English Language Knowledge for Secondary Teachers

According to the 1995 version of the Concise Oxford Dictionary:

• ‘bully’ is now the standard term for a person who uses strength or power to coerce others. It was originally a term of endearment, probably from Middle Dutch boele ‘lover ’.
• ‘mob’ is the standard word for a disorderly crowd. It is the colloquial term for a gang in British English, or for the mafia in US English. It is an abbreviation of the Latin mobile vulgus, ‘excitable crowd’.
• ‘fun’ is the standard term for amusement. It is colloquial, when used as an adjective (a fun thing to do).
• ‘dis’ (also ‘diss’) is US slang for putting a person down. It is an abbreviation of ‘disrespect’.

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In a recent examiner’s report, such use of contemporary words in literature essays was criticised. One example was ‘high-maintenance’ to characterise Lady Macbeth’s relationship with her husband. Terms from a twentieth-century background of psychology and problem pages seemed anachronistic. Others may disagree, on the grounds that the pupil produced an interesting, valid interpretation of the text from a modern perspective.

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Non-standard word forms

Situation

Formality

There is an appropriate use of informal ‘youth-speak’; the writer needs to create an attractive youthful, fashionable, slightly rebellious persona.

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NB ‘Communism’ and ‘terrible’ involve a change in spelling: ‘commun(e)’ and ‘terr(or)’ – see later section on applications to spelling. ‘Magnify’ and ‘eject’ have a Latin word at the root: magnus (large) and jectare (throw) – see later section on applications to reading.

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Commentary 2.5

The list of words can be termed a ‘word family’, sharing the same root:

An intuitive understanding of lexical patterns and the meanings of prefixes and suffixes, allows users to create and interpret new words. For example,

As both words were created according to the rules of English morphology, both can be understood by these same rules. Most people would guess the meaning of these invented words to be something like this:

Depending on their awareness of prefixes and suffixes, pupils may invent other potentially meaningful words such as:

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‘Uni-Ductor’ might suggest a material used in construction.
The root is duct or duc.
Word family: ‘conduct’, ‘abduct’, ‘reduction’, ‘production’, ‘induction’ + ‘introduce’, ‘reduce’, ‘produce’, ‘educate’.
Duct means ‘to lead’, from the Latin word ducere.

‘The Fortiffs’ might be a rock band.
The root is fort.
Word family: ‘fort’, ‘fortress’, ‘fortify’, ‘effort’, ‘comfort’.
Fort means ‘strong’, from the Latin word fortis.
NB ‘fortune’ and its related words come from another root.

‘Tendene’ might be a cosmetic product – moisturiser or hair conditioner.
The root is tend.
Word family: ‘extend’, ‘intend’, ‘contend’, ‘tendon’, ‘tendril’ + ‘tense/tension’, ‘tent’.
Tend means ‘to stretch’, from the Latin word tendere.

‘Scribeasy’ suggests a writing instrument.
The root is scrib.
Word family: ‘inscribe’, ‘describe’, ‘subscribe’, ‘prescribe’ + ‘script’, ‘description’, etc.
Scrib means ‘to write’, from the Latin word scribere.

‘Spectaxis’ might be a product for improved sight.
The root is spect.
Word family: ‘spectator ’, ‘spectacles’, ‘inspector ’, ‘aspect’, ‘perspective’, ‘respect’.
Spect means ‘to look at’, from the Latin word spectare.

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This covers the 14 key prefixes referred to in Hodges’ (1982) work.

Table C.1

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Table C.2

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Table C.2

It is likely that the words ‘homework’ and ‘housework’ are used as a single word by the majority of language users; with the minority using a hyphen and none using two separate words. Thus the form ‘homework’ has become standard English.

However, my computer signals (by a wiggly red underlining) concern over the following:

coursework, wordprocessor, spellchecker, chatroom

You may find some variation in the way users of the language spell these words:

Because the words ‘laptop’ and ‘desktop’ are currently accepted as a single word, we may predict that the same processes of change and variation will lead to the acceptance of the other common compounds.

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Young children show an intuitive grasp of some grammatical forms and functions. They use the ‘–ed’ and ‘–ing’ suffixes to distinguish between past and present. They know the prefix ‘–un’ can be used to express opposites. However, they use these in unconventional ways, so are being creative, rather than simply imitating language forms.

Verb Roots

The child has:

• used an existing noun as a verb,
  e.g. ‘soup’ (noun) – ‘I’m souping’ (verb);
• used an existing adjective as a verb,
  e.g. ‘sharp’ (adjective) – ‘How do you sharp this?’ (verb).
• • ‘These flowers are sneezing me’. The standard use would be:
  ‘I am sneezing’ or ‘These flowers are making me sneeze’.

NB The verb ‘sneeze’ is normally intransitive – used without an object. The child has used ‘sneeze’ as a transitive verb – used with an object. (See Chapter 8 for the distinction between ‘transitive’ and ‘intransitive’ verbs.)

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The message is slightly ambiguous. One interpretation adds these grammatical words:

These word classes are:

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The writer uses the conjunction ‘and’ to link a series of observations. The only variation is the use of ‘but’ and ‘where’. This creates a simple, excitable voice for the narrator.

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A number of prepositions indicate meanings related to the position – or place – of a noun. For example,

Some of these prepositions are also used to specify time. For example,

Other common prepositions indicate meanings such as:

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• Don’t give up the fight.
• Say ‘Stop’ if you give in.
• Give over!
• I’ll have to make up a story.
• She made up with her best friend.
• They made off with the money.

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In a list of the 100 most frequently used words (The Birmingham Corpus), the top ranking word is ‘the’. This is followed closely by ‘of’, ‘and’, ‘to’ and ‘a’. In fact, most of the top 100 words are grammatical words, as opposed to content words: the frequently used main verbs are ‘said’, ‘do’, ‘think’, ‘know’, ‘get’, ‘see’ and ‘go’, and there are only two nouns – ‘people’ and ‘way’.

1. Poster promoting a local newspaper.
2. Newspaper headline.
3. Notice outside a factory.
4. Spoken by a young child.

The grammatical words have been omitted. These may include prepositions, conjunctions and auxiliary verbs, but they are usually this type of word:

These words can be omitted, as they do not play a significant role in conveying meaning. Their role is essential, however, in the structure of standard English. In this way, they can be compared to ‘glue’ or ‘nuts and bolts’ – generally present, but often unnoticed.

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The following words are all determiners, as they function in a similar way in English structure:

Apart from the possibility of using any name (‘Sally’s’, etc.) in this position, the number of determiners is finite, as it is a closed class of word.

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These words do not function as determiners, as they can be removed from the structure.

They are adjectives or nouns, adding more detail.

(See Chapter 6 on adjectives and Chapter 7 on noun phrases.)

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The substitution test shows that familiar nouns function in the same way as the words in question:

This test indicates that the words are being used as nouns.)

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Form

The suffix ‘–s’ is added to many nouns to make them plural: ‘alligators’, ‘bulls’.

The suffix ‘–’s’ is added to show possession: ‘crocodile’s’.

NB There are some irregular plurals in English (such as ‘mice’, ‘feet’) or remnants of Old English – ‘children’, ‘oxen’ – or the influence of Latin and Greek – ‘phenomena’, ‘media’.

The use of the apostrophe is a common source of confusion in English, well documented in Lynne Truss’s popular book on punctuation, Eats, Shoots and Leaves (2003).

Function

The determiners ‘a’, ‘an’, ‘the’, ‘its’, ‘other’, ‘their’ often occur before nouns.

