Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim.

Mustazafin (Ar. Mustaḍ‘afīn) “Oppressed”, Qur’anic term (4:75) used in modern ideological contexts.

Mu‘tazila Rationalist school of theology noted for such doctrines as the created nature of the Qur’an; very influential in the early Abbasid period, later largely rejected by Sunnis.

Mut‘a “Pleasure”, a marriage contracted for a limited period of time, valid in Shī‘ī fiqh.

Mutawātir Ḥadīth with more than one sound line of transmitters (sanad), considered to be certain.

Mu‘tazila Rationalist madhhab in kalām, called themselves the “People of tawḥīd (monothe­ism) and justice”; taught that the Qur’ān is created, among other things. Their views were re­jected by the Sunnīs but have been influential among the Shī‘īs.

Muwaḥḥidūn People of tawḥīd, name used by a number of reform groups, such as the Almohads in Morocco and Spain in the 12th and 13th centuries and the Wahhābīs in Arabia from the 18th.

Nabī Prophet, one who receives divine revelation (waḥy). According to traditional thinking there have been thousands sent before Muḥammad’s time, one to every community or nation (umma); only a few are mentioned in the Qur’ān. Muḥammad is the “seal of the prophets”. See also rasūl.

Naqshbandiyya  Widespread Sufi ṭarīqa named after Baha’ al-Din Naqshband (d. 1390), traces its silsila to Abu Bakr and noted for its “silent” dhikr, strong in Turkey and has spread to the West.

Nahdlatul Ulama “Awakening of the ‘Ulamā’”; very influential traditionalist movement in Indonesia founded in 1926.

Naṣṣ Authoritative text, i.e. the Qur’ān and the Ḥadīth. In Shī‘īsm, an Imām’s designation of his successor.

Nasta‘liq A very flowing form of Arabic script developed in Iran.

“Nation of Islam” American movement led by Elijah Muhammad, claims to return African-Americans to their original religion and true identity. Name now used by Louis Farrakhan’s wing of the movement.

Ni‘matullahis Iranian Shi‘i Sufi ṭarīqa that has spread to the West under Javad Nurbakhsh (1927-2008).

Nūḥ Qur’anic prophet, the biblical Noah, model of a prophet whose people reject his message and are destroyed.

Nurcus Followers of Said Nursi, q.v.

“Occasions of revelation” (Ar. asbāb al-nuzūl) The circumstances in which a particular verse or verses of the Qur’ān were revealed; useful for interpreting these verses.

Occultation See ghayba.

Ottoman (or Osmanli) Empire (1281–1924) Sunnī empire ruling much of the Arab, Greek and Balkan world for several centuries; strong vis-à-vis Europe for some time but in the 19th century the “sick man of Europe”. Terminated by Atatürk’s reforms.

Pancasila The “five principles” of the Indonesian constitution: belief in one God, humanity, national unity, democracy, social justice.

People of the Book (ahl al-kitāb) People who follow the scripture of a prophet before Muḥammad, i.e. Jews and Christians. These scriptures are thought to have been corrupted and superseded but those with such a scripture have a higher status religiously than those without a scripture and are qualified to be dhimmīs.

Perennialism    A movement among some Western intellectuals claiming to teach the “perennial philosophy” underlying all religions; partly derived from Sufism. Sometimes called “traditionalism” or “primordialism”.

Pesantrens Islamic boarding schools in Java.

Pillars of Islām The most important obligations of Islām: shahāda, ṣalāh, fast of Ramaḍān, Ḥājj, zakāh.

Plotinus (205-c. 270 ce) Neo-Platonist philosopher and a major influence on Islamic philosophy.

Polygyny Marriage in which one husband has two or more wives. Polyandry is where one wife has two or more husbands and polygamy is the general term covering both.

Priyayi The old nobility of Java, strongly attuned to the Javanese traditions going back to pre-Islamic times.

Qadiriyya  Oldest of the Sufi ṭarīqas, tracing its lineage to ‘Abd al-Qadir Jilani (d 1166), spread world wide.

Qāḍī Judge, particularly for Sharī‘a law; appointed by the caliph or other ruler or government; may take advice from a muftī.

al-Qaeda (al-qā‘ida, literally “The base”) Islamist organization or network carrying out or supporting “martyrdom” (aka “terrorist” and “suicide”) attacks on the West, such as the one on the Twin Towers, September 11, 2001. Led, or fronted, by Bin Laden.

