Students
Timeline
Study Skills
The study skills section contains advice on how to read historical documents, approach history exams and write history essays.
Introduction
Writing challenges undergraduates since it is so demanding in every aspect, from style and grammar to evidence and arguments. While these are elementary, undergraduates should have a thorough understanding of grammar and the mechanics of punctuation. A number of good reference books are available and should be part of every student’s library, such as Fowler's Modern English Usage and The Elements of Style. These are readily available from Internet providers.
Writing historical essays
In writing historical essays, students should determine the purpose of the assignment. For an in-class examination students must quickly decide on an argument using the evidence they committed to memory and then write a thesis statement. This should provide the position on the specific issue in question in the essay, the emphasis in your essay and the types of evidence you will use. The essay then builds on the statement in the opening paragraph. The same procedure would be followed in an extended essay completed outside the classroom.
For instance, if your essay addressed the issue of the rise of the private corporation in the United States in the mid- and late nineteenth century, your thesis statement would pose economic and technological reasons why the possibility for these large-scale institutions appeared. This statement would include remarks on the centrality of the railroad industry, the availability of British locomotives, and the expanding population and urban base. Then the essay would move through each one of these, explaining how they changed the markets, introduced technological innovations that made long-distance railroads possible and large-scale production in industries such and iron and later steel, and the details of how urban and rural demand for a myriad of products expanded so rapidly. The last part of the essay would focus on the revolution in the distribution system that embraced large-scale businesses such as mail-order houses, department stores and chain stores. These moved goods in untold volume to an equally large volume of consumers.
The last paragraph should bring together the main points of the essay as they bear upon your argument. Then end with a general statement on the ways in which the essay provided a context for explaining the argument. In the case of the corporations, one would conclude that the conditions outlined created a new context for business and the entrepreneurs involved were trying figure out how to cope with such novel problems; and individuals such as Rockefeller were really organizational and technological innovators who created new and enduring institutions that made the United States economy the biggest in the world. Early analysis of these men and their institutions criticized them from a moral position and argued they were greedy and oppressed workers and consumers.
Preparing for an examination
Approaching an examination depends on the materials student must master. If the examination deals with the period of revolutions in the Atlantic world, then one must first learn the chronology and the details of each revolution. This task is demanding but a necessity. Once it is completed, the student must make a comparative outline that provides the context of each revolution, the distinctions, the similarities, and the connections. With such information a student should be able to address questions on any aspect of a particular revolution as well as engage any compare and contrast questions. Students should also be able to write answers that ask them to integrate revolutions and their compact impact of the Atlantic world. Students should be able to discover the professor’s emphasis by taking careful notes and reviewing them. Effective note taking acts as a form of preparation. Of course, students must also take extensive notes from reading material, condense these by topic, and then connect them to lectures and main themes developed in these lectures. Also, students should be able to discover possible questions for an in-class examination from the classroom notes.
Locating and using primary sources
Writing a research paper requires a different approach. Students are expected to use primary sources and produce an original paper. Of course, the Internet has created new ways to conduct research. Many primary sources are now digitized and readily available through electronic delivery. Students must select a topic that is narrowly focused, given the time availability, and one that addresses a theme in a novel fashion. For instance, New Englanders took the lead in protesting slavery in the pre-Civil War years of the United States and they filled the ranks of the Union Army that fought against the Southerners. Yet, historians have questioned whether the region was free of any taint of slavery. Historians have written on the economic side of the issues and have discovered that New England textile mills supplied Southern plantations with cheap “Negro Cotton” to clothe enslaved African-Americans. Other historians have written that New England ships trafficked African slaves from Angola to Brazil long after the United States banned such activity. Historians approached the topic with the notion that moral ambiguity may well have typified England and its position on slavery. The works these scholars produced were original.
Students are just beginning the process of learning to formulate historical questions. The first step, once a general topic is chosen, must be to read the existing literature to learn what are the major issues. Developing knowledge of the specific kinds of research sets up the selection of a research topic. Traditionally, historians searched for bibliographic essays in professional journals. These essays reviewed the main themes and the book and periodic publications on each and every theme. Today, Internet searches can turn up such essays as a search using JSTOR, a guide which lists all the journals in every field with indexes and titles. Internet search can also uncover the major titles in any field, once a task carried out by searching bibliographies and footnotes from books and articles. Once the literature is mastered, the student begins to search for a specific research topic, one that reflects an area where little work has been done and which can open a new perspective on some aspect of a field. For instance, historians in the field of Urban History wrote extensively on the social characteristics of leadership groups in various communities, from small towns to a large metropolis. The some historians raised the issue of investigating elites from the perspective of the region rather than the community. The work changed our understanding of the upper strata. The charge for the student is carefully to consider a topic.
Reading historical documents is a difficult task. One has to be aware of bias in a source and whether the bias comes from the author or the source. A newspaper article on the election of Barrack Obama might show a partisan bias either way. A novel from seventeenth-century England could well be in accurate, even wildly so. the United States 1850–70 census is considered to give fairly accurate population figures since the Census collected the names and ages of every resident as well as the occupation and wealth of gainfully employed adults, and so it is an ideal source of information. Still, Census takers tended to ignore mobile individuals or leave out transient persons in boarding houses.
Identifying sources appropriate to one’s topic can be accomplished in several ways. In an old-fashioned approach, students can review the primary sources of the secondary literature in the research field on which they are working. This strategy usually uncovers multiple primary sources. Searches on the Internet offer a second way to locate sources and collections. The focus of the search for primary records can be narrowed to the specific topic the student has selected. If the student is working on a major overseas metallurgical company, then a search for company records would be a first step. A search for industry journals and mining newspapers would be the next step. Since a student would also be interested in the individuals who worked for the company, a search for autobiographies and memoirs would be next. Working with sources from the host country where the company conducted its business would be a logical step. Such sources might be census data or newspapers. Slowly one begins to accumulate sufficient primary sources to begin to work out an outline of topics, an argument, and an organizational scheme. Of course, students should write several drafts of the paper, and allow two or three days before returning to critically examine what has been written. At the end of the paper, a student should write a critical review of the primary sources that will profit a reader who may want to pursue research in the area.
Chapter 1
Annotated Useful Weblinks
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v443/n7109/full/443268a.html
The journal Nature features recent finds on early humans and their development. This particular article, “Palaeoanthropology: The history of man,” focuses on the work done in the Ethiopian desert, a task requiring great human endurance given the heat and dryness. The article reports on the complete skeleton of a three-year-old Australopithecus afarensis uncovered in the valley of the Awash River. Paleoanthropologists have identified and excavated more bones from this species than from any other of the early hominids.
http://www.biology-online.org/tutorials/9_evolution_origins.htm
This site contains a tutorial on the origins of life and ranges from the very first cells through primitive animals and dinosaurs to hominids and homo species. In the last category, for example, the site discusses the versions of the homo species from Homo erectus and Homo sapiens to Homo sapiens sapiens. It describes the advantages Homo sapiens sapiens had over previous versions of humans and the capacity of modern man to explore the entire planet.
http://www.innovationslearning.co.uk/subjects/re/information/creation/christian_creation.htm
This site contains a brief description of the Christian idea of creation and the implications of this story for how modern humans use the planet, whether to exploit all of its resources for their own purposes or as a stewardship to preserve and maintain the beauty of the planet God gave to them. The site features the traditional Christian narrative on creation and the place of humans in that story.
http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Ancient/Indus2.html
This site examines the history of ancient India and the particular page focuses on the Indus Valley and the Harappan civilization. The site discusses the early excavations of Harappan urban centers in present-day-Pakistan and the migration of Dravidians into the Indus valley. The page also addresses the quality of life in the Harappan civilization and the place of women in this ancient culture. The Harappan culture never developed large-scale agriculture because of inadequate technology, despite its long existence, from around 4000 bce to 1600 bce. The site contains links to other topics on Indian History such as ancient India.
http://www.ancientchina.co.uk/menu.html
This site contains a good deal of information on ancient China, from crafts and artisans to writing and ancestors. The British Museum sponsors this site and, given its sterling reputation, makes this site worth reading. Each section reveals a description of the topic and then poses questions that are answered by another click. For instance, the section Time briefly describes the early dynasties from Xia and Shang to Zhou. At the conclusion students can then check a series of questions with accompanying answers. The first query in this section deals with archaeological interest in the Shang Dynasty. The site has five sections: Crafts and Artisans, Geography, Time, Tombs and Ancestors, and Writing.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-15257259
The Blombos Cave in South Africa contains a kit to make paints and then begin the task of constructing symbolic representations. The discovery pushes human symbolic thinking back to 100,000 years ago. It marks the arrival of modern man. The cave itself provided the tools to make the paint. The site is part of the BBC website and concentrates on Science and Environment. It also shows a series of links that can take students to other intriguing sites such as “Oldest prehistorical art unearthed?”