NB Other types of words can occur between the determiner and noun, e.g. ‘a broad snout’, ‘the upper jaw’.

(See Chapter 6 on adjectives and Chapter 7 on noun phrases.)

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The nouns are: ‘workers’, ‘world’ and ‘chains’.

The insertion and deletion of suffixes works well to identify some nouns:

worker(s), chain(s)

But other nouns do not share this change in form:

? worlds

The substitution test shows that other familiar nouns can occur in this position:

The structure determiner + noun (‘the world’, ‘your chains’) is another indication that ‘world’ and ‘chains’ are nouns. It is possible to insert a determiner before ‘workers’ – ‘the workers’.

The word ‘nothing’ does not pass these tests:

• nothings
• the nothing

It is a pronoun and replaces a noun or noun phrase:

(See Chapter 5 on pronouns.)

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Proper nouns differ from common nouns in form, as they do not normally take a plural form:

Proper nouns differ in function from common nouns, as they do not usually follow determiners:

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The words ‘money’ and ‘cash’ function as mass nouns, as they do not take a plural form. Words such as ‘fish’ and ‘hair’ can function as either mass or count nouns, depending on the context. Although ‘hair’ is regarded as a mass noun in English, some languages refer to hair on the head in the plural: ‘I’ve got brown hairs’.

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Nearly all the nouns in this prayer are abstract: ‘peace’, ‘love’, ‘truth’, etc. Some nouns are concrete, as they are entities that can be perceived by the senses: ‘instrument’, ‘darkness’, ‘light’. However, we may feel that these nouns are being used metaphorically and are thus also abstract.

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Nearly all the nouns in this prayer are abstract: ‘peace’, ‘love’, ‘truth’, etc. Some nouns are concrete, as they are entities that can be perceived by the senses: ‘instrument’, ‘darkness’, ‘light’. However, we may feel that these nouns are being used metaphorically and are thus also abstract.

The extensive use of nominalisation – nouns formed from verbs – affects the style of texts, conveying a more formal tone.

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Blair uses the nominalisation ‘choice’, rather than the verb ‘choose’. For example,

the choice we support is choice open to all.

In this way, he does not commit himself to a precise statement about who can choose, or exactly what or when they can choose something. This can be changed to a verb:

All people can choose their schools and health service.

However, it is not actually true that all people can choose the school or health service they want. ne.

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At the beginning, abstract nouns are used: ‘harm’, ‘loss’, ‘grief’, ‘freedom’, ‘fear’, ‘war’, ‘hope’, etc. The negative abstractions mount up, but are set against the positive words ‘freedom’ and ‘hope’.

Bush develops the idea of hope, with other abstract nouns such as ‘lives’, ‘routines’, ‘resolve’, before introducing the first concrete nouns: ‘moment’ and ‘fire’. This general reference to the event is then made more personal by the nouns, ‘face’ and ‘voice’. He immediately makes this specific to an individual person in the concrete nouns ‘shield’, ‘man’, ‘mom’, ‘son’.

The example of one person’s death is then represented in abstract terms as a ‘memorial’, ‘reminder’, and finally a ‘task’. The nature of the task has already been formulated in the contrasting words: ‘freedom’ and ‘war’.

The identification of word classes should, of course, be developed by exploration of semantics – the figurative and emotive associations of words. For the sake of clarity, this is explored in a separate chapter (Chapter 12).

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Personal pronouns are used to answer the first two questions. These change form depending on their relationship to the verb – whether they are the subject or object. (See Chapter 9 on clauses.)

Indefinite pronouns can also be used in this role:

someone/somebody, anybody, everybody, no one/nobody, everything, nothing.

Possessive pronouns are used to answer the third question:

mine, yours, hers, his, its, ours, theirs.

Reflexive pronouns can be used to add emphasis in this last question:

myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, themselves.

Interrogative pronouns were used to phrase the questions:

who/whom, whose, which, what.

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This extract expresses the writer’s personal viewpoint, using the first person throughout. This becomes too subjective with the use of verbs such as ‘believe’ and ‘feel’. This is compounded by the informality of style: ‘hung up on’, ‘keep their views to themselves’, ‘I’m going to have to side with’. The writer also addresses the reader directly with the second person: ‘Maybe you feel’.

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Extract 1 is ambiguous, as the pronoun can refer to either Peter or David. It is necessary to replace some pronouns with the name, or some other identifying phrase.

Extract 2 is intended to be ambiguous, reflecting the character’s confusion and increasing the suspense for the reader.

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These five forms are the usual pattern for verbs. They are termed regular verbs.

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• Examples 1¬–4: the standard participle is ‘written’.
• Examples 5–7: the standard participle is ‘driven’.
• Examples 8–10: the standard participle is ‘given‘.
• Examples 11–12: the standard participle is ‘taken’.
• Examples 13–15: the standard participle is ‘eaten’.
  However, this shows language change, as Shakespeare uses ‘hath (has) eat’.
• Examples 16–20: the standard participle is ‘shown’ in British English.
  However, this shows variation, as US standard English is ‘have/has showed’. It also shows language change, as the King James Bible uses ‘have showed’.

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The following words function as verbs:

Did Grax (explode) and Grumple (collapse) in the Kraid
Don’t Goombah (meddle) with a Neul
He Holtzed (fired) at Zigmos from afar
And as he Beaked (reached) for Pyradoks The Shadow Boss Twinbellowed (roared) through

The following word has the form of a verb, but functions as an adjective:

Lay Bloopered (unsteady) ranks of Battletanks

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Adjectives such as ‘lovely’, ‘furry’, ‘warm’, ‘expensive’ can be inserted in these positions in the structure. More than one can be used in a list.

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In the first example, the words ‘drunk’ and ‘clutching’ do not function as adjectives in this structure, as they cannot be replaced by adjectives:

The drunk tottered into the alley clutching a whisky bottle under his raincoat.

In the second example, the words ‘drunk’ and ‘clutching’ function as adjectives in this structure, as they can be replaced by other adjectives:

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The underlined words can all be deleted, which suggests they are either adjectives or adverbs:

Most follow the common structure for adjectives, placed before a noun. Although the words ‘hard’ and ‘now’ can be deleted, they have a different position in the structure – they do not occur before nouns.

Substitution of known adjectives does not seem grammatical:

(See Chapter 6 for the role of adverbs.)

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Although this writer uses an elegant style – conveying the scene vividly – some adjectives are redundant:

[dusty] scrubland
[blurry] haze

The choice of precisely descriptive nouns – ‘scrubland’ and ‘haze’ – includes the idea conveyed by the adjectives.

The use of a second adjective in these phrases does not convey any further detail, so can be deleted:

rosy [red] ribbon
oppressive [and overbearing] heat

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The adverbs are ‘still’, ‘lazily’, ‘already’, ‘peacefully’, ‘below’, ‘already’, ‘idly’, ‘cleverly’.

Only ‘still’ cannot be deleted from the structure. Most adverbs are optional extras, providing more detail about the verb. Some are redundant: the verb ‘lolling’ includes the idea of ‘lazily’.

The adverbs occur in various positions:

• immediately after the verb
• immediately before the verb
• between two parts of the verb
• at the end of the structure

Adverbs can also occur at the beginning of structures: ‘below elegant impala were grazing’.

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The adverbs are ‘always’, ‘nowadays’, and ‘tonight’.

Function

The transposition test shows that these adverbs can be moved to other positions in the structure. For example,

• Make sure you bring a pen and paper always.
• Young people nowadays tend to rent, rather than buy, property.
• Tonight I need to finish the essay.