Qaṣīda Ode, popular form of poetry in pre-Islamic Arabia and among Muslims.

Qibla The direction to Mecca. See also miḥrāb.

Qiyās Analogy, for Sunnīs the most acceptable form of reasoning in fiqh; not acceptable to Shī‘īs.

Qur’ān “Recitation”, the revelations that came from God to Muḥammad between 610 and 632; memorizing and reciting the Qur’ān is one of the most important religious activities for Muslims.

Quraysh Muḥammad’s tribe; Sunnī caliphs were expected to be descended from this tribe.

Quṭb, Sayyid (1906–1966) Egyptian Islamist and martyr whose views on Islām, jāhiliyya and jihād have influenced many, including the violent activists of groups such as al-Qaeda. Quṭb was influenced by Mawdudi but became more radical.

Rahman, Fazlur (1919–1988) Pakistani scholar who later taught in the U.S.A.; one of the leading modernists who has influenced other modernists and many Islamicists.

Rak‘a A series of actions, including recitations, bowing and prostration, that constitute one cycle of ṣalāh. A ṣalāh usually consists of more than one rak‘a.

Ramaḍān The ninth month of the Muslim year, when Muslims fast during the daytime.

Rashīd Riḍā (1865–1935) Disciple of Muḥammad ‘Abduh, interpreted his teachings in a more conservative direction, preparing the way for the Islamism of Ḥasan al-Bannā and others.

Rasūl “Messenger”, specifically Muḥammad as rasūl allāh, the Messenger of God. The terms rasūl and nabī overlap in meaning in the Qur’ān; generally there are understood to be fewer rasūls than nabīs; Muḥammad is both.

Ra’y “Opinion”, specifically the considered opinion (in the absence of more formal criteria) of an experienced faqīh in making a judgment; accepted in the earlier centuries, viewed as too arbitrary later.

“Rightly Guided Caliphs” (Ar. al-Khulafā’ al- Rāshidūn) In Sunnī thinking the first four successors to Muḥammad, viewed as the highest examples of proper leadership of the umma.

Rumi, Jalal al-Din (1207–1273) Generally considered the greatest of the Persian Ṣūfī adepts, author of several mystical poems including the Mathnawi and founder of the Mevlevi ṭarīqa.

Ṣadaqa Free-will offering, alms, beyond the required zakāh.

Safa and Marwa Two hills in Mecca that the pilgrims run between in imitation of Hagar seeking water for Isma‘il.

Safavids Dynasty ruling Iran from 1501 to 1736; imposed Twelver Shi‘ism, particularly strong in the 16th century.

Ṣaḥīḥ “Sound”, used of a ḥadīth whose sanad (chain of transmitters) is strong at all points; also, the informal title of collections of such ḥadīths, e.g. Ṣaḥīḥ Bukhārī and Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim.

Said Nursi, Badiuzzaman (1876–1960) Author of a major commentary on the Qur’ān stud­ied by his followers, the Nurcus. His immediate aim was to strengthen individual faith but the movement has had some involvement in Turkish politics. Cf. Gülen.

Salafī Modern reform tendencies that seek to follow the model of the salaf, the righteous lead­ers of the early Islamic centuries; oppose bid‘a (innovation); tend to be strict in interpreta­tion, may or may not be politically oriented; vary in the degree of willingness to accept mod­ern/western ideas and practices. Some are modernist, others strongly traditionalist or Islamist. Generally look back to the inspiration of Ibn Taymiyya.

Ṣalāh (or salat) The formal prayer or worship that is to be done five times a day and on other occasions; consists of set movements and recitations. One of the Pillars of Islām.

Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn al-Ayyūbī (d. 1193) Muslim leader who recaptured Jerusalem from the Crusaders (1187) and re-established Sunnī rule in Egypt. Viewed as a hero by Arab Nationalists and Islamists. Also known as Saladin.

Ṣalāt al-jum‘a Congregational ṣalāh on Friday at noon; obligatory for men.

Samā‘ (or sema) “Hearing”, sessions of music and dance that are part of some Ṣūfī rituals.