Links to Important Primary Sources
http://www.mitchellteachers.org/WorldHistory/MrMEarlyHumansProject/ArdipithecusRamidusChallengingHistory.html
Contains a very good discussion of primary and secondary sources and explains how to interpret primary sources. The sources deal with Ardipithecus ramidus, the oldest human ancestor.
Chapter 2
Annotated Useful Weblinks
http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo/homo_4.htm
This website addresses the development of tools by early man. It begins with tools made by Australopithecus garhi in East Africa some 1.2 million years ago. Early humans, Homo habilis and Homo erectus, also developed simple instruments yet made no improvements in these tools. The site includes pictures of these tools as well as a map of where they appeared. It also describes the migration of Homo erectus into temperate zones and the role played by technology in facilitating this migration. The site contains a link, Becoming Human: Part 2, which features “a Nova episode on the biological and cultural evolution of Homo erectus.”There is also another link, A Handy Bunch: Tools, Thumbs Helped Us Thrive, a conversation with anthropologists Erin Williams and Dennis Sandgathe, which focuses on the ties between stone tool making and the development of the human hand.
http://www.unl.edu/rhames/courses/orig_agri_tur.html
This website contains a discussion of the rise of agriculture by noted expert Jared Diamond. He points out the development sparked a significant number of changes in the human condition from political to technological. It describes in detail the cultivation and spread of the crop einkorn. It also discusses the biological reorganization demanded for native Americans to cultivate maize from its predecessor, teosinte. The author notes that the spread of food production in the Americas and the Indian subcontinent proved much more gradual than in Eurasia because of the north–south orientation of these land masses. There is also a second article on the major leaps in agriculture, such as the development of bread and the emergence of dependable food sources. The article recounts some of the archaeological work on these topics.
http://www.sccfsac.org/agriculture_livestock.html
The website focuses on a number of key topics, such as the fertile plains of China, its river basin, and that only 10% of China’s land is suitable for agriculture. China’s achievement in sustaining the largest population in the world is amazing given this limitation. The site also describes stone-age developments stretching back some 7000 years, and the many agricultural innovations, such as hoes, seed drills and plows, that Chinese inventors produced over the centuries. The piece also addresses the research and writing the Chinese have published on subject over the centuries. It also engages the impact of farming technology on rural life.
http://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/american-indians/essays/columbian-exchange
Alfred Crosby wrote an article on the website. He is the creator of the idea of a Columbian Exchange and the leading expert on the subject. He discusses the range of crops in the Americas in 1492 ce and the absence of most hoofed animals so central to Europeans. He also points out the numerous pathogens common to Europe but unknown in the Americas. These proved lethal to the peoples in the Americas. He then describes the exchange of crops and animals and the implications of the movement of the flora and fauna. The site also contains a number of useful links, such as the essay on the Native American discovery of Europe.
http://library.thinkquest.org/08aug/01930/metalhistory.html
The site contains an extensive discussion of metals in three periods: the Stone Age, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age. These sections contain a good introduction to the building materials of each period, visuals and variations in the use of these materials, along with a small number of references. There is also a timeline for each era.
Links to Important Primary Sources
http://bss.sfsu.edu/mwilliams/hist110/lectures/hist110L1.pdf
Visual sources along with lecture outline.
Chapter 3
Annotated Useful Weblinks
http://www.mesacc.edu/~shess25581/Mesopotamia/index.htm
This site contains more than thirty-five slides with a combination of outlines of key topics such as Mesopotamian time line, maps of the region, and visuals of Cuneiform, daily life, and ceremonial architecture. The slides can be explored in more detail.
http://wysinger.homestead.com/Ancient-African-City-Jenne-jeno.html
This site contains a very good discussion of Jenne-Jeno, the history of settlement in the area and the formation of the early city. It also describes its role in the trans-Saharan gold trade and provides an effective map of that trade. It also includes a number of useful links to works on Jenne-Jeno and Kingdoms in West Africa.
http://nona-tepper.suite101.com/catal-huyuk-ancient-life-in-a-neolithic-city-a378160
Contains a description of various aspects of urban life in Catalhuyuk. It describes religious life, social organization, and its size. The site also includes citations for further reading on Catalhuyuk.
http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/87
The site reviews key elements in Thebes’ history from its role as a center for worship of Amon to the famous temples such as Karnak and Luxor. It gives the reader an in-depth description of Thebes as a ceremonial center and of the Thebes of the Dead, which developed across the Nile from Thebes, proper.
http://www.asor.org/overseas/baghistory.html
Prepared by the American School of Oriental research, the site gives a brief overview of archaeological work on the city by teams of British scholars. It includes visuals of the work and of the scholars involved in the exploration.
Links to Important Primary Sources
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/asbook03.asp#Babylonia
Chapter 4
Annotated Useful Weblinks
http://www.anciv.info/mesopotamia/religion-in-mesopotamia-and-primary-gods.html
This site contains information on the ancient world, including Mesopotamia and Egypt as well as the Indus Valley and ancient China. It provides a thorough description of religious belief and practices and the role of the calendar in marking religious feasts. Along with Mesopotamia there are also at least fifteen other links related to Mesopotamia. Each link carries at least an equal number of links.
http://www.crystalinks.com/chinamythology.html
This site contains a description of various Chinese gods and goddesses. It also includes links to other sites that feature various aspects of ancient Chinese society and History. The opening page discusses the writing of mythical tales from their beginning in the Wei and Jin Dynasties (220 ce–420 ce) and then moves to the gods and goddesses.
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Monotheism
The site contains a thorough discussion of monotheism and the various religious denominations that claim a belief in one God. It opens with an analysis of the early monotheistic religions, notably Zoroastrianism. It also reveals that the Greeks were among the first to promote monotheistic ideals, at least from a philosophical perspective. The site gives a good discussion of the major and minor monotheistic religions, from Judaism and Christianity to Islam and Sikhism.
http://history.cultural-china.com/en/167History8721.html
The site contains a brief explanation of the origins of Legalism and the belief that harsh punishment can regulate people. Legalism informed the rule of the Qin emperor and owed much to Han Fei Zi, one of the major philosophers propounding the ideas of legalism. The site has links to Han Fez Zi and his life.
http://www.unrv.com/culture/roman-religion.php
Religion played an important role in the personal lives of Rome’s early residents. The site briefly describes early religious beliefs and then the formation of the Roman pantheon. It also includes a discussion of the imperial era and the role of the pantheon in that period. The site has links to Roman festivals, Roman cults, Vestal Virgins and the popes and Christianity.
Links to Important Primary Sources
Chapter 5
Annotated Useful Weblinks
http://www.tendai-lotus.org/ennin-is-the-second-most-important-priest-of-tendai.html
This site contains a brief biography of Ennin, the second most important cleric in the Tendai Buddhist sect. His first contact with Buddhism came in 838 ce on a trip to China. He embraced Buddhism in the Tang capital of Chang’an. The site gives a short summary of his expulsion by the anti-Buddha emperor Wuzong and his return to Japan. The site contains many links to Buddhist teaching, practices and history, specifically the Tendai Sect.
http://www.buddhismtoday.com/english/world/country/027-korea.htm
This site contains a history of Buddhism in Korea during its early years. It begins when Buddhism first arrives in Korea in 372 ce. It then charts the spread of Buddhism during the three kingdoms period until the rise of Silla in the early sixth century ce. Buddhism continued as the national religion under the successor dynasty, the Koryo (935 ce– 1392 ce). Confucianism had made its way into Korea; yet it remained marginal until the rise of the Choson Dynasty. The Choson rulers embraced Neo-Confucianism; yet Buddhism survived, though at the margins. The site also includes descriptions of the main tenets of Mahayana Buddhism.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/spain_1.shtml#h2
The site describes the Umayyad policies of toleration for non-Muslims as well as the restrictions these groups bore under Umayyad rule. Toleration faded as Islamic power began to slip under pressure from Christian conquerors from the north. As Christians took over once-Muslim occupied territory, Muslims, too, faced increasing restrictions under the new rulers. Once the Castilians forced Muslims out of the Peninsula with the conquest of Granada in 1492 ce, the experience of Jews and non-Muslims as minorities became far worse.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/christianityromanempire_article_01.shtml
The site describes the background to the legalization of Christianity by Constantine. This analysis reviews the persecution of Christians by Nero in 64 ce. Over the succeeding centuries, emperors periodically ordered the persecution of Christians. The site also explains that the motivations for persecution and the intensity depended on the enthusiasm of local governors for the task of killing Christians. Constantine’s policy of toleration came in the wake of Diocletian’s furious persecution. While Constantine tolerated Christianity, many of his actions remained resolutely pagan.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/christianityromanempire_article_01.shtml
The site provides the student with an effective analysis of Manichaeism and its founder, Mani. He suffered condemnation and then crucifixion by the Persian ruler for his publicly promoted vision of new universal message. Mani considered himself the last of the prophets that include Zoroaster and Jesus. The piece describes the content of his views and then follows the spread his faith across Eurasia. The Manichaean community endured persecution by Persian rulers. It did spread into North Africa and Western Europe; yet by the fifth century had died out. It enjoyed a longer life in East Turkestan and in China. The article then describes in detail the content of the Mani’s religion.