Meaning

These adverbs provide more detail about the manner or time of the verb.

Form

The form of these words is not a helpful indication, as they do not end in ‘–ly’. Because the words ‘day’ and ‘night’ are familiar as nouns, it would be reasonable to guess that ‘nowadays’ and ‘tonight’ are also nouns.

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The following adverbs are used:

• sniffily records it
• based, somewhat bizarrely
• more painfully, transcribed

These adverbs do not describe the verb itself, but the attitude of the writer to this action. The Oxford English Dictionary did not record the word ‘sniffily’, nor did linguists transcribe conversations ‘painfully’. This is the writer’s personal opinion about this activity.

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For example,

Honestly, I really promise to tell just the truth. And God actually said, ‘Just let there be light.’

Inserting adverbs changes the tone to one of casual protestation. The effect of serious reliability is lost.

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An individual’s use of intensifiers is affected by factors such as their age, gender, regional and educational background. Pupils should be able to make an informed choice according to the situation – whether speaking or writing, in formal or informal situations.

The neutral form is ‘very’, with the others ‘marked’ in some respect. ‘So’ is often used in spoken language for emphasis. The other intensifiers reveal more about the identity of the speaker than the precise degree of ‘goodness’. ‘Right’, ‘dead’, ‘well’ and taboo words suggest youth and a less educated background. ‘Jolly’ suggests an older person from a higher social background.

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Determiners often occur before a noun: ‘this’. These are usually an essential part of the grammatical structure. Other content words can add extra detail before the noun:

Although adjectives are the most obvious way of adding more detail, it is very common to find nouns performing the function of adjectives:

NB The term modifier is often used to describe the role that these word classes perform in phrases.

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1. Single noun as headword
   Nightfall
   Alien
2. Determiner + headword
   The Shining
   The Wyrm
   The Rats
   The Fog
3. Modifier + headword
   Midnight’s Lair
   Endless Night
4. Determiner + modifier + headword
   The Twilight Zone
   The Animal Hour

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Extract 1 uses simple noun phrases with little expansion. There is a ‘track’, with a ‘caboose’ around the ‘curve’, and ‘water ’ on both sides. The character bathes his ‘hands’ and ‘knee’. Simple adjectives are used to modify ‘little slope’ and ‘cold water’.

Extract 2 uses expanded noun phrases to describe the characters and setting. There is a ‘desolate breakfast table’ in the ‘dreary dining-room’, with ‘heavy mahogany furniture’. The girl is a ‘rather short, sullen-looking young woman’.

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In Extract 1, some noun phrases are expanded by inserting modifiers – adjectives or other nouns – before the noun:

such information talking
simple pieces

Most of the nouns are expanded by the addition of a preposition phrase:

simple pieces of factual information
the core of language
its efficiency in this role
the type of information

One noun is expanded further by adding a clause – with a linking verb:

the type of information being conveyed

In Extract 2, some noun phrases are expanded by inserting an adjective before the headword:

early manifestations my dyslexic problems

But these are combined using a preposition:

early manifestations of my dyslexic problems

A prepositional phrase is also used in:

my escape into literature

Some noun phrases are more complex, adding clauses after the headword. These clauses are linked using conjunctions:

a feeling which permeated everything
a sense, right from the beginning, when I started to socialise with other children

(See Chapter 9 on subordinate clauses.)

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Single words can be inserted before the key noun:

I really want the latest PlayStation

Prepositional phrases can be added after the noun:

the PlayStation with dual-control joypad.

A clause can be added to the noun in that phrase:

a joypad equipped with mega memory and replay facility

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The complex noun phrases in this genre serve two purposes: to provide details in a condensed form, but also to select only positive aspects to persuade (or mislead) the potential buyer.

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Adverbs can be inserted before the headword – the key adjective:

Adverbs can also be inserted before the main adverb:

Both adjectival and adverbial phrases can be expanded, by inserting an adverb or adverbial phrase after the headword for emphasis.

My cat is very lovely indeed.
It sleeps as soundly as possible.

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The writer uses these intensifiers before adjectives:

• more successful ideas
• a slightly cack-handed BBC-ish way
• too brash
• those more tabloidish, voyeuristic elements
• so successful

His use of an over-long sentence adds to the hysterical tone of his rhetorical question. He uses colloquial vocabulary – ‘why bother’; ‘the public will see through’; ‘rehash’; ‘dunderheads’ – and inventive forms of adjectives – ‘cack-handed’; ‘BBC-ish’; ‘tabloidish’; ‘yellow-bellied’; ‘faux-populist’. In contrast, the use of formal vocabulary – ‘genetic experts’; ‘balks at’ – emphasises the writer’s credentials so that the informality is read as a deliberate stylistic device.

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Whereas noun phrases convey all sorts of extra descriptive detail, the function of verb phrases is to specify variations such as the time and duration of the action.

Pupils’ suggestions of verb phrases can be grouped according to their structure, or their functions. The terms – ‘tense’, ‘aspect’, ‘mood’ and ‘voice’ – are used to classify the different forms and functions of verb phrases. Each will be explored in turn in this section.

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The poem uses the base form of the verb, plus ‘–s’ for third person singular:

sing, sings

The term for this form is the ‘simple present tense’. This form often conveys regular (or habitual) actions rather than ones happening at the present moment. The novel extract uses the verb plus ‘–ed’, or some irregular forms:

mooched, found, gave

The term for this form is the ‘simple past tense’, referring to events that happened in the past.

The term ‘simple’ is used to distinguish these forms from others that also refer to past and present. These will be explored further under the headings of aspect, mood and voice.

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The poem uses the base form of the verb for third person plural:

drag, tear

This is another example of the form ‘simple present tense’.

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Two negatives are used in the following phrases:

never took Mark and Sonia to none of her special places
it wasn’t my fault neither
I didn’t have no friends

This creates a convincing, colloquial voice for the main character – a teenage boy, escaping from problems at home and school.

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The most common ways of referring to the future use the auxiliary verbs:

will, shall, going to

The structure remains grammatical if you replace one future auxiliary with another, but there is a slight change in style and emphasis.

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For situations that are definitely possible, these auxiliary verbs are used:

For situations that are only possible in theory, these auxiliary verbs are used:

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Commentary 8.6

The repeated use of ‘can’, ‘cannot’, ‘will’, ‘will not’, ‘must’ emphasises the speaker’s conviction of the need for change, and his belief that it is possible. He does not use the more tentative forms ‘may’, ‘might’, ‘could’, or ‘would’.

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• Modal verbs and phrases
• It is quite possible that
• would etch them (NB habitual past event)
• Sickert would have found amusing
• perhaps
• It would have been a scene

These indicate that the writer is hypothesising about whether such events actually occurred.

• Indicative verb phrases
• paid his twopence and took a peek (conjecture)
• was living in London (fact)
• was an apprentice (fact)
• knew the East End (fact)
• went, wandered (fact)
• were eye to eye (conjecture)
• each was the other (conjecture)

The use of the indicative mood suggests that these events actually happened. This is the case for some of them, but the writer expresses some of her conjectures in this form, leading the reader to treat these statements as factually true. She wishes to persuade the reader

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Passive verb phrases insert the verb ‘to be’ in various forms, depending on the tense and aspect of the main active verb. The main verb changes to the past participle form.

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In Extract 1, the passive voice is used to place emphasis on the things damaged:

The vegetable patch had been damaged by storm and slug.
My runner bean canes had been blown over.