Samanid dynasty   Independent Persian dynasty (900-999) in Iran that the renaissance of Persian language and literature.

Sanad or isnād Chain of transmitters that guarantees the authenticity of a ḥadīth; to be sound (ṣaḥīḥ) the chain must be unbroken back to Muḥammad and the transmitters must have been knowledgeable and trustworthy. See also mutawātir.

Santri In Indonesia, a practicing Muslim. Contrast abangan.

Sasanian Empire (226–651) Pre-Islamic Iranian empire, destroyed in the early Muslim con­quests but generally viewed in a positive light by later Iranian Muslims.

Shāfi‘ī (or Shafi‘ite) Follower of the madhhab of al-Shāfi‘ī.

al-Shāfi‘ī, Muḥammad ibn Idrīs (d. 819) One of leading early faqīhs; important in establish­ing the importance of Ḥadīth in fiqh and in setting the main outlines of fiqh procedure (uṣūl al-fiqh) for Sunnīs; considered the founder of the Shāfi’ī madhhab.

Shahāda The Formula of Witness, “There is no god but God; Muḥammad is the Messenger of God”, by which a Muslim witnesses to his or her faith and a non-Muslim becomes a Muslim. The word also means “martyrdom”.

Shahnameh (Book of Kings) See Firdowsi.

Sharī‘a “Path leading to water”; the law or way of life laid out by God for human life; in principle covers all areas of life; involves the classification of actions as commanded, recom­mended, permitted (neutral), disapproved, or forbidden; Sharī‘a law is any law (e.g by a mod­ern legislature) that bases itself on the Sharī‘a. Islamists typically call for the “application of the Sharī‘a”. See ḥukm; fiqh.

Shariati, Ali (1933–1977) Iranian Islamic ideologue, influenced by Marx and “Third World” radicalism; played a major role in preparing the people, especially the youth, for the Islamic revolution.

Shaṭḥ  “Theopathic utterances”, strange and often heretic statements made by Sufis in a state of ecstasy, e.g. Al-Hallaj’s statement, Anā al ḥaqq (I am the Truth).

Shaykh “Elder”, may refer to various sorts of leaders, such as a tribal leader, a highly respect­ed teacher or, especially, a Ṣūfī teacher and guide.

Shī‘īs (or Shi‘a or shi‘at ‘Alī) The Party of ‘Alī; those who believed that ‘Alī should have suc­ceeded Muḥammad as leader of the umma and whose movement developed into a separate division (or sect) of Islām over against the Sunnīs. They are divided into Imāmīs or Twelvers, Ismā‘īlīs or Seveners, and Zaydīs or Fivers.

Shirk Associating anything with God in worship or obedience; outward shirk may be worship­ping a god or an idol; inward shirk may be giving too much attention to possessions, family or ambitions. Salafīs see many popular customs as shirk. Islamists see secular government as shirk (obeying humans rather than God).

Shūrā Consultation; the Muslim ruler is expected to consult with the leaders of the commu­nity; modernists interpret this as the basis for parliamentary government.

Sibḥa (also pronounced subḥa) or misbaḥa String of beads used to count a recitation of the names of God or prayer formulae; a Muslim “rosary”.

Silsila “Chain”, among Ṣūfīs, the chain of teachers and disciples that links a given teacher back to the founder of the ṭarīqa and thence to Muḥammad.

Sīra A heroic biography, especially that of the Prophet. See Ibn Isḥaq.

Sirhindi, Ahmad (d. 1664) Indian reformer and theosopher; criticized Ibn ‘Arabi’s waḥdat al-wujūd, claimed to be the “renewer” of the Islamic tradition after the first thousand years.

Siyāsa “Governance, politics”, actions taken by a government for practical reasons that may be viewed as an alternative to the Sharī‘a or as under the general permission of the Sharī‘a.

Slametan Feast given by Javanese abangans to placate spirits and achieve a state of tranquil­lity (slamet).

Ṣūfī Follower of the mystical or devotional movement called Ṣūfīsm or taṣawwuf; at the high­est level one seeks a direct knowledge of God (called ma‘rifa, q.v.) through exercises called dhikr, q.v.