Links to Important Primary Sources
http://www.baylor.edu/church_state/index.php?id=36168#medieval
The site contains scores of links to many primary sources for all the periods under consideration, from ancient and classical sources to documents from Islam, Christianity and Judaism. Baylor University sponsors the site.
Chapter 6
Annotated Useful Weblinks
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/domesday/world-of-domesday/default.htm
This is an excellent site for exploring the famous Domesday Book. Sponsored by the British National Archives, it contains multiple ways of understanding this noted census. Categories such as The Landscape, The Social Order, Life in Towns and Villages give the reader great insight into the period. For instance, in the section Focus on the Domesday Book the reader can discover the story behind the idea of conducting the census. It begins with a discussion of England’s ruler, Edward the Confessor, who had no heirs, thus prompting William to make a claim. There were disputes among William’s followers as to exactly what they controlled; thus the original motivation for the great survey. The results would also enable William to know the wealth of his kingdom and how much he could tax the population. The site also contains numerous visuals from the period as well as photos of sites still existent.
http://www.wa-pedia.com/history/heian_period_era.shtml
The site examines the history of the Heian period in Japan. It describes the dynamics of power invested largely in the Fujiwara nobility and the warrior class’s increasing challenge to its rule. It includes a discussion of the economy of Heian and the rise of a military class that would essentially take over in 1185 ce with the triumph of Yoritomo Minamoto and the Kamakura Shogunate. Several visuals accompany the piece.
http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/song/
The site contains multiple links to various aspects of China at this time. These consist of the Economic Revolution, Technology, Cities, Confucianism and the Outside World. Under each of these are more categories such as the Population Boom and Commercialization under the heading Economic Revolution. The home page shows various changing maps of the Song world with a brief introduction and an excerpt from Philip Curtian’s Cross-Cultural Trade in World History. Together the sections of this site provide the student with a thorough picture of the Song world.
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/zimb/hd_zimb.htm
The site provides insight into the Great Zimbabwe, of which only the fragments remains. It describes the features of the once great center as it exists today. The piece speculates on the purpose of the immense great walls that still stand, hundreds of years after their construction. The site also describes the Soapstone Birds that rest on columns. Their exact meaning remains open to scholarly debate. The site also includes links to related subjects, such as African Rock Art, Histories of Eastern and Southern Africa from 1000 ce until 1600 ce. Useful maps also accompany this site and the various links.
http://www.chroniclesofamerica.com/spanish-conquerors/tenochtitlan-mexico.htm
The site describes Mexican society and its great capital, Tenochtitlan. It gives a detailed tour of the capital as it existed on the eve of the Spanish conquest in 1521. It also incorporates an account of the Mexican gods and their role in Mexican society. The site features links to related topics such as Herman Cortes, the defeat of the Aztecs, as they are now popularly known, and many other topics tied to the Spanish conquest of the Americas.
Links to Important Primary Sources
http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/ps/cup/zhuxi_learning.pdf
Contains documents from all of Chinese History. For the purpose of this chapter, use the documents under the timeframe 1000–1450. These include Neo-Confucians and Song Dynasty government documents.
Chapter 7
Annotated Useful Weblinks
http://history-world.org/mongol_empire.htm
This site provides an effective background to the Mongols, from their early rise to their supremacy in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. It includes a discussion of gender and the freedom of women in the Mongol world, especially in comparison with Chinese women of the era. It also gives the reader an overview of the Mongol Empire and the scope of Mongol military campaigns. It discusses the issue of succession and the Mongol drive to the west. The site includes an analysis of the impact of the Mongols on the Islamic world and Mongol rule in China and cultural interaction with the Chinese. The site contains useful links to topics such as the Yuan Dynasty.
http://www.chinstitute.org/index.php/chm/twelfth-century/medieval-options/
The site reveals the many options available to women in the medieval world. These existed outside the boundaries of marriage and even the possibility of resisting an arranged marriage. Women could choose a life of celibacy as a nun, a common choice for many upper strata women in this period. Occasionally, women pursued a solitary life as a hermitess and lived a simple life in remote locations. In the expanding cities of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, women could and did choose to be Beguines. These women took vows of chastity and to help the sick and poor. A woman could renounce these vows and marry with no issues. The site describes other options for women and the role of individual women in forging new choices for their sisters.
http://krmdi.blogspot.com/2011/05/women-in-korean-society-historical.html
This site gives the reader a good understanding of the changes in women’s status from the Koryo to the Choson Dynasties in Korea. It follows changes in women’s status and protest into the nineteenth century and the impact of Christianity on Korean women.
http://countrystudies.us/india/89.htm
The site renders a thorough description of caste and class in India, and the place of women, occupations and inheritance in this system. It follows these issues into the modern period and gives the reader some insight as to the legacy of caste and class for Indians today. It also describes the inherent inequalities in the caste system and why Indians accommodate this system today. It also discusses the restraints on Brahmin women, the highest caste, and compares them to a Sweeper Bride from a lower caste.
http://www.dragonflydream.com/puebloindians.html
The information on this site traces the history of the Pueblo People in the Southwest from the Anasazi to the present day. It includes a description of current life among the Pueblo and the role of women in the contemporary family.
Links to Important Primary Sources
http://people.ucalgary.ca/~vandersp/Courses/texts/social/rmfrif.html
This website contains the letters of Gregory of Nazianus on divorce. It is part of a much larger collections of documents sponsored by Fordham University; see:
http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/women/womensbook.asp#Medieval%20Europe.
The site shows multiple time periods and topics and many primary resources for each one. Only two are used in drawing up questions. For access to all periods and places for women’s sources, see:
http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/women/womensbook.asp.
For the diary of Lady Sarashina, see:
http://history.hanover.edu/texts/diaries/diaryall.htm.
For access to the array of documents on women, see Fordham University’s site:
http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/women/womensbook.asp#Japan.
For access to all periods and places for women’s sources, see:
http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/women/womensbook.asp.
Chapter 8
Annotated Useful Weblinks
http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ik/klf.htm
The site provides the reader with a fuller picture of Khaldun and his life. It describes his early years and his educational background. The site follows his career from Tunisia and Morocco to Spain, as well as time in Egypt. Khaldun met several times with the great conqueror Tamerlane to negotiate terms for Damascus. He spent his last years in Egypt, where he died in 1406 ce. There is also a brief introduction to his magnum opus. The site has a number of links to Khaldun for more coverage of his life and activities.
http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/txt_ambedkar_castes.html
The site provides an in-depth look at the origins of caste and some of the key issues involved in this debate. It also reviews definitions of caste by some of the leading scholars in this field and then critiques these definitions. The intense study of caste also incorporates an analysis of Manu the lawgiver of India. The last three paragraphs summarize the main points of this long piece.
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Iroquois
The site provides a brief introduction to the history of the Iroquois people. It discusses issues such as the Iroquois Confederacy and the very beginnings of Iroquois. It also reviews some of the leading Iroquois kings and the various Haudenosaunee (their own name) Clans, along with their names. The piece features other issues, from their economy and landownership ideas to their notion of forestry and agriculture.
http://www.japan-101.com/history/history_kamakura_shogunate.htm
The Kamakura Shogunate is the feature of this site. It represented military rule of Japan and began more than 800 years of rule by a Shogun. It took its name from the city Kamakura. The death of the founder, Yoritomo Minamoto, led to the assumption of power by his wife, Hojo Masako. She actually moved power from the Minamoto clan to her own clan, the Hojo. Her clan resisted attempts by the emperor to regain his power and position.
http://www.unrv.com/culture/roman-slavery.php
The site reviews the place of slavery in the Roman world. The Empire relied on its wars of expansion to augment its slave population. The site discusses the impact of the huge surge of slaves into the Roman world. Slaves appeared in many settings, from mines to farming. The site also has links to other facets of the Roman Empire.
