Glossary of key terms
180-degree rule the convention that cameras are positioned only on one side of an imaginary line drawn to connect two performers in a scene. This produces a coherent sense of space for the viewer.
active audience television audiences regarded not as passive consumers of meanings, but as negotiating meanings for themselves that are often resistant to those meanings that are intended or that are discovered by close analysis.
actuality footage television pictures representing an event that was filmed live. The term usually refers to pictures of news events.
adaptation transferring a novel, theatre play, poem, etc. from its original medium into another medium such as television.
aesthetic a specific artistic form. Aesthetics means the study of art and beauty.
affiliates local television stations (normally in the USA) that have made agreements (affiliations) with a network to broadcast programmes offered by that network rather than another.
analogue broadcasting signals in waves of varying frequency. Analogue signals require greater space or ‘bandwidth’ than digital signals, and do not allow interactive response from viewers.
Annan Committee a committee reporting in 1977 to government on the future of broadcasting. It supported public service broadcasting, the funding of the BBC by licence fee, and the planned introduction of a fourth television channel.
anthology a series of separate unconnected programmes broadcast under a shared title.
anthropology the study of humankind, including the evolution of humans and the different kinds of human society existing in different times and places.
art video the use of video technology in artistic work intended for gallery exhibition.
audience share the percentage of viewers estimated to have watched one channel as opposed to another channel broadcasting at the same time.
authorship the question of who an author is, the role of the author as creator and the significance of the author’s input into the material being studied.
avant-garde work aiming to challenge the norms and conventions of its medium, and the group of people making such work.
back lighting lighting the subject of a shot from behind to provide depth by separating the subject from the background.
balance the requirement in television news and current affairs to present both sides of an argument or issue.
BARB (Broadcasters Audience Research Bureau) the independent body that gathers and reports viewing statistics on behalf of UK television institutions.
binary opposition two contrasting terms, ideas or concepts, such as inside/outside, masculine/feminine or culture/nature.
blooper a mistake by a performer in a programme, or a technical error. The term often refers to humorous mistakes.
bourgeoisie the middle class, who are owners of property and businesses.
brand recognition the ability of audiences to recognise the distinctive identity of a product, service or institution and the values and meanings associated with it.
broadcasting the transmission of signals from a central source which can be received by dispersed receivers over a large geographical area.
budget the money allocated to the making of a particular programme or series of programmes, which is controlled by the producer.
cable television originally called Community Antenna Television (CATV). Transmission of television signals along cables in the ground.
capitalism the organisation of an economy around the private ownership of accumulated wealth, involving the exploitation of labour to produce profit that creates such wealth.
CEEFAX the text-based information service provided by BBC and carried by analogue television signals.
censorship the omission of sensitive, prohibited or disturbing material at any stage in the production process from the initial idea to its transmission.
class a section of society defined by their relationship to economic activity, whether as workers (the working class) or possessors of economic power (the bourgeoisie), for example.
classic serial the dramatisation in serial form of literature written in the past, most often in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, where the literary source already has high cultural status.
close-up a camera shot where the frame is filled by the face of a person or a detail of a face. Close-ups may also show details of an object or place.
closed-circuit television a small-scale television system where the images and sound are not intended for broadcast, for example a network of security cameras.
CNN Cable News Network, the first international satellite news channel, operating from the United States.
code in semiotics, a system or set of rules that shapes how signs can be used, and therefore how meanings can be made and understood.
commercial television television funded by the sale of advertising time or sponsorship of programmes.
commissioning the process by which an idea for a programme is selected to go into production.
committed a term used in the study of the politics of culture, implying that a person or a text has a commitment to positive and progressive social change.
commodity a raw material or product whose economic value is established by market price rather than the intrinsic qualities or usefulness of the material or product itself.
computer generated imaging (CGI) the creation of images by programming computers with mathematical equations that can generate realistic two-dimensional pictures.
connotations the term used in semiotic analysis for the meanings that are associated with a particular sign or combination of signs.
consensus a shared and accepted opinion or attitude among a certain group of people.
conventions the frameworks and procedures used to make or interpret texts.
convergence the process whereby previously separate media technologies merge together. For example, computers can now send faxes, show DVD films and play music.
copyright the legal right of ownership over written, visual or aural material, including the prohibition on copying this material without permission from its owner.
couch potatoes a derogatory term for television viewers supposedly sitting motionless at home watching television passively and indiscriminately.
cultural imperialism the critical argument that powerful nations and regions (especially those of the Western world) dominate less developed nations and regions by exporting values and ideologies.