In Extract 2, the passive voice places emphasis on the damage to the planet – the human agents can be assumed:

the last tree has been cut down
the last river has been poisoned
the last fish has been caught
money cannot be eaten

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Verb phrases

• dozed
• leapt
• tripped up
• should have placed
• wanted to hide
• was
• had abandoned
• skinned
• sent
• found

Noun phrases

• Widow Twankey
• another alligator shoe
• an ageing beetle
• that band of head-hunters
• the politician
• one stale meat pasty

Prepositional phrases

• with a broken spear
• on the porch
• in the hollow tree
• out of the blue
• before breakfast

Adverbial phrase

• morosely

Adjectival phrases

• irresistible
• most peculiar indeed

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The smallest number of cards needed is two. It is possible to combine about seven elements into a grammatical clause structure.

NB Pupils may find enterprising ways of combining a larger number, perhaps using a phrase, such as ‘irresistible’ or ‘on the porch’ as part of an expanded noun phrase, or adding the phrase ‘most peculiar indeed’ as an afterthought. Used in this way, these are not separate elements of the clause. For example,

Out of the blue/that band of head-hunters on the porch/morosely/skinned/the irresistible politician/with a broken spear/before breakfast – most peculiar indeed.

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Example 1: Subject + Verb

A clause is a group of words distinct from a phrase: it must contain a verb, or verb phrase, conveying what happened. This essential element occurs in the second position in English structure. In the most simple clause structure, the verb has a subject before it, referring to who or what did this. The abbreviations ‘S’ and ‘V’ are often used to indicate this structure.

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Example 2: Subject + Verb + Adverbial

The third card can be either a prepositional or adverbial phrase in form. The function of these phrases is adverbial, as it provides information about the verb: where, when or how it happened.

NB Some grammar books use the term ‘adjunct’, rather than ‘adverbial’, for the function of this element.

The adverbial phrase can be moved to other positions in the structure, for a change in emphasis:

Before breakfast the politician dozed.
The politician morosely dozed.

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Example 3: Subject + Verb + Object

The verbs ‘skinned’ and ‘abandoned’ are transitive, so cannot stand alone. It is necessary to add another noun phrase as the object. These phrases could also be used in the subject position, but this alters the meaning completely. It is not a stylistic variation like the position of adverbial phrases.

Widow Twankey/had abandoned/the politician.

Other verbs can be used in transitive, as well as intransitive, structures: ‘tripped up’, ‘wanted to hide’

Widow Twankey/wanted to hide/an ageing beetle.

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Example 4: Subject + Verb + Complement

Noun phrases and adjectival phrases can be used in the third position. (Prepositional and adverbial phrases function as adverbials.)

Because the verb ‘to be’ expresses a state, rather than an action, the third element does not function as an object. The equals sign indicates the relationship between the verb and the following element. It is called a Complement, as it does not refer to another person or thing, but adds extra information about the subject.

It is often possible to reverse the order of the subject and complement without altering the meaning. This transposition is not possible with objects.

Most peculiar indeed/was/the politician.

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Example 5: Subject + Verb + Object + Complement

The meaning of the verb changes when an adjectival phrase is added:

Widow Twankey found the politician. (discovered)
Widow Twankey found the politician most peculiar indeed. (considered/thought)

An equals sign or the verb ‘was’ can be inserted between the third and fourth element:

Widow Twankey found the politician (was/=) most peculiar indeed.

The function of the fourth element is termed complement – to the object – as it provides more detail about the object.

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Example 6: Subject + Verb + indirect Object + direct Object

The clause can be re-phrased, using a prepositional phrase to indicate the indirect object – the person for whom the shoe was found.

The politician found one alligator shoe for Widow Twankey.

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Example 6: Subject + Verb + indirect Object + direct Object

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It is grammatically possible to insert three, or even four, optional phrases, although the structure becomes clumsy if too many are used. Any basic clause structure can be expanded. This one has four elements:

The politician found Widow Twankey one alligator shoe.

These phrases can be added in a variety of positions:

[After breakfast] [on the porch] the politician [morosely] found Widow Twankey one alligator shoe [out of the blue] [in the hollow tree].

The phrases that can be added are prepositional and adverbial phrases. These phrases can be moved to other positions in the structure. They function as adverbials, giving more information about when, where or how.

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The adverbial phrases can be moved to the end of the structure in each extract:

The moon walks the night in her silver shoon/ slowly/ silently/now;
she peers this way and that,
and sees silver fruit upon silver trees;

They drag him to an air-raid shelter at the end of morning school,
Down into darkness, damp and cool/with Puncher and Kicker and Belter.
They pretend to be friendly and kind, with a sudden change of mood.

In their original position before the subject and verb, the adverbial phrases have more prominence. This position also contributes to effects of rhythm and rhyme.

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This writer uses the conjunctions ‘so’ and ‘if’ to join some clauses into more complex sentences. The verbs are underlined to indicate each clause:

I started to see if they had forced their way in.
The room was very stuffy, so I thought [that] I would open the window.
On the other hand I could ask her a few questions, so here we are talking away.

After a cup of tea and a biscuit I got to work.
The view was of the back garden leading into woods.
On my travels to the back of the house I bumped into Mrs Hinton.
She stopped to talk.

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The following sentences are simple in structure, with one clause. The verbs are underlined.

His mouth slobbered.
An enormous senility seemed to have settled upon him.
One could have imagined him thousands of years old.
I fired again into the same spot.
I fired a third time.
He trumpeted, for the first and only time.
I got up.
The Burmans were already racing past me across the mud.
His mouth was wide open –
I could see far down into caverns of pale pink throat.

In this sentence, Orwell uses a ‘comma splice’, even though these are two complete main clauses!

His body did not even jerk when the shots hit him, the tortured breathing continued without a pause.

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This extract is from a pupil’s leaflet giving advice on bullying. The series of repeated interrogatives at the beginning could be effective, but the impact is weakened by using too many in a short text. It is not necessary to introduce the advice with two similar questions: ‘What will you do?’ ‘What can I do to stop them?’ The two bullet points signal two steps of advice, so it is not necessary to introduce them with ‘Firstly’ and ‘Secondly’. It might be clearer to express the imperatives simply: ‘Tell a teacher’, rather than ‘You must tell a teacher’.

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The following sentences are simple, with one main verb:

The boy leaps out into the road.
There’s a blare of horns, a screaming of tongues and tyres.
But the cat with no name feels safe in the boy’s jacket.
They won’t follow him here.

One sentence is more complex, with three verbs indicating three clauses.

‘Ahhhh’ the boy called Shane yells as he dives through.

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The co-ordinating conjunctions remain in a linking position between the two clauses.

Everyone is in the park and it is a sunny day.
There’s a maths test tomorrow but I want to play football.
We can watch a video or we can go shopping to Meadowhall.

The conjunction ‘so’ is slightly different, as it expresses a relationship of cause and effect. Although it always operates in a linking position, the meaning is changed if the clauses are transposed.

? I left early so I didn’t like the film.

The clause it introduces cannot be moved to the beginning of the sentence:

* So I left early, I didn’t like the film.

This shows that the word ‘so’ is not a subordinating conjunction. It has a linking function and is always placed between two clauses.

This test demonstrates the different way that subordinating conjunctions operate. Conjunctions such as ‘because’, are bound to the clause they introduce, so they move when the clauses are transposed.

Because I didn’t like the film, I left early.

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Each clause can stand alone, making full grammatical sense. Full stops are needed to separate the simple sentences.