Links to Important Primary Sources
http://womeninworldhistory.com/silk-road-114.html
http://www.medievalsourcesbibliography.org/sources/176220870
http://www.colorado.edu/CAS/TEA/curriculum/imaging-japanese-history/medieval/pdfs/handout-M2.pdf
Chapter 9
Annotated Useful Weblinks
http://www.tutorgig.info/ed/Srivijaya
The site gives a solid account if the Srivijaya Empire from its beginnings to its final days. Based on Sumatra, the island empire developed into the thalassocratic system that depended on trade as well as alliances with other leaders in the region. Centered in Palembang, the Empire’s fleets crossed the Java Sea and Indian Ocean as well as patrolling the Melaka Straits. The site reviews the historiography of this largely forgotten empire. It also discusses its golden age and the art and culture of the Empire, as well as its legacy. The site also includes a list of the rulers, their names, and dates. There are also a number of links, along with a short bibliography for students to pursue the topic in more detail.
http://history-world.org/mongol_empire.htm
This site is listed in Chapter 8 and serves here as an introduction to the Mongols.
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/mali/hd_mali.htm
The site provides a concise account of the Mali Empire and its legendary figure Sundiata, as he is called in this piece. The site provides a concise account of the Mali Empire and the importance of Sundiata Keita in Mali history. The site gives a brief mention of Musa Mansa and his gold-laden pilgrimage to Mecca, the other famous Mali ruler. Muslim traveler Ibn Battuta visited Mali and wrote praises of its peaceable and prosperous nature. The site has a color map of the Empire and West Africa as well links to related topics such as the Ghanaian Empire and the trans-Saharan gold trade.
http://www.aztec-history.com/index.html
The site has a thorough account of the Mexicans, from their religion and language to their warriors and family life. It includes a timeline to provide the students with a chronology that accompanies the various topical analyses. The section Culture describes the social classes, the role of education, and details of each social class. Links to home, games, and music expand the scope of the site.
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ancient/lost-inca-empire.html
The coverage of the Inca Empire is taken from a NOVA broadcast. It includes visuals from the Inca past as well as a first-rate description of the Empire and its people. The site describes the wealth of the Inca and the opulence of Cuzco, the Inca capital. It includes an account of a Spanish conquistador upon seeing Cuzco and its wealth. There is a description of the famous Machu Pichu. Last, the site has an explanation of Pizzarro’s conquest of the Inca and the role of disease in weakening the Inca.
Links to Important Primary Sources
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/tartars.html
http://www.historywiz.com/primarysources/latinamericaprimary.html
Chapter 10
Annotated Useful Weblinks
http://www.harcourtschool.com/activity/biographies/musa/
The site gives a brief biography of Musa, and some description of the Male origins and the rule of his father and mention of his grandfather, the famous Sundiata. It provides the reader with a series of links to maps and visuals to pinpoint the geography discussed on the site. It also discusses the cultural accomplishments of Musa.
http://www.britishmuseum.org/pdf/MoneyInAfrica_Presentation.pdf
The site has a series of pictures and photos that focus on cowrie shells and a gold coin. As one scrolls down the pages, one encounters the topic “Other Sources of Money” and visuals depicting these other forms of currency. Then comes a series of etchings and photos showing Africans using cowrie shells. The first such page also has the counting system used in cowrie shells. The site discusses the cowrie equivalencies of a British farthing. The visuals on this page include a string of cowrie shells and the 1/10th British pennies. The following pages expand on the ways in which the colonial rulers attempted to impose their own currencies on their subjects. Pages generally have brief discussions and visuals.
http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/faxian.html
The site surveys the Buddhist monk Faxian and his life, and his spectacular journey to Central Asia and India. It features a lengthy excerpt from his writings that gives the student a keen view of the various places, events, and sights Faxian encountered.
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/gold/hd_gold.htm
The site provides the reader with a brief account of the gold trade across the Sahara, beginning with the domestication of the camel and the rise of the Ghanaian Empire in the fifth century. The gold trade stimulated the expansion of the caravan trade by Arab merchants. Their interaction with Berber traders also promoted the conversion of Berbers to Islam. The Soninke people who mined the gold kept its location secret, thereby preserving their own prosperity. The site moves to a discussion of the Mali Empire and the gold trade. The successor state, the Songhai, also relied on the gold trade. The site has important links to related topics for more investigation.
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2708vikings.html
The NOVA site features an excellent account of the Vikings and their activities. It includes numerous voiceovers from leading experts in the field of Viking History and solid narrative of the Vikings as an historical phenomenon. It opens with a discussion of the undeserved image of he Vikings held by contemporaries and the problems of working on these people, who left very few written records. There is a very good discussion of the archaeological work on Viking sites. The site gives a reader an excellent introduction to the Vikings.
Links to Important Primary Sources
http://www.hurstwic.org/history/articles/daily_living/text/longhouse.htm
The site has many links to daily life. The link used in the questions refers to the Longhouse.
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/ekkehard-aur1.asp
The excerpt from Ekkehard of Aurach “On the Opening of the First Crusade” comes from his Hierosolymita, a small volume issued after his visit to Jerusalem. Historians regard it as remarkably thorough and moderate in its expression. The document was selected from the Crusades-Encyclopedia and from the Partial Text section. The Encyclopedia has many documents students can examine.
Chapter 11
Annotated Useful Weblinks
http://teachers.yale.edu/curriculum/search/viewer.php?id=initiative_06.01.07_u&q=School%20Seminars&skin=h
Oral traditions and their transformation into film preserve the past in novel ways. The site deals with this transformation and its usefulness in the classroom. The author developed this interest through a visit to South Africa and then participating in a seminar on Stories around the World in Film, sponsored by Yale University. The site provides the reader with background on African storytelling and the oral tradition that thrives today. The author then explains the role of storytelling in the context of the community. The author also notes that African storytellers are professionals, such as the Griot, with intensive experience in many forms of expression. A discussion of using the film in the classroom is also included followed by an extensive analysis of African films. The site has a lesson plan intended for teachers and not students, but which may serve some usefulness for the undergraduate, especially the section on words and meanings. Other lesson plans provide background on specific African films, such as Keita: The Heritage of the Griot.
http://history.cultural-china.com/en/51History2941.html
The site contains a description of the Oracle bones and two visuals that give students the reality of the text. It describes their construction and use. The site reveals that some 4000 Chinese characters were identified from using these bones and that over 100,000 pieces have been recovered since their discovery in 1899. The site has important links that enable the reader to explore the bones in more detail.
http://islam.uga.edu/Sufism.html
The site provides a systematic introduction into Sufi Mysticism. The author, a scholar on the topic, describes the Sufis. He then gives the students a number of links, an integral part of the site, on various dimensions of Sufism, from Classical Definitions of Sufism and Islam’s Relationship with Sufism to Sufi Women and Sufis and the Qur’an. These come under the Table of Contents. One, the chapter “Sufi Orders in the West,” includes a thorough discussion of Orders in the West, including the United States. This particular chapter also has links to other sites that engage topics such as Science, Knowledge and Sufism.
http://www.distinguishedwomen.com/biographies/pisan.html
The site contains a brief biography of Christine de Pasan. She came from a distinguished family and her father, a doctor and astrologer, attended the court of Charles V of France. She suffered the death of her father and her husband, adding to the difficulties created by the new king, who had reduced his patronage to both men some years prior to their passing. The site describes her turn to writing and some of the many works she produced.
http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/592
The site features a brief description of the famous Temple built during the eighth and ninth centuries ce. Borobudur stands as one of the most stupendous Buddhist sites in the world. The word Borobudur comes from Sanskrit. The Temple was abandoned in the eleventh century ce and only rediscovered in the nineteenth century. The site gives an intimate description of the temple’s design. As one of the great wonders of Buddhism, Borobudur deserves our attention.