Suhrawardi, Shihab al-Din al-Suhrawardi (1153–1191) Sufi “theosopher” who taught a philosophy of “illumination” and focused on light as the true nature of all existence.

Suhrawardi, Abu Hafs al- (1145–1234) Founder of the Suhrawardiyya ṭarīqa, more willing than most to deal with political rulers.

Suḥūr (or saḥūr) Meal taken in the early morning before fasting in Ramaḍān.

Sulṭān “Authority, holder of authority”, title of many Muslim rulers; implies less of a religious claim than caliph or amīr al-mu’minīn.

Sunna, viz. Sunna of the Prophet Authoritative teaching and example of the Prophet Muḥammad, as found in the Ḥadīth; one of the sources of fiqh (see uṣūl al-fiqh).

Sunnīs Majority division of Muslims, as opposed to Shī‘īs. See Ahl al-sunna wa-l-jamā‘a.

Sūra Chapter of the Qur’ān; it is usually noted whether a sūra was revealed in Mecca or Medina.

Syria Until after the First World War refers to the area currently including Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Israel/Palestine, sometimes called “Greater Syria”.

al-Ṭabarī, Ibn Jarīr (d. 922) Author of one of the best known commentaries (tafṣīrs) to the Qur’ān.

Tablighi Salafī movement started in India in the 1920s and now worldwide; emphasizes the faithful practice of the basic obligations of Islām; is not political and is less strict than some salafis.

Tafṣīr Interpretation of the Qur’ān, exoteric in contrast to ta’wīl.

Ṭaha, Maḥmūd Muḥammad (d. 1985) Leader of the Republican Brothers in the Sudan; taught that the Meccan sūras supersede the Medinan sūras today; executed in 1985; his fol­lower, Abdullah al-Na‘im, is active in human rights concerns in the U.S. today.

Taha Hussein (1889–1973) Leading Egyptian educator and literary figure; wrote a book on jāhilī poetry that questioned its authenticity; wrote a biographical study of Muḥammad and other books on Islām, generally secularist with an appreciation of Islamic culture and civilization.

Tajwīd A relatively elaborate and “musical” recitation of the Qur’ān, see also tar‘tīl.

Takfīr Declaration that someone is kāfir, no longer a Muslim.

Takfīr wa-Hijra Label given to a group in Egypt that declared the whole of society kāfir and sought to separate from it in the hope of eventually taking it over. Disbanded by the govern­ment after assassinating a former government minister.

Taleban “Students”; very traditionalist movement in Afghanistan founded by Mullah Omar in 1994; ruled Afghanistan from 1996 to 2001; became associated with al-Qaeda; they have con­tinued to struggle after being forced out of government by U.S. intervention.

Tanzimat Series of reforms in the Ottoman Empire in the mid-19th century, designed to mod­ernize and strengthen the central government’s power.

Taqiya “Prudent dissimulation”; keeping silent about one’s true views when they would en­danger oneself or one’s community; obligatory for Shī‘īs in certain circumstances.

Taqlīd Following the decision of another when one is not a mujtahid; in modernist parlance often a blind conservatism.

Tarāwīḥ Extra ṣalāhs performed at night in Ramaḍān by Sunnīs.

Ṭarīqa “Path”; Ṣūfī practice. Ṣūfī lineage or “order” looking back to a particular founder and with distinctive practices; many are large and popular.

Tartīl Slower and more measured recitation of the Qur’ān, in comparison to tajwīd.

Ṭawāf Circumambulation of the Ka‘ba during the Ḥajj.

Tawḥīd The affirmation of the unity of God, monotheism. See also muwaḥḥidūn and ‘ilm al-tawḥīd. ‘Ilm al-tawḥīd is one name for theology.

Ta’wīl Esoteric interpretation of the Qur’ān, in contrast to tafṣīr.

Tayammum Purification with sand rather than water.

Ta‘ziya (lit.: consolation)or ShabīhPlay reenacting the sufferings and death of Husayn and his followers at Karbala’, performed during the celebrations leading up to ‘Ashura (q.v.). It evokes highly emotional responses.

Tekke Ṣūfī hostel or retreat center, see khanqah.

Traditionalists In earlier times those such as Ibn Hanbal who wished to base interpretation as exclusively as possible on the Qur’ān and Ḥadīth; in modern times those who wish to hold to the existing tradition. See alsp ahl al-ḥadīth.