David’s going to Barcelona. He’s only going for ten days. We’re going for two weeks. I’ve got my own room with a TV and everything.

NB The conjunction ‘and’ is also used to link two nouns in a list: ‘a TV and everything’.

The term finite verb is used to indicate that the form of the verb makes complete grammatical sense. These are distinguished from non-finite verb forms – the present and past participles used to introduce subordinate clauses.

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Commentary 10.5

The repeated use of the simple conjunctions ‘and’, ‘but’ and the connective ‘then’ is a deliberate stylistic device to create a convincing voice for the young narrator in the first extract. In the second passage, it represents the Stone-Age character’s perceptions.

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In each pair of examples, the two clauses can be transposed, but the conjunctions do not operate in the same way. Co-ordinating conjunctions function independently rather like links in a chain – they are always inserted between two main clauses.

We can watch a video or we can go shopping.

Subordinating conjunctions are bound to the clause they introduce. If the clause is moved to another position in the structure, the conjunction moves with it.

Unless you prefer to watch a video, we can go shopping.

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These clauses can be deleted, leaving a complete grammatical structure:

[Because it is a sunny day,] everyone is in the park.
[Even though it’s a sunny day,] no one is in the park.
It was a sunny day, [when everyone was in the park.]

I want to play football, [unless there’s a maths test tomorrow.]
[Although I want to play football,] there’s a maths test tomorrow.
[Whenever I want to play football,] there’s a maths test the next day.

We can go shopping to Meadowhall, [unless we watch a video instead.
] [If we go shopping to Meadowhall,] we can watch a video later.
[After we go shopping to Meadowhall,] we can watch a video later.

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These subordinate clauses can be deleted. The non-finite verbs are underlined.

• She shifted in her seat, [eyeing Sarah with interest.]
• She waited, [holding her breath without realising that she did so.]
• In silence she did so, [flicking the switch and filling the room with light.]
• Outside she sat in the car for a moment, [resting her head against the cold steering wheel.]
• [Alerted by sudden small gusts of wind,] Deirdre Shackleton looked up.
• [Shaken by the directness of words which re-echoed her own recent thoughts,] Sarah was embarrassed.
• [Smiling,] Katie nodded.
• [Scratching his head,] the elderly locksmith stared at the back of the door.
• [Squaring her shoulders,] she pressed the bell with a resolute finger.
• [Arriving home,] her happiness turned to anger in a flash.

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There are several ways these simple sentences can be combined. The connectives – conjunctions or non-finite verbs – are underlined.

This is a compound sentence structure:

I walked into the house and it was strangely quiet, so I called out, but no one was at home.

This is a complex sentence structure, emphasising the reaction to the ‘quiet’:

Unnerved by the strange quiet when I walked into the house, I called out, fearing that no one was at home.

These are complex sentences, including one co-ordinating conjunction:

When I walked into the house, it was so quiet that I called out, but realised (that) no one was at home.
Sensing it was strangely quiet as I walked into the house, I called out, but no one was at home.

Perhaps the most effective structures are those, which use a ‘fronted’ clause, emphasising the reaction to the unnatural quiet in the house.

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Adverbs, or adverbial phrases, can replace the subordinate clause. For example,

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This complex sentence contains nine clauses. The main clause comes first, followed by a series of subordinate clauses, introduced by conjunctions (underlined). The co-ordinating conjunction ‘and’ is also used to form compound structures. Some subordinate clauses (bracketed) are embedded within another clause.

Who will consider
that no dictionary of a living tongue ever can be perfect,
since,... some words are budding,
and some falling away;
[while it is hastening to publication,]
that a whole life cannot be spent upon syntax and etymology,
and that even a whole life would not be sufficient;
that he,. . . must often speak of what he does not understand.
[whose design includes whatever language can express,]

The structure becomes more complex, because subordinate clauses also occur within noun phrases (bracketed):

must often speak of [what he does not understand]
design includes [whatever language can express]

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After the first relatively short sentence, the writer uses a series of long sentences, including both compound and complex structures. The co-ordinating conjunctions – ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘or’, ‘so’ – are used often. The writer also uses subordinating conjunctions within these sentences: ‘due to the fact that’, ‘which’. The writer might aim for a more ‘snappy’ style, using shorter sentences. This would still convey a personal, colloquial style, but would be more effective as a written text for assessment.

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The writer conveys the woman’s feelings as she ventures into the sea. These are a mixture of delight and fear. Although she is aware of its infinite, mysterious nature, she experiences the sea as a living being, like a lover. She senses a contrast between the fear and constrictions of her former life, and her present feelings of release, or ‘awakening’. The novel’s ending remains ambiguous, but there is strong sense that she will never return.

The vocabulary choice obviously conveys these effects. The character describes her feelings as: ‘strange... awful... delicious... like some new-born creature’. She contrasts ‘her old bathing suit... faded... unpleasant pricking garments’ with standing ‘naked in the open air . . . under the sky’. The image of the bird ‘with a broken wing . . . reeling . . . disabled’ suggests her former self, when she felt terror . . . fear of being unable to regain the shore’.

The sea is described in human terms, as well as an infinite natural force:

The writer uses repeated ‘s’ sounds in polysyllabic words – ‘ceasing’, ‘whispering’ – imitating the sounds of waves and water. The final paragraph changes to a firmer sound with monosyllabic words – ‘She went on and on’ – using more ‘plosive’ consonants – ‘believing it had no beginning and no end’.

These effects of vocabulary and sound are enhanced by the variety of sentence structure used. Long sentence structures at the beginning convey her impression of the sea as stretching outwards in waves, using first one then a series of present participles:

The voice of the sea is seductive, never ceasing, whispering, clamouring, murmuring, inviting the soul to wander in abysses of solitude.

This is contrasted with shorter sentence structures, conveying her determined actions:

She walked out. The water was chill, but she walked on.

The use of exclamatory structures gives a sense of her own voice:

How strange and how awful it seemed to stand naked under the sky! How delicious!

As she puts on her bathing suit, the sentence structure is relatively short – a main clause, expanded briefly by a subordinate clause:

Edna had found her old bathing suit still hanging, faded, upon its accustomed peg. She put it on, leaving her clothing in the bath-house.

Her feelings of release are conveyed in a contrastingly complex sentence structure:

But when she was there beside the sea, absolutely alone, she cast the unpleasant pricking garments from her, and for the first time in her life she stood naked in the open air, at the mercy of the sun, the breeze that beat upon her, and the waves that invited her.

Although most of the account is in the past tense, the timeless nature of the sea is conveyed by the use of present tense in two sentences, sharing a similar structure:

The voice of the sea is seductive, never ceasing...
The touch of the sea is sensuous, enfolding the body...

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The following sounds occur several times:
l, m, s, w

NB Although the letter ‘r’ occurs several times, the sound is not pronounced after vowels.
These sounds do not occur in the ten favourite words:
d, b, n

We seem to prefer ‘softer’ consonant sounds.

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The following claims are made about the relationship between sounds and emotional effects.

Pupils may suggest many other product names with an effective sound, for example, the alliteration in ‘Kit-Kat’. Other examples are given in later sections.

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Your results probably matched Kohler’s experiment, where the overwhelming majority of people assigned ‘maluma’ to the rounded shape and ‘takete’ to the angular one. This suggests a relationship between visual and sounds. Some sounds seem more rounded and others sharper.