Links to Important Primary Sources
http://home.infionline.net/~ddisse/christin.html#anchor81960
Chapter 12
Annotated Useful Weblinks
http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/michaelofrhodes/life.html
The site has a good deal of material on Michael of Rhodes. His life is detailed in a series of links that are part of the site. These cover his life from 1401 until his death in 1445. For instance, the link on the years 1435–45 reviews the high position he held in the Venetian navy and his advice sought by investors. This link also covers his special missions, such as the 1437 mission to a major church council seeking help for the Byzantine emperor. The site also has several links to topics such as Mathematics, Ships and Ship Building, Navigation and Time Reckoning. Each of these has multiple links that provide students with information.
http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/eurvoya/henry1.html
The site renders an exhaustive portrait of Henry and his activities. The first page provides discussion of the siege of Ceuta and the implications of that siege for the Portuguese and their maritime ambitions, especially the capture of valuable maps. To move to the next page, click Tutorial. It describes the importance of Ceuta in terms of resources such as spices and the plans to revitalize the city’s failing economy. The page also engages the next series of voyages and the challenge of sailing on the open sea. The site also contains an assessment of Prince Henry.
http://www.chinaculture.org/gb/en_aboutchina/2003-09/24/content_22644.htm
The site features a concise biography of Zheng He and some of the outcomes of his voyages. The Treasure ships carried many Chinese products that were traded at the many stops of the fleet. These included brocade, gauze, and enamelware with Chinese characters. The site also discusses some of the items Zheng brought back to the emperor. His subordinates wrote Travel Notes of Foreign Countries.
http://www.lasentinel.net/African-Slave-Castles.html
The site places El Mina in the context of African slave castles. It includes a well-drawn map of these castles and a picture of Cape Coast Castle. It also features a drawing of Africans packed in one of the small cells where they were temporarily held until sale. Another photo captures the horror of the dungeons of these forts. The site has a thorough discussion of these forts as centers for slave trading and the importance of gold in the early trade.
http://tonydunnell.suite101.com/a-history-of-the-potosi-mines-in-bolivia-a129035
The site describes the historical Potosi and the grueling conditions in which men mined the silver. The working conditions exposed men to numerous toxins and poisons. Millions died in these hellholes so the Spanish could reap the wealth of the silver. The city grew to 200,000, one of the largest in the world. The site discusses the decline of Potosi.
Links to Important Primary Sources
Chapter 13
Annotated Useful Weblinks
http://citizendia.org/Early_world_maps#Fra_Mauro_world_map_.281459.29
The map is part of a large number of such maps accessible through this website. By clicking the main article, the student is taken to a concise description of the map and a brief history of the Fra Maruo production. This site website address is:
http://citizendia.org/Fra_Mauro_map.
Links within this description take the student to related topics such as the Monastery of San Michel in Isola, where Mauro had his studio. The majority of the site is devoted to an explanation, with excerpts from his original description.
http://www.religioustolerance.org/voodoo.htm
The site gives the reader an in-depth look at Vodun, from its West African origins to its presence in the Caribbean. It delineates states where Vodun is practiced, from Benin in West Africa to Haiti and the United States. It briefly discusses its history in the West and its ties to Roman Catholicism. It then lists the main beliefs of Vodun as well as providing a comparison with Catholicism. The site describes Vodun rituals and lists the various Internet sites where a student can pursue more information.
http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/people/kongo.html
The site gives a concise description of the Kingdom of Kongo and its relationship with the Portuguese and the Catholicism. It also discusses the court system in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Last, it reviews the original belief system and the place of Nzambi, the supreme god, in that system. The site concludes that the Kongolese people retained many of their beliefs and merged these with the adopted Christianity.
http://www3.gettysburg.edu/~tshannon/hist106web/site7/economy_of_colonial_mexico.htm
The site provides an overview of the Mexican colonial economy and the role of silver mining, processing and shipping to Spain in that economy. It reviews the mining activity in the seventeenth century and the illegal trade that developed with Manila. It goes on to discuss the economy in the eighteenth century. The site includes a map. There are also links to Silver Industry of Mexico, Merchants, and Miners.
http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/22470/1/WP21.pdf
This site features material drawn from a dissertation on the tributary system completed at the London School of Economics. While the paper runs to some forty pages, a useful abstract precedes it. It highlights the direction of the paper and makes some of its key points. It focuses on the tributary system during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It stresses the importance of the ideological underpinnings of the system for its survival. The paper has several effective maps. The paper includes a brief discussion of the historiography of the tributary system.
Links to Important Primary Sources
http://college.cengage.com/history/west/resources/students/primary/slavetrade.htm
Chapter 14
Annotated Useful Weblinks
http://www.enotes.com/topic/Akbar
The site provides a good discussion of Akbar’s life and his accomplishments. His full name was Akbar and he ruled the Mughal Empire from 1542 ce until his death in 1605 ce. It reviews his military innovations such as new and durable chain plate mail and the war elephants, along with the latest matchlocks. The site describes his administration and his reorganization of the bureaucracy. The site also discusses his relations with the Portuguese, the Ottomans, and the Safavids. The site has numerous links to explore other topics.
http://www.shotokai.cl/filosofia/06_ee_.html
The site provides the reader with a concise description of Bushido as the influence of Zen Buddhism and Confucianism on this Code. It also discusses the way in which the Code became a property of the nation and no longer attached to the samurai. The abolition of that class in 1871 meant the Code, which had become a general idea by the nineteenth century, moved to a broader constituency, the Nation. By the 1930s and early 1940s it had become a strong support for Japanese nationalism and to maintain the morale of civilians during World War II.
http://womenshistory.about.com/od/wollstonecraft/a/wollstonecraft-legacy.htm
The site has a concise biography of Wollstonecraft, famous for her A Vindication of the Rights of Women. It discusses Wollstonecraft from the women’s perspective and the feminist perspective. She was also a product of the Enlightenment and showed an intense commitment to Reason. She was also interested in the contrast between the novel, ideas raised in her period, and the realities of the lives of women. The site includes a number of links on Wollstonecraft for more information and analysis.
http://home.wtal.de/hh/merian/meng.htm
The site explores the life of Maria Merian, an accomplished expert on insects and plants. She lived in a world where women found insurmountable barriers to joining the scientific community; yet she managed to forge a career in this male preserve. The site discusses her early life and the importance of her stepfather in developing her talents. Her trip to Dutch Surinam led to the release of her Metamorphosis Insectorum Surinamemsium. Her daughter published her life’s work after her death.
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/machiavelli/
The site has a thorough and up-to-date account of the famed Florentine author and adviser Machiavelli. The account studies his major works, such as The Prince, and his ideas on political power, which were novel for the time. The site also justifies the study of Machiavelli and his place in history. Machiavelli was hardly sympathetic to liberty and popular speech, which the author pints out clashed with the Florentine’s commitment to security. Yet, in his writings he favors the people who are more competent to make effective decisions when competing plans are laid before them. Machiavelli also was partial to republican regimes. The site incorporates numerous links, including to Machiavelli’s books.
Links to Important Primary Sources
Chapter 15
Annotated Useful Weblinks
http://www.rmg.co.uk/harrison
The site gives a history of the search for a way of measuring longitude to pinpoint the location of a ship at sea. The site has a concise account of Harrison, his early life and career. The site includes the work done by Harrison and his brother, James, on time-keeping devices. The device, which met the needs of Board of Longitude, took several major efforts to achieve and required a good deal of work and patience on Harrison’s part. By 1765 he satisfied the Board and was duly given the prize for his clock. The site concludes with an account of Rupert Gould and his restoration of Harrison’s time-keeping devices.
http://www.cruise-charter.net/history-of-sailing/galleon.aspx
The site has a concise description of the galleon, its origins, its dimensions and its assets. It describes some of military advantages. It was able to carry large cannon that were very effective in naval battles. The site includes links to other ships of the era from cogs and caravels to galleys and carracks.
http://www.enotes.com/topic/Koxinga
The site has a thorough discussion of Koxinga’s life and opposition to the Qing rulers. The site reviews his wide-ranging activities, including his raids on the Philippines, his dealings with the Spanish, and his relationship with Friar Riccio. It discusses his ties with the Ming court and the last Ming rulers, as well as his sixteen-year struggle against the Qing.
http://www.shmoop.com/colonial-new-england/economy.html
The site considers the New England colonial economy and its ties to the Atlantic world. New England came to depend on an Atlantic trade network for its lifeblood. Its ships ranged from Africa to England and the Caribbean. New England was also a major shipbuilder and provided much of the maritime muscle that made the Atlantic such a successful enterprise. The site discusses the ways in which New England merchants reacted to British regulatory measures by broadening out their range of markets.
http://www.rmg.co.uk/captain-cook
The site has a description of Cook’s life and his maritime activities. It focuses on his Pacific Ocean ventures and the role of the British government in ordering these voyages. It discusses the ship chosen for the voyages and its assets. It then summarizes the three voyages.