Cultural Studies the academic discipline devoted to studying culture, involving work on texts, institutions, audiences and economic contexts.
culture the shared attitudes, ways of life and assumptions of a group of people.
cut the moment at which one camera shot ceases and another begins, where no transitional visual effect (such as a fade or a dissolve) is used.
cutaway in fictional dialogue or interviews, shots that do not include people speaking. Cutaways often consist of details of the setting or of interviewees (such as hands).
demography the study of population, and the groupings of people (demographic groups) within the whole population.
denotation in semiotics, the function of signs to portray or refer to something in the real world.
deregulation the removal of legal restrictions or guidelines that regulate the economics of the television industry or the standards which programmes must adhere to.
dialectic a term associated especially with Marxist theories, meaning a struggle between two opposing ideas.
diegesis the telling of events as narrative. Diegetic sound is sound emanating from the represented environment, and extra-diegetic sound comes from outside that environment.
digital television television pictures and sound encoded into the ones and zeros of electronic data. Digital signals can also be sent back down cables by viewers, making possible interaction with television programmes.
director the person responsible for the creative process of turning a script or idea into a finished programme, by working with a technical crew, performers and an editor.
discourse a particular use of language for a certain purpose in a certain context (such as academic discourse or poetic discourse), and similarly in television, a particular usage of television’s audio-visual ‘language’ (news programme discourse or nature documentary discourse, for instance).
documentary a form aiming to record actual events, often with an explanatory purpose or to analyse and debate an issue.
docusoap a television form combining documentary’s depiction of non-actors in ordinary situations with soap opera’s continuing narratives about selected characters.
dolly a wheeled camera platform. A ‘dolly shot’ is a camera shot where the camera is moved forward or back using this platform.
drama-documentary a television form combining dramatised storytelling with the ‘objective’ informational techniques of documentary. Abbreviated as ‘dramadoc’ or ‘docudrama’.
dubbing replacing the original speech in a programme, advertisement, etc. with speech added later, often to translate speech in a foreign language.
dumbing-down the notion that television has reduced in quality as compared to an earlier period, showing programmes that are more ‘dumb’ or stupid and addressing its audience as if they were stupid.
effects measurable outcomes produced by watching television, such as becoming more violent or adopting a certain opinion.
electronic newsgathering (ENG) the use of lightweight cameras and digital technology such as portable satellite transmission dishes to record and transmit news pictures and sound.
ethnicity membership of a group with a specific identity based on a sense of belonging, such as British Asian or Italian-American, for example.
ethnography the detailed study of how people live, conducted by observing behaviour and talking to selected individuals about their attitudes and activities.
fan culture the activities of groups of fans, as distinct from ‘ordinary’ viewers.
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) the government body in the USA which regulates the operations and output of television companies and other broadcasters.
feminine having characteristics associated with the cultural role of women and not men.
feminism the political and theoretical thinking which in different ways considers the roles of women and femininity in society and culture, often with the aim of critiquing current roles and changing them for the better.
final cut the final edited version of a programme that is delivered to the television institution for broadcast.
flashback a television sequence marked as representing events that happened in a time previous to the programme’s present.
flow the ways in which programmes, advertisements, etc. follow one another in an unbroken sequence across the day or part of the day, and the experience of watching the sequence of programmes, advertisements, trailers, etc.
fly-on-the-wall a documentary form where the subject is observed without the programme-maker’s intervention.
focus groups small groups of selected people representing larger social groupings such as people of a certain age group, gender or economic status, who take part in discussions about a topic chosen for investigation.
format the blueprint for a programme, including its setting, main characters, genre, form and main themes.
found footage television or film sequences ‘found’ in previously made programmes or films, and which can be incorporated unchanged into the programme being made.
franchise the right to broadcast on the terrestrial ITV channel for a set number of years, secured by paying a fee to government.
Frankfurt School a group of theorists in the mid twentieth century who worked on theories of contemporary culture from a Marxist perspective. Key members, notably Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer, left Nazi Germany in the 1930s to work abroad.
free market a television marketplace where factors such as quotas and regulations do not restrict the free operation of economic ‘laws’ of supply and demand.
free-to-air television programming for which viewers make no direct payment.
gallery the enclosed room in a television studio where production staff observe the shooting of a programme and control the activities of camera operators, sound technicians, performers and other personnel.
gatekeepers the critical term used for the people and institutions (such as television commissioning producers, or regulatory bodies) who control access to television broadcasting.
gender the social and cultural division of people into masculine or feminine individuals. This is different from sex, which refers to the biological difference between male and female bodies.
genre a kind or type of programme. Programmes of the same genre have shared characteristics.