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Words beginning with ‘gl’:
glass, gleam, glow, glisten, glare, gloaming, glamour, glaze, glitter, glimmer, glimpse, gloat, gloss, glower, glum, glade, gloom.
All these words include the idea of light – perhaps brief or disappearing.
This would help to guess at the meaning of less familiar words:
gleed (live coal)
glent (glean, shine)
glim (shine, gleam)

Words beginning with ‘sn’:
sniff, sneeze, snout, snot, sneer, snuff, snorkel, snooze, snore, snicker, snivel, snort, snuffle.
All these words include the idea of a nose. Perhaps the meaning of the word ‘snob’ includes the image of a nose lifted arrogantly to look down on others.

Words beginning with ‘wr’:
wreck, wrestle, wring, wrist, wrong, wrap, wreath, wrench, wriggle, write.

All these words suggest a twisting movement. This might help to guess the meaning of the words ‘wrangle’, ‘wretch’, ‘wrought’.

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The first poem uses a significant number of plosive consonants, often at the beginning of words placed at the start of a line. The voiced plosives (‘b’, ‘d’, ‘g’) occur more than unvoiced plosives (‘p’, ‘t’, ‘k’). The words in the first line all contain plosive consonants. This sound effect enhances the sense of dogged, clumsy movement expressed by the words:
Bent double, like old beggars under sacks,

The second poem uses a striking number of fricative sounds (‘s’, ‘v’, ‘f’) –particularly the sibilant, unvoiced sound ‘s’ in the first and fourth lines:

Our brains ache, in the merciless iced east winds that knive us... Worried by silence, sentries whisper, curious, nervous, There is also a marked repetition of the soft ‘w’ sound: Wearied we . . . awake . . . Worried... whisper

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Your results probably matched those of the original experiment. With 500 subjects, Sapir reported that some eighty per cent thought that ‘mal’ represented the larger table and ‘mil’ the smaller. Other researchers have repeated the experiment many times since, with similar results, using subjects speaking different languages and from countries with quite different cultures.

The ‘a’ sound is made with the mouth wider open than for the sound ‘i’. This may explain why the sound is associated with ‘bigness’.

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There is marked repetition of the words ‘peace’, ‘all’, ‘free’, ‘one’.
Related words add to this repetition: ‘all’, ‘same’, ‘every’.
These often occur in parallelism of structures:
Treat all / Give all
If you tie a horse / If you pin an Indian
There is antithesis:
free to travel, free to stop
obey every law or submit to the penalty
The effect is to emphasise the equality of Native Americans, who should be entitled to basic human rights, and to contrast this with their treatment by the US government.

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Winston Churchill’s speech uses alliteration of the sound ‘f’, not only in the repetition of the key word ‘fight’, but to suggest its contrast with the words ‘flag or fail’. He repeats the structure ‘We shall fight’ with the related words ‘on the seas and oceans... in the air... on the beaches... on the landing grounds... in the fields... in the streets... in the hills’. This long list builds up to a climax – the short emphatic negative: ‘We shall never surrender’.

Roosevelt’s speech uses a series of similar sentence structures: ‘X invaded/occupied/attacked Y’. Each is followed by a break in rhythm, indicated by a dash, to emphasise the phrase ‘without warning’. Each is preceded by a date, building up to the climax – ‘And now’ to emphasise the inclusion of the United States in this list of countries under threat.

Blair’s speech begins with balanced structures linking pairs of words ‘strength’ and ‘leadership’; ‘the United States and Great Britain’; ‘better or stronger shape’. He then uses the device of triple structure to build up an emotional series of words: ‘our condolences, our sympathy, our prayers’. These words – all containing a sibilant ‘s’ sound – are then repeated in the parallel structure ‘just as we have offered’.

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Perhaps each person explained what the word ‘love’ means for them. These explanations are likely to differ, at least slightly.

Consulting a dictionary is the most obvious way of checking meaning:
love, n, an intense feeling of deep affection for a person or thing; great liking
The definition may include synonyms such as ‘liking’, ‘affection’, ‘passion’, or antonyms such as ‘hatred’, ‘dislike’.

But another way is to see how the word is actually used. A popular series of greetings cards, for example, suggest various aspects of love:
Love is . . . never having to say sorry.

The complexity of this human emotion is revealed in apparent contradictions, such as:
I love him to death.
a love–hate relationship

The destructive potential of love is often acknowledged:
One that lov’d not wisely, but too well (Shakespeare, Othello)

Feelings of love can lead to obsessive behaviours – stalking is a contemporary concept.

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There are many alternative choices of word to denote the word ‘fat’. The etymology of a word may affect its connotations. Earlier words derived from German and Old English tend to be more ‘basic’. Words introduced from Latin tend to have more formal connotations:

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One dictionary definition of ‘swamp’ is ‘a piece of waterlogged ground’. Although there may be such areas in the UK, the word tends to be associated with foreign places, where swamps are dangerous, infested with mosquitoes, etc. When used as a verb, natural disasters such as floods and landslides ‘swamp’ places in far-off countries. There is a sense that people are powerless to resist the encroaching danger. The word has become associated with both foreign countries and danger.

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Adjectives and adverbs:
hysterical, freely, wily, shocking, serious, sozzled, increasingly dangerous, alarming

Noun phrases referring to people:
young people, big brother, girls, the average 15-year-old, adolescents, party guests over the age of 13, mums and dads, the youth of today, young women, male counter- parts, girls, boys

Noun phrases referring to alcoholic drinks:
booze, units of alcohol, alcopops, a few ciders

Verbs referring to action of drinking:
binge-drink, consumes, downed, are drinking, binge

The writer contrasts the situation today with the past, by the use of emotive vocabulary. Older people are named as ‘mums and dads’ with positive, family connotations. Their drinking is described in trivial terms: they simply ‘downed a few ciders’. No emotive adjectives or adverbs are used. In contrast, the youth of today’s drinkers is emphasised by precise ages, and negative terms are used such as ‘booze’ and ‘binge’. Females are highlighted as a risk, described as ‘girls’ or ‘young women’, whereas males are referred to in more authoritative terms as ‘big brothers’ and ‘male counterparts’.

The underlying attitude is that drinking has become more of a problem today and that females are the ones at risk.

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The juxtaposition of the title word ‘Siege’ with the childlike associations of ‘peep’, ‘duck’, ‘wave’ is immediately strange. It suggests that war is like a game. The sudden juxtaposition of the word ‘dead’ suggests the fatal consequences, but the word ‘draped’ is incongruous, usually collocated with glamorous females. The words ‘smiles’ and ‘tickles’ juxtaposed with ‘the arrow. . . inside of his head’ leaves the interpretation ambiguous.

Another significant feature is the graphology – the lines are set out in two columns, representing the two sides. The use of lower case for first person pronoun is unusual. The grammar adds to the childlike tone – simple two-word clauses.

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In this activity, people tend to portray the woman in one of two ways: as either a gangster’s moll or a downtrodden wife. It is rare to see a strong young woman in hiking boots, or a power-dressed businesswoman.

There are clearly two main ‘stories’ suggested by the physical description of the man. There are cultural attitudes towards suits, but the reference to gold watch and rings moves the image away from the usual stereotype of a businessman. The scar signals violence, even though it could have been caused by a car accident. Pupils’ choice of clothing and appearance for the woman probably also used cultural stereotypes: blonde hair, leopard-skin patterns, etc.