Links to Important Primary Sources
Chapter 16
Annotated Useful Weblinks
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Ptolemy
The site has a detailed account of Ptolemy’s life and a discussion of his geocentric (Earth-centered) cosmological System. He site also discusses his work in astronomy and why he concluded that the Earth must be at the center of everything. The site explains Ptolemy’s reason for his conclusion. Included is a thorough discussion of his other famous work, Geographia. There are number of useful links topic related to Ptolemy.
http://sjapc.net/content/francis-xavier-founder-jesuit-mission-asia-our-inspiration-today
This is a Jesuit site. It gives a very personal view of Francis Xavier and his accommodating local cultures, a practice followed by Matteo Ricci and other Jesuits who came to Asia. The site incorporates many relevant excerpts from Xavier’s writing and illustrates his attitudes toward many critical issues.
http://www.answers.com/topic/anna-nzinga
The site fills out the biography of one of Africa’s greatest women and woman rulers. As the site points out, she actively opposed the slave trade. She held a number of key diplomatic posts and had a successful record in negotiating with the Portuguese to suspend the slave trade in her country, Ndongo. Eventually she took over the throne of her country to resist new Portuguese aggression. The site makes clear that she assembled an anti-Portuguese coalition that held the Portuguese at bay for many years. In the end the Portuguese persisted and held on for another 300 years. The site includes several links to explore more details of her long life.
http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/cp/vol-05/no-02/namias/index.shtml
The site records the activities of Vitus Bering, who explored much of the Arctic and North Pacific for imperial Russia. The site sets the background for Bering’s exploration, ordered by Peter the Great in 1728 ce. His encounter with the Aleutian People marked a first for both peoples. The site covers much of the activity and examines the fur trade, the real draw to this distant part of Russia. The site also describes the successful Russian efforts to set up forts and stations all the way to the Pacific. Bering’s efforts provided useful information that filled Russian maps. The site includes photos, period maps, and etchings.
http://www.culturalsurvival.org/ourpublications/csq/article/quilombo-brazilian-maroons-during-slavery
The site gives a well-rounded analysis of Palmares and its residents. Palmares was a federation of maroon communities that ranged up to 30,000 people and represented a major challenge to the slave-based Brazilian economy and state. Located in Pernambuco in northeast Brazil, for some scholars Palmares constituted a genuine African state in Brazil. The state also reviews the literature on the Quilombo such as Palmares.
Links to Important Primary Sources
Chapter 17
Annotated Useful Weblinks
http://www1.chinaculture.org/created/2006-01/20/content_78346.htm
This site describes the mausoleum and the influence of Confucianism on the royal tombs. There is a brief discussion of Confucianism and its tenet of filial piety and the patriarchal social order. The site notes that the dead were treated exactly like the living and this practice even extended to reporting on daily affairs. It opens up a review of geomancy and the residence. The site also discusses the kind of locations that best sited an emperor’s tomb and some of the geomancy associated with the placement. The site examines specific tombs so that students can understand the workings of geomancy.
http://www.xabusiness.com/china-resources/chinese-garden.htm
The site contains a description of Chinese gardens from the Ming and Qing era. It provides a good introduction to the types of gardens found throughout China during these dynasties. It reviews the imperial gardens, mostly located in north China, and describes their general characteristics. The site also examines private gardens, which flourished in the Ming and Qing eras, and includes examples from two of the great cities in south China, Yangzhou and Suzhou. The site lists links with other cultural and artistic topics pertinent to China.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/462761/Plains-Indian/260985/Material-culture-and-trade
The site presents an exhaustive review of the impact of the horse on the Plains people. It opens with a good summary of life on the Plains from 10,000 years ago until the coming of the horse. Generally forgotten in the public mind, because of the influence of national histories, is that for almost all of the past ten to fifteen millennia the indigenous people lived without the horse, a very recent arrival in the historical record. The site conforms with the perspective of the text in that guns began showing up with the horse and both altered the indigenous lifestyles. The site incorporates topics such as settlements and dwellings, material culture and trade, and socialization and education of the young, as well as many other topics related to the Plains people.
http://www.thefreelibrary.com/The+Essence+of+Commodification%3a+Caffeine+dependencies+in+the+early...-a082066731
The site provides an in-depth look at coffee as a commodity and at caffeine dependencies in the early modern world. The site contains a description of the chemical content of coffee and its capacity to amaze and mesmerize the potential drinkers of the early modern world. The site reminds the reader that coffee was just one of the drinks that incorporated caffeine. Others included tea and cocoa. The site includes a detailed discussion of these drinks as well. Coffee and tea were also social drinks, in that consumers gathered to drink these beverages. For example, coffeehouses flourished in Istanbul and then made the leap to Europe and Great Britain. The site even discusses yerba mate, a drink native to South America, in considerable detail. The section on coffee as an exotic drink describes the immense appeal of coffee to Europeans as well as the means by which tea gained popularity on the continent. Excellent citations accompany the article and provide sources for more reading.
http://ils.unc.edu/dpr/path/kabuki/
The site focuses on Japanese kabuki theater, one of the forms of urban entertainment that delighted audiences from Osaka to Edo in Tokugawa Japan. It appeared at the beginning of the Tokugawa period (1600 ce–1868 ce). The founder, Okuni, was a Shinto priestess, and a cast of women originally performed kabuki. The site points out the racy character of kabuki performances, often performed in sets of questionable moral value such as a red light district. Eventually, as the site continues, kabuki developed into an all-male form.
Links to Important Primary Sources
Chapter 18
Annotated Useful Weblinks
http://www.nyhistory.org/node/580/gallery
The site provides visuals of revolutionaries from the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. The most important ones consist of two paintings of Toussaint L’Ouverture, one of Jean-Baptiste Belley and one of George Washington. One needs to look carefully at Washington’s picture to see the contradiction between the man as a revolutionary and as a slaveholder. The other irony advocated by an objective approach to history is that he is cast with two major anti-slavery figures, one the leader of the only successful revolution that intended to achieve independence and to forcibly and dramatically abolish slavery. The other anomaly is the mating of Thomas Paine’s and his common sense with Washington. The irony is that Paine was an anti-slavery advocate and, if he had been successful, the end of slavery would have undermined the position and wealth of Washington, a slave owner. So, the site is very useful to make the reader meditate on why such incompatible images are placed there in the first place.
http://www.age-of-the-sage.org/history/historian/Leopold_von_Ranke.html
The site features a concise biography of one of the seminal historians of the nineteenth century, Leopold von Ranke. He advocated an objective approach to history in contrast to the traditional forms that combined the past with contemporary attitudes. In the appendix to his book, History of the Latin and Teutonic Nations, 1494–1514, von Ranke laid out the basis for his criticism of past practices. The book won him a position at the University of Berlin, where he would remain for the rest of his career. Ironically, the Prussian government, to whom he owed his position, also made him editor of the Historische-Politische-Zeitschrift, a periodical. In this editor’s position he wrote some of his best work. He later became the historiographer of King William IV in 1841. The site gives students some idea of the content of the history profession in the nineteenth century.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/72067/Simon-Bolivar
The site gives the student a thorough introduction to Bolivar and the issues of this age of revolution. His early years were filled with tragedy, notably the death of his wife. He spent time in Paris, where he encountered his childhood tutor, Simon Rodríguez, who recommended the writings of many rationalist thinkers, such as Voltaire, who inspired his own notion of independence for South America. The site reviews the early moves of Latin America for independence and Bolivar’s involvement. The site covers his military and political actions in pursuit of independence.
http://www.historydoctor.net/Advanced%20Placement%20European%20History/Notes/revolutions_of_1848.htm
The site covers the revolutions in three states: France, the Austrian Empire, and Prussia. The site points out that a poor harvest preceded the outbreak of these revolutions and violence was on the upswing as the revolutions broke out. Moderates and radicals divided the revolutionaries in France. The political debate at the national level occurred between liberal capitalism and radical socialism, and then morphed into an armed conflict and soon revolution. In Austria the uprising began in Hungary as a form of nationalism. The rebellions in both Austria and France eventually collapsed. In Prussia middle-class liberals and factory workers temporarily joined forces to compel the ruling monarch to promise a new, more enlightened constitution, but this was never delivered.
http://libcom.org/history/1871-the-paris-commune
The site gives an encapsulated description of the Paris Commune of 1871, considered by many the first socialist working-class uprising. The event began in the wake of France’s defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71. The Parisian National Guard held on to the city after the surrender of France to Germany. The government sent troops to retake the city but the workers in Paris joined forces with the National Guard and a battle erupted. The site reviews some of the radical political actions and statements of the communards, which angered and threatened the government and the ruling elite. Labor unions joined the resisters. The French regular army killed some 30,000 communards.