Traditionists (muḥaddithūn) Experts in Ḥadīth, to be distinguished from traditionalists.

Twelvers (or Imāmīs) Majority division of Shī ‘a, that recognizes twelve Imāms, the last of whom is in occultation (ghayba).

‘Ulamā’ “Those who know”; scholars, experts in religious knowledge, roughly equivalent to clergy or rabbis. Singular is ‘ālim. See also ‘ilm.

‘Umar ibn al-Khattāb Second of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, q.v. (r. 634–644).

Umayyad dynasty (Ar. Umawī) Dynasty of caliphs (661–750) in Damascus founded by Mu‘āwiya, completed the first wave of conquests; Arab in orientation and style; a line of Umayyads continued in Spain after 750.

Umma The whole community or nation of Muslims worldwide. In the Qur’ān it may refer to the communities of earlier prophets. In modern times it may be used for nation in the modern sense.

‘Umra “Lesser pilgrimage”; first part of the pilgrimage to Mecca, including the circumambu­lation of the Ka‘ba and the running between Safa and Marwa; may be done separately from the Ḥajj at any time of the year.

‘Urf See ‘āda.

Uṣūl al-fiqh “The sources or roots of fiqh”; the sources on which fiqh judgments are based; conventionally given by Sunnīs as the Qur’ān, Sunna, qiyās (or ijtihād) and ijmā‘, with other sources, such as ‘āda or maṣlaha allowed by some. Uṣūlī Shī‘īs give the sources as Qur’ān, Sunna (including the Imāms), ijmā‘ and reason.

Uṣūlī Twelver Shī‘ī school of fiqh that recognizes the authority of mujtahids; predominant in most of the Twelver world for the last two centuries.

‘Uthmān ibn ‘Affān (r. 644–656) Third of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, q.v.

Vilayat-i faqih (Ar. wilāyat al-faqīh) The doctrine that a leading faqīh should be the highest authority in the state; currently in effect in Iran.

Waḥdat al-wujūd Unity of existence, doctrine of Ibn ‘Arabī.

Wahhābī Usual name for the followers of Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhāb and their successors to the present time in Arabia; extremely strict salafīs, they call themselves muwaḥḥidūn.

Waḥy Revelation, that which comes to a prophet, as distinct from the ilhām that a Ṣūfī may receive.

Walī “Friend of God”, “saint”, Ṣūfī adept believed to have attained union with God and whose baraka can benefit others; visits are therefore made to his tomb; also, in fiqh, a guardian, e.g. of a minor or a bride.

Waliullah of Delhi, Shah (1701–1762) Indian reformer who sought to heal the divisions with­in the Muslim community and encouraged ijtihād.

Wazīr (vizier)   Person in charge of the adminstration in pre-modern states; in modern Arabic a government minister.

Waqf (pl. awqāf) Trust under the Sharī‘a, used to finance religious and community institu­tions; also used to protect family resources.

West (Western) The cultures and civilization of Western and Central Europe and their offshoots in the Americas and elsewhere. “The West” is commonly contrasted to “Islam”, a contrast that is imprecise and often tendentious but unavoidable.

Wuḍū’ Minor ablution, when ghusl is not necessary.

Yazīd Second Umayyad caliph, responsible for the death of Ḥusayn at Karbala’; especially for Shī‘īs the symbol of an evil ruler.

Zakāh (or Zakat) “Alms” or “poor tax”; a set portion of one’s wealth to be given as a tax or charity for the poor and other specified recipients. One of the Pillars of Islām.

Zāwiya See khanqah.

Zaydīs Fiver Shī‘īs; recognize Zayd ibn ‘Alī Zayn al-‘Ābidīn as fifth Imām; the Imām may be any descendant of ‘Alī and Fāṭima who has knowledge and leads a revolt against Sunnī authorities.

Ziyāra “Visit”; pilgrimage to shrine or tomb other than Mecca.

Zoroastrianism Iranian religion going back to the prophet Zarathushtra; recognizing a creator God and an opposing cosmic force of evil; the state religion of the Sasanian empire at the time of the Muslim conquests. Zoroastrians were generally treated as dhimmīs.