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1. monster – from Latin mostrare, meaning ‘to warn’.
   A monster is something that serves as a warning.
2. insult – from Latin insultare, meaning ‘to leap on’.
   Jumping on a person’s grave was an act of scorn or abuse.
3. person – from Latin persone, meaning ‘an actor’s mask’.
   This suggests that each person constructs an identity for themselves.
4. manufacture – from Latin manufactum, meaning ‘made by hand’.
   Before machines, all goods were made by hand.
5. anarchy – from Greek anarkhia, meaning ‘without a ruler ’.
   Nowadays, the word is associated with chaos and violence.
6. horrid – from Latin horridus, meaning ‘bristle, or hairy’.
   These days, this refers to anything unpleasant.
7. hysterical – from Greek husterikos, meaning ‘of the womb’.
   Wild, uncontrollable emotions were associated with women rather than men!
8. cynic – from Greek, kunikos, meaning ‘dog’.
   Others may be able to explain the connection?

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Ideas about love and relationships are often expressed in terms of: a journey, the unity of two people, a possession, magic, or madness. Other examples might be:
I’m broken-hearted.
We drifted apart.
You’ve got to finish with him.
He was cheating on her.

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Metaphors used:

The relationship is expressed in terms of a journey (movement away from each other) and a bond that is being broken. The feelings of love are described as a source of power – a motor or fire.

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The images convey: the harsh, mechanical character of Mr Gradgrind; the natural liveliness of the girl, Sissy; and the unnatural, unpleasant qualities of the boy, Bitzer. Some images are clearly metaphorical, such as the warlike imagery of a cannon loaded with facts and the image of children as empty containers.

Others may be read as literally describing features – for example, the square finger and the pale skin – but their connotations suggest extended meanings. ‘Square’ has associations of rigidity, as opposed to curved shapes. Some may be understood as symbols. Blood can symbolise danger, but suggests life in this text – Sissy is often described as ‘blushing’. The sun symbolises powerful life force and is connected with other symbols, (such as ‘fire’ and ‘heat’) and in opposition to others, (such as ‘cold’ and ‘lifeless’).

Images of light and dark, however, are used with unusual connotations in this text. Bitzer’s light hair and skin is juxtaposed with references to ‘quivering’ and ‘insects’.

Gradgrind is presented in such a powerful, negative way that he may be understood as the villain of this novel. Both Sissy and Bitzer may be seen as victims in some ways, but Sissy is presented in positive terms. Bitzer, however, appears less sympathetic.

As the novel progresses, Sissy develops a stronger role, almost as the heroine of the narrative; Bitzer develops into a more powerful, dangerous character; while Mr Gradgrind develops some self-awareness and becomes an object of the readers’ pity. The sentence structures in the first paragraph describing Gradgrind are abbreviated (elliptical), mirroring his terse, matter-of-fact character. The descriptions of the children, particularly the girl, use more elaborate, complex sentence structures. The verb forms used to describe Gradgrind’s actions are often in the simple past tense, whereas the girl is often described using continuous forms ending in ‘–ing’.

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NB The reference to ‘Peter’ in this paragraph is not clear. It must refer back to a previous paragraph.

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The written text (Extract 1) uses bold headings to mark separate sections and introduce the topic. The sequence of points of advice is made clear by the use of a numbered list.

The script for a talk (Extract 2) begins with an introduction, summarising the content of the talk. This would be separated from the first point by a fall in intonation and a pause. The topic is clearly signalled – ‘those of you doing sports courses’ – and the next sentence is also signposted as referring to the same topic: ‘Still keeping to the sports side of things’. The change in focus is introduced by the question ‘How about sports events?’ Each change in topic would also be signalled by tone of voice.

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Sentence structures

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It is significant that the text is ephemeral: a note, handwritten rather than typed, so was apparently produced with little planning.

The interaction between writer and reader is crucial: a teenager addressing his slightly younger brother in a private, personal manner. The persuasive purpose involves some blame and threats, but is softened with humour. The brother is expected to respond with words or actions.

The text is context-dependent: many of the references would only be understood by the two people involved.

These factors influence the degree of formality: although there are informal features, such as non-standard abbreviations, there are also more formal choices of vocabulary and sentence structure. (Activity 13.7 asks pupils to identify these features.)

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There is generally agreement about the spectrum of formality:

Compare situation factors:

Features of language use are:

Extract 3, for example, uses a consistently formal register to convey the authoritative status of the writer, the seriousness of the topic and the purpose of official warning. Although a first person address is used, the choice of vocabulary is formal, often choosing Latinate, polysyllabic words (‘unacceptable’; ‘legislation’; ‘commission’; ‘circumstances’). Sentence structure is complex, with use of the passive voice (‘students be reminded’; ‘the lifts may have to be withdrawn’; ‘should this be exceeded’). The instructions are phrased politely, using modal verbs (‘I should be grateful for’; ‘could lead to’; ‘may have to be’; ‘I would also remind’).

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Extract 1 uses declarative sentences in the present tense to provide information about scientific facts:
They usually form at plate edges.

They are impersonal – either in the third person, or the passive voice:
Hot magma is called lava.

Many are simple in structure to aid the clarity needed for the young audience:
Castle Rock, Edinburgh is an extinct volcano.

Headings signal the progression of sub-topics. Technical vocabulary is used, but explained:
hot molten rock called magma

Extract 2 also uses declarative sentences, but the past tense is used to recount past events in history:
200 Jarrow shipworkers walked the 300 miles (483 km) to London to petition Parliament.

The sentences are impersonal – either in the third person or passive voice:
The plight of the unemployed... was forcefully underlined...

However, attitudes are expressed by emotive adjectives, adverbs and nouns:
It was a movingly vivid demonstration of the desperation...

The sentence structure is more complex, using subordinate clauses to express relationships between events:
Prompted by the National Unemployed Workers Movement,...

Linking phrases signal the chronological structure:
By 1935,...

Vocabulary is quite sophisticated to reflect the wide audience:
plight, petition, forcefully underlined.

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Extract 1 appears to be instructions for yoga, but it is actually a leaflet found in a hotel room, promoting their policy for dealing with complaints. This unusual style is humorous, so that hotel guests feel disarmed and reassured.

Extract 2 appears to be a narrative, but it is really a poster advertising a Coal Board museum. Like many contemporary advertisements, it intrigues the reader and encourages him or her to read on to the small print, which gives the selling point.

Extract 3 appears to be a literary description. However, it is actually a newspaper report about the tsunami in Asia. Newspaper reports need to grab readers’ attention with the opening words, before providing the necessary factual information.

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A range of openings and closings are used, with the informal ‘hi’ or ‘hello’ clearly an accepted convention for the senders of emails. One student adopts the more formal convention of letters, beginning with ‘Dear’ plus first name.

The endings vary. The most formal uses the letter writing convention ‘With regards’ plus full name on a separate line. Others end with a polite, informal ‘thanks’. Some assume familiarity and provide first name only, whereas others provide the full name and identifying details. One adds the informal wish, ‘take care’.

In the body of the messages there are various degrees of formality, politeness and friendliness. Many express apologies before asking for help, and add their thanks. All the writers accept that it is not necessary to correct spelling errors in this genre.

As the recipient is a tutor, the more informal styles may seem inappropriate.