Links to Important Primary Sources
http://college.cengage.com/history/primary/haiti.htm
http://www.marxists.org/history/france/archive/lissagaray/index.htm
Chapter 19
Annotated Useful Weblinks
http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/cotton_industrial_revolution.htm
The site introduces the student to the general topic of industrialization in Great Britain. Industrialization grew dramatically in the North of England, where industry recruited whole families, especially those engaged in domestic industry. The region, as the site notes, depended on Liverpool as an entrance for raw materials from around the world. The site reviews the series of technological innovation. Then comes a discussion of the various hand-held tools. The site also covers some aspects of factory life such as the harsh working conditions, child labor, and long hours; as well as the remedial legislation to correct the situations. The introduction of Robert’s power loom meant workers of any age or sex could now be integrated in the production cycle.
http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/timeline/riseind/railroad/
The site has an introduction to railroads in the United States from the late nineteenth century into the 1920s. It includes a description of the scale of the rail lines and a brief discussion of the transcontinental lines that crossed the United States. It also describes the dimension of working on a rail construction and the hard physical labor. It has a link to American environment photographs.
http://www.robinsonlibrary.com/technology/mining/metallurgy/darby.htm
The site provides a brief biography of Darby and his move to Bristol, where he opened a business. In 1798 he established the Bristol Iron Company in Coalbrookdale in the Severn Valley. The availability of coal in the valley was an important draw. The site follows the Darby family over several generations and recounts their activities in the iron and bridge-building business. It also includes pictures of the various sites, such as the first iron bridge built by Abraham Darby III. The site also discusses the connection between Darby and other industrial pioneers of the era, such as Thomas Newcomen and Richard Trevithick.
http://mises.org/daily/2443
Written by conservative economist F. A. Hayek, the site reviews the early British factory and its impact on industrialization. He is critical of some of the nineteenth-century commission reports that paint a dreary picture of industrial locations. He also reports on one of these, the Sadler Report, and notes that Sadler was using the report as part of his overall plan to push for the ten-hour workday. He then reviews the weaknesses of the report and its biases. He also tries indirectly to make a case for child labor. He thoroughly comments on various medical reports about factory children. He also argues in the document that workers often blocked improvements by the owners, such as the effort to introduce ventilating devices in the factory.
http://www.robinsonlibrary.com/technology/mining/biography/bessemer.htm
The site gives the students some background information on Henry Bessemer, one of the chief architects of the steel industry. His father was an engineer and the son inherited his father’s abilities. Bessemer began inventing at age 17 years. The site discusses his various inventions and spends a good deal of space on the Bessemer converter that made inexpensive steel possible. It discusses some of the challenges involved in this innovation. The site has links to other Bessemer discussions.
Links to Important Primary Sources
Chapter 20
Annotated Useful Weblinks
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Suez_Canal
The site provides a concise and effective history of the Suez Canal from its conception to the present day. The idea for a canal stretches back several thousand years; the modern version came to fruition in 1869. Ancient versions of the canal existed, and archaeological and documentary evidence suggests these ancient canals were in operation in one form or another until the 700s ce. With a concession granted by Said Pasha, the French Suez Canal Company undertook the massive project completed in 1869. The site points out that an estimated 120,000 people died in the course of completing the canal. Eventually the British seized control of Egypt as a Protectorate and in 1888 the canal was declared a neutral site under British protection. The site also describes the operation of the canal and provides photos and etchings of the canal from its beginnings to the present day. Last, a map at the end of the site gives a good picture of the Suez Canal and its route to the Mediterranean Sea.
http://www.allaboutscience.org/what-is-social-darwinism-faq.htm
The site engages a powerful discussion of Social Darwinism and its dangerous implications. It provides a simple definition of the “Strong Shall Survive” and explains that the theory was used to justify the claims to superiority of the European race. It describes the ways Europeans reasoned they were the superior race and the implications of that conclusion as it morphed into the right-wing radical ideologies of the twentieth century, including Nazism and its extermination policies. The site also reviews Darwin’s position on extending his biological ideas to the social world of human interaction. At the end of the site there is a link to a more thorough explanation of Darwin’s ideas.
http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Maji_Maji_Rebellion
The site gives a brief account of the Maji Maji Rebellion in Tanganyika from 1905 to 1907. It opens with a short description of Germany’s imperial activities in Africa and the colonies that came under her control. Their control in what was labeled German East Africa was weak and invited opposition. To strengthen their hold, the Germans resorted to brutal measures to establish their dominance. These began with a head tax in 1888 and a decision to compel locals to cultivate cash crops. Men were also forced away from their communities to meet German demands for labor; women began to take over male roles. Resources also withered and then a severe drought in 1905, matched with the fury over German policies, precipitated the rebellion. The site also discusses the use of magic and the debate about its meaning. The site follows the rebellion from its beginnings to its tragic end, and outlines the consequences of the uprising for the people involved.
http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,988159-4,00.html
Salman Rushdie provides a critical and eye-opening review of Gandhi’s life and his place both in world history and in India’s past. He writes that Gandhi embraced aspects of outdated technology and culture as a solution to India’s troubles and rejected what was considered modern at the time. He also comments on the epic movie Gandhi, in which the character succeeds by becoming more moral than his opponents and forcing them to obey their own moral code. Rushdie even raises the point that the main impetus to independence came not from Gandhi but from the collapse of the British bureaucratic hold on India, and the disastrous impact of World War II on Great Britain brought an end to British rule.
http://www.mexonline.com/history-porfiriodiaz.htm
The site gives a short account of Diaz’s life and his political and economic activities as leader of Mexico from the late nineteenth century until his overthrow in 1910. The site reviews his rise, from his student days to becoming a soldier and then national leader. His policies stressed economic development at any cost. The policy succeeded in creating an industrial infrastructure but led to great hardships for peasants and urban workers and the poor. Ultimately a revolution forced him out of office and into exile.
Links to Important Primary Sources
http://caho-test.cc.columbia.edu/dbq/11021.html
http://members.shaw.ca/bcsk/primsrcf/petitions/78_0201StLaurent.html
Chapter 21
Annotated Useful Weblinks
http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/FWWtrenchsystem.htm
The site provides a brief introduction to the trenches. Its chief asset is the visual, which depicts a German trench system in marvellous detail. The layered system of German trenches gives one an idea of how demanding it was for Allied troops to break into German lines. The site then reviews the key elements of the trench scheme and in each description there are links within the paragraph. One click and the student will find a visual display of a sandbag or a dugout and so forth. There is also an enlarged depiction of the item. There are over ten of these depictions, with accompanying text.
http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/bolsheviks_in_power.htm
The site describes the challenges facing the Bolsheviks upon seizing power in November 1917. They controlled only a tiny fragment of Russia and confronted unknown enemies. Their assets included an heroic and ruthless leader, Vladimir Lenin, and a gifted military commander, Leon Trotsky, as well as an extremely able body of political leaders, the Commissars. The site focuses on some of the key decisions, such as to leave the war, and the consequences of such decisions. Lenin then used the time freed up by the peace with Germany to turn to the business of governing and the forthcoming civil war.
http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/benito_mussolini.htm
The site provides the student with a good description of Mussolini’s career and his early life. He matured in a very Catholic household and one opposed to the king. He developed a passion for politics early in life and pursued this with gusto. He was a union organizer in the years before the war and an anti-expansionist. All this would change after the war, an event in which he was an intense participant. A war wound ended his military career in 1917. An Italian nationalist persuaded Mussolini that Italy received very little for its participation.
http://www.notablebiographies.com/St-Tr/Sun-Yat-Sen.html#b
Sun Yat-sen inspired many young Chinese with republican aspirations to join in the great debates on China and its future. He studied in Hawaii and then returned to his home community in China. He completed his medical degree but then turned to politics and China’s situation. The site discusses his political participation. His position as leader of the government was a shaky one which he lost and temporarily regained. Disappointed by the West he turned to the Soviet Union, which gave him military support. He never became undisputed leader of China and died of cancer in Peking in 1925.
http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005189
An excellent site for learning the horrors of Auschwitz, which the Nazis used as a work and extermination camp. The site describes the internal dimensions of the camp and its location near Krakow. The SS ran the camp and periodically an SS officer from the main headquarters inspected it. The camp was formally divided into three sites. The camp served three purposes: to imprison enemies of the Reich, to create a supply of slave labor, and to target small groups for execution. The site includes the numbers of people brought to the camp and their countries of origin. It also reviews the sub-camps and the liberation of Auschwitz. There is also a good list of works on the topic for further reading.
Links to Important Primary Sources
Chapter 22
Annotated Useful Weblinks
http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/ho_chi_minh.htm
The site contains a brief biography of Ho Chi Minh, one of the leading revolutionaries of the twentieth century. He came from a well-off family and an educated family. His father, Nguyen Sinh Huy, refused to learn French, the language the colonial rulers required in the classroom. Faced with unemployment, the site records that he traveled throughout the country offering his services to peasants. In this way Ho Chi Minh learned of the plight of the poor and worst off in his country. For Ho the contrast between the poor and the colonial rulers, who lived in style, was shocking. The site traces his life from his early days through his time in France and his encounter with Marxism. It provides a narrative of his political activities and opposition to foreign imperial powers. It serves as a solid introduction to Ho Chi Minh. The site has several links to key moments or individuals in the Vietnamese struggle, such as Dien Bien Phu and Vo Nguyen Giap.
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Mau_Mau_Uprising
The site gives students a thorough introduction to the Mau Mau uprising in Kenya, then under British rule. The uprising occurred between 1952 and 1960 and involved mostly members of the Kikuyu people. The British posed a moral argument for their colonial presence, one they assured the Kenyan people would benefit them. At some point in the distant future, those in Kenya would be ready for self-rule. The site discusses the origins of the uprising in the economic disparities between ruled and rulers. The site describes the British reaction and use of military force, as well as concessions made once the conflict ended.
http://latinamericanhistory.about.com/od/thehistoryofmexico/a/08panchovilla.htm
The site places Villa in the center of the revolutionary movement in Mexico. He came from a very poor family of sharecroppers and experienced the hardships of life. His early life as a bandit proved a training ground for some of the skills he would need as an opponent of the Mexican government. His followers made him one of the leading figures of the revolution in northern Mexico. The site also provides a good description of the course of the revolution and the battle between Villa and leading figures in the revolution. The site includes a discussion of the US expedition to capture Villa for his raid on a US community. At the end of the site, there is a consideration of Villa’s legacy. The site has a number of links to topics related to the revolution.
http://www.iranchamber.com/history/mohammad_rezashah/mohammad_rezashah.php
The site covers the reign of Mohammad Reza. It records actions such as becoming a solid ally of the West and his White Revolution that aimed at ending illiteracy, granting women the franchise and promoting land reform. His arbitrary rule and his suppression of opposition earned him an increasingly unfavorable image in the eyes of many Iranians. The site explains that the Ayatollah Khomeini was able to direct the growing discontent onto the Shah.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7873613.stm
The piece featured on this site is a BBC article reflecting on the momentous decision to resist the Communist rulers in Poland. He author spoke with the major participants to learn what they were experiencing during the movement to unseat the Communist rulers. Lech Walesa, the leader, and Jerzy Urban, the government spokesman, recount their memories of those days. There is also an account of reaction to the recent recession and opinions about capitalism.
Links to Important Primary Sources
http://historicaltextarchive.com/sections.php?action=read&artid=138
Chapter 23
Annotated Useful Weblinks
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Rachel_Carson
Carson’s life provides an insight into the way individuals can shape the fragile environment. Carson grasped very early the delicate balance between nature and humans. As the site notes, she wrote very successful books about this relationship in addition to Silent Spring. As a marine biologist and a zoologist she was eminently qualified to write on environmental issues. The site gives the student an account of her education and her eventual acceptance as a full-time professional by the Bureau of Fisheries. The site includes a discussion of the impact of Silent Spring on the banning of DDT, a difficult struggle given the power of the pesticide lobby. Her works have had a global impact.
http://www.cropsreview.com/cash-crops.html
The site defines cash crops and gives examples of these edibles and non-edibles. Farmers rely on cash crops as they are market-oriented and derive their income from cash crops. The site contrasts cash crops with subsistence crops, which farmers and their families consume. Some crops, such as corn, serve both the market demands and the personal needs of the farmer. In Asia rice is a major export crop and many countries, including China, India, Pakistan, Thailand and Vietnam, are major sellers of rice on the international markets. The site describes industrial crops intended for the manufacture of non-food products, and these are marketed to processors. The site has several visuals of cash crops and useful links to explore the topic in more detail.
http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/deforestation-overview/
Deforestation has become a major global issue. Forests are cut down mostly for money and market demands. The impact is greatest on animal and insect life, the ecological niches of which are destroyed by cutting down the forests. The lack of trees also impacts the climate in negative ways, notably exposing the surface to constant sunlight and removing needed moisture from the soil. The site suggests some solutions.
http://www.bhopal.com/~/media/Files/Bhopal/1991_Review_order.pdf
This site has the original Supreme Court of India’s decision in the Bhopal case involving Union Carbide and its Indian subsidiary, Union of India. Since the site has the original legal document, which is quite long, students should read from around page 588 through roughly 605. The case dealt with the emission of poisonous gas, which killed 4000 people and severely injured another 15,000 in Bhopal, India. It is useful to see what the court wrote about damages and injuries suffered on such a large scale. Students can read documents from the entire case by going to http://www.bhopal.com/, which has links to all the key documents, including the Supreme Court decision. The case is useful in an age when such events can happen with great speed and kill or maim so many people.
http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/omi0bio-1
The site features a biography of the founder of eBay, Pierre Omidyar, an Iranian-American entrepreneur and scientist. A Graduate of Tufts University with a degree in computer science, he worked at Apple before starting his own company, Development Company, later eShop, Inc. The site explains the way he became interested in person-to-person auction and the surprise over his first sales. In 1997 he changed the name of the company to eBay. The site describes eBay’s success. Omidyar has become deeply involved in philanthropic activities since the company’s astounding success.
Links to Important Primary Sources
http://bhopal.org/fileadmin/content/documents/ContaminationBrief.pdf
http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/iwma/archive/eichhoff/iwma-history/index.htm
Chapter 24
Annotated Useful Weblinks
http://jacanaent.com/Biographies/Pages/XiaopingD.htm
This site features Deng Xiaoping, the most powerful leader in China from the mid-1970s into the 1980s. He had been with Mao on the Long March and served him in the Civil War. He held a series of important government posts in the 1950s. His pragmatism clashed with Mao’s ideological bent. By 1975 he had become the national leader in China. The site examines his critical reforms and his struggles to maintain stability. He believed the fate of the People’s Republic of China rested on the success of the economy. He saw the failure of the Soviet system as rooted in its economic policies. The site reviews in detail his life and struggles.
http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch17jeru3.htm
The site covers the migration of Jews to Palestine during the 1930s before the horror of Word War II and while the British still governed the country. As the site makes clear, hostility toward Jews sharpened with the onset of the Great Depression and many sought refuge in Palestine. They arrived with little more than their talents and skills since departing countries, especially Germany place restrictions on what they could take with them.. The rise in the number of Jews created anger on the part of the Arabs and turmoil ensued. This turned to violence when Arabs began conducting attack against Jews. Sadly, the British seeing war on the horizon and wanting friendly Arab state ended the migration of Jews at a critical moment.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1116810/
The site reviews China’s controversial One Child Policy for married couples. Announced in 1979, it remains in place to the present day. The site discusses population growth since the 1950s and the impact of rapid growth on the state and the economy. It describes the origins of the policy and its details. The real challenge was implementation, especially in a booming economy when people frequently moved for jobs. Family planners found their charge almost impossible at times.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/subdivisions/pentecostal_1.shtml
The site provides a brief introduction to the Global Pentecostal Movement. It describes their basic beliefs and their notion that the Pentecostal are returning to a pure and original Christianity lost over the centuries. It is not a church as much as a movement, and it has many different local churches and stresses renewal or revival. Its churches are found throughout the world, from Seoul, Korea to Australia.
http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/guideDesc.asp?catid=131&type=issue
The site gives the student a brief overview of the origins of Catholic Liberation Theology and why it failed to survive as an active creed for Catholics in Latin America. The theology began a series of statements issued during the Second Latin America Bishops Conference held in Colombia in 1968. It was proposed to merge the teachings of Jesus Christ with the tenets of Marxism as a way to topple the economics of capitalism. The conference relied on the various Biblical injunctions against the rich as a way to justify the redistribution of wealth in Latin America. The foundation text, A Theology of Liberation, appeared in 1971 and was penned by Gustavo Gutierrez, a noted Peruvian theologian. The site has a number of links that enhance the description of Liberation Theology.
Links to Important Primary Sources
http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/govt1900.htm
http://resources.primarysource.org/content.php?pid=161302&sid=1363677