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NB Explanations of the grammatical terms used in the following comments can be found in the chapter on word classes.

yeah
Carter (2004) suggests that a speaker may use this word hundreds of times each day. It is not simply a shortened form of the word ‘yes’, which conveys a definite affirmative. The word ‘yeah’ is used as back-channelling: one way that listeners show support and encouragement for the speaker.

know
The literal meaning of the word ‘know’ would suggest that speakers are often involved in declarations of facts. This word usually occurs as part of the phrase ‘you know’. It also functions in interaction: as a way of checking the listener’s involvement, or as a voiced pause (like ‘er’ or ‘erm’) to provide the speaker with time for thought.

so
The literal meaning of this word is similar to ‘very’ or ‘too’, used as a common intensifier:
The place was so crowded.
This use is common in informal language, sometimes used in unusual ways before nouns:
So Graham Norton. So 1960s.
But it has other functions in spoken language. It can be used as a discourse marker, indicating a change of topic: So, where shall we go?
It can also be used alone, as a dismissive comment:
So?

well
As an adjective, the literal meaning of ‘well’ expresses a positive state:
Are you well?
It is also used as a non-standard intensifier in informal speech:
I was well chuffed.
Interestingly, this use also occurs in older texts, such as the Bible:
My son, Jesus, with whom I am well pleased.
In spoken language, ‘well’ is another common discourse marker, showing a change of topic or, perhaps, simply a voiced pause to give time to think:
Well

like
This word is rising in popularity – Carter (2004) suggests that it may soon reach the top ten! This word is used in various ways. As a verb, ‘like’ expresses a positive reaction; as an adverb, it expresses similarity:
The stain on the subway wall looks like the Virgin Mary.
However, this word has other functions in spoken language:
Everybody was like wondering what was happening.
She felt nervous like.
He was like ‘What are you doing?’
In the first two examples, ‘like’ functions as a tentative expression, similar to ‘sort of’, or ‘–ish’. In the last example, ‘like’ is used to introduce direct speech, instead of a verb, such as ‘said’. This use is becoming very common in the speech of young people, perhaps originating in the USA. For both these reasons, its use is stigmatised – considered a marker of uneducated language.

do
As a main verb, ‘do’ is used to express actions. Its frequency in spoken language is probably as an auxiliary verb, used to form questions in the present simple tense. In interaction, speakers often ask each other questions:
What do you think?

right
The literal meaning of ‘right’ suggests that speakers are involved in discussions of right and wrong. It has various functions in spoken interaction. It is often used in back-channelling, showing the listener’s support and attention. It can also be used as a discourse marker, indicating a change of topic:
Right, I’d better be off then.
Another use is at the end of utterances, checking on the listener’s reaction:
We should get a taxi, right?

just
The literal meaning of ‘just’ is as an adjective. However, speakers are not usually involved in discussions of justice. The word is often used to ‘soften’ suggestions:
Can you just open the window?
I’ll just grab my bag.

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The daughter uses vague language. When she mentions Beyoncé, she uses a vague cliché (‘come up with the goods’), perhaps because it’s difficult to find precise words to express her enthusiasm. When she talks about a play she studied at school, she uses vague language frequently. This also might be because it’s difficult to find the right words, but it’s interesting that she comments herself that she sounds ‘pretentious’. It’s possible that people would rather sound vague than too clever, so her hesitant manner of speaking about a formal subject could be an instinctive way of avoiding being ‘pretentious’.

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The speakers sometimes use ‘like’ as a verb:
people don’t like it.

It is also used in place of a conjunction (‘as if’):
people feel like they own.

There are many examples of ‘like’ used in non-standard ways:
as a filler, cos like if you know a band,

or as an adverb to add a note of caution: they like (.) what belong to everyone?
The speakers use the verb ‘go’ as a quotative:
everybody goes “Who are they?” and you go “Oh! Don’t you know!”

But they also use the standard ‘say’ and one example of ‘like’:
someone says “Oh you like them!” it’s like “Oh God!”

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Both speakers use compound structures, but it is more common in Dave’s speech. The subordinating conjunctions (‘so’, ‘because’) are also used. It’s interesting that they are actually talking about attitudes to dialect and non-standard ways of speaking. It’s likely that Dave is aware that his way of talking is considered inferior and is being put under the spotlight now.

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Many electronic modes of language share the same channel as writing: visual marks – on a screen, rather than print on paper. But the situation is often closer to that of speaking, for example in text-messaging, emails, chatrooms, and social networks. All these situations are clearly interactive – a key feature of spoken language. Although the other participant is not physically co-present, the speed of communication allows an almost immediate response. This also means that the writer rarely takes time to plan or edit. There are some forms that are closer to planned monologue – creating a webpage, writing a weblog – but young people tend to be involved in dialogues.

Like writing, electronic modes of language are usually permanent. This means that there are social controls on what a person may – or may not – write. Electronic modes, such as Facebook and Twitter, are often more public than either writing or speaking. The legal boundaries are still being decided. A joke on Twitter about blowing up an airport led to an arrest. The conviction was later (July 2012) overturned.

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Both writers use personal pronouns to refer to themselves (‘I’, ‘we’) and the tenant uses an abbreviation (‘u’) to refer to the landlord.
Both use interrogatives:
Is there a good time to collect?
Hi is the package from Edexcel?
Have u been stuck abroad?!

The landlord uses an imperative:
Please give him post.

The tenant phrases a request in a less direct way:
We need someone to come and take a look at the kitchen tap.
(Get someone to look at the tap.)

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Ellipsis: Often the writer begins with a full structure, and then omits the subject pronoun, as it can be assumed. The auxiliary verb to be can also be omitted, but other verbs are essential to meaning.

Landlord
(I/you) May need new oven.
(I) Will be in touch.
(I am) Travelling back
(I) Will confirm time.
(I) Can’t do tomorrow.
(I) Will bring money.
(I) Plan to call in about 5.30
(I) have managed to get back.
(I) Will arrange tommy

Tenant
(There is) another problem to report
(I/we) will give it all to him.
(I/we) Hope its not caused too many problems

Another common form of ellipsis is to omit determiners. This, however, is not a feature of spoken language, but of abbreviated written forms, such as notices and headlines. The reason for it is to save time and/or space.
Tommy will look at (the) tap
Please give him (the/my) post
as well as (a/the) package

The tenant uses less ellipsis, possibly because he feels more pressure to be formal.

Deixis
There is little use of deixis, as the subject matter requires the participants to be explicit, as they refer to appliances that need repair (‘oven’, ‘grill’, ‘hobs’, ‘tap’). They usually refer to days of the week precisely, with one use of ‘tonight’, which requires a shared context to make sense.

The text messages between family members are much less explicit. It would be hard for anyone else to understand what they were talking about, as there are so many deictic terms. The people involved know exactly what/who the pronouns (‘he’, ‘them’, ‘it’) and adverbs (‘soon’, ‘tonight’, ‘tomorrow’) refer to.

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Age group categories
20¬¬-30 years: 11, 15
30-40 years: 3, 7, 13
40-50 years: 4, 5, 9
50-60 years: 1, 2, 8, 12, 14
60-70 years: 6, 10

The youngest writer is Number 11, the daughter of the reader. This is probably surprising, as the language use does not fit the stereotype of young language users.

The oldest writer is Number 6, a female friend. This also goes against the stereotype of older people using more standard language.

The consultant psychiatrist – who also writes scripts for the TV series ‘Hollyoaks’ – is Number 8, a female friend.

The former Chief Examiner is Number 4, a male colleague of the reader. He uses fairly formal vocabulary, but has not taken the time to correct a typing error.

The writer of the ‘mystery’ text is: a Yorkshire man in his sixties, a Principal lecturer at a University, a colleague, and friend of the reader.

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Exclamation marks – often more than one – and question marks – sometimes together with exclamations – suggest an excited tone of voice.
The ‘xx’ indicate kisses.
Sound effects are spelled out (‘whoop whoop’).
Invented words and repetition (‘cushdy cushdy … coolio bomboolio’) give the flavour of playful spoken interaction.