globalisation the process whereby ownership of television institutions in different nations and regions is concentrated in the hands of international corporations, and whereby programmes and formats are traded between institutions around the world.
hegemony a term deriving from Marxist theories of society, meaning a situation where different social classes or groups are persuaded to consent to a political order that may be contrary to their benefit.
hype publicity and public relations effort aiming to raise interest in a television programme or an aspect of one.
iconic sign in semiotics, a sign which resembles its referent. Photographs, for example, contain iconic signs resembling the objects they represent.
identification a term deriving from psychoanalytic theories of cinema, which describes the viewer’s conscious or unconscious wish to take the place of someone or something in a television text.
idents the symbols representing production companies, television channels, etc., often comprising graphics or animations.
ideology the set of beliefs, attitudes and assumptions arising from the economic and class divisions in a culture, underlying the ways of life accepted as normal in that culture.
independent production companies businesses making television programmes which can be sold to television networks that transmit and distribute them.
Independent Television Authority (ITA) the first official body set up to regulate commercial television in Britain.
indexical sign in semiotics, a sign which is the result of what it signifies, in the way that smoke is the result of fire.
information society a contemporary highly developed culture (especially Western culture) where the production and exchange of information is more significant than conventional industrial production.
interactive offering the opportunity for viewers to respond to what is broadcast, by sending signals back to the broadcaster (along a cable or phone line, for example).
intertextuality how one text draws on the meanings of another by referring to it, by allusion, quotation or parody, for example.
licence fee an annual payment by all owners of television sets, which is the main source of income for the BBC.
location any place in which television images are shot, except inside a television studio.
long shot a camera shot taking in the whole body of a performer, or more generally a shot with a wide field of vision.
long take an imprecise term denoting a longer than usual uninterrupted camera shot.
market research the collection of information about consumers and their preferences, used to identify products that can be advertised to consumers likely to buy them.
Marxism the political and economic theories associated with the German nineteenth-century theorist Karl Marx, who described and critiqued capitalist societies and proposed Communism as a revolutionary alternative.
masculine having characteristics associated with the cultural role of men and not women.
media imperialism the critical argument that powerful nations and cultures (especially the USA) exert control over other nations and cultures through the media products they export.
media literacy the skills and competence that viewers learn in order to understand easily the audio-visual ‘languages’ of media texts.
MediaWatch previously the National Viewers’ and Listeners’ Association, an organisation devoted to monitoring the activities of British broadcasters, with a special interest in upholding standards of taste and decency.
melodrama a form of drama characterised by exaggerated performance, a focus on reversals of fortune and extreme emotional reactions to events.
merchandising the sale of products associated with a television programme, such as toys, books or clothing.
metaphor the carrying-over from something of some of its meanings on to another thing of an apparently different kind. For example, a television narrative about life aboard ship could be a metaphor for British social life (the ship as metaphor for society).
metonymy the substitution of one thing for another, either because one is part of the other or because one is connected with the other. For example, ‘the Crown’ can be a metonym for the British state.
microwave link the transmission across large distances of digital signals carried by high-frequency microwaves, to ground stations or to satellites.
mise-en-scène literally meaning ‘putting on stage’, all the elements of a shot or sequence that contribute to its meanings, such as lighting, camera position and setting.
modality the fit between a fictional representation and the conventional understanding of reality. High modality describes a close fit, and weak modality a distant one.
monopoly control over the provision of a service or product by one institution or business.
multi-accentuality the situation where meanings are able to be read in different ways by different groups of viewers because a text offers multiple meanings at the same time.
narration the process of telling a story through image and sound. Narration can also refer to the spoken text accompanying television images.
narrative an ordered sequence of images and sound that tells a fictional or factual story.
natural break a vague term meaning a point at which a programme can be interrupted without causing undue disruption to the ongoing flow of the programme.
naturalism originally having a very specific meaning in literature and drama, this term is now used more loosely to denote television fiction that adopts realistic conventions of character portrayal, linear cause and effect narrative, and a consistent and recognisable fictional world.
negotiated reading a viewer interpretation of a television text where the viewer understands meaning in relation to his or her own knowledge and experience, rather than simply accepting the meaning proposed by the text.
network a television institution that transmits programmes through local or regional broadcasting stations that are owned by or affiliated to that institution.
news agency a media institution that gathers news reports and distributes them to its customers (who include television news broadcasters).
news value the degree of significance attributed to a news story, where items with high news value are deemed most significant to the audience.
niche audiences particular groups of viewers defined by age group, gender or economic status, for example, who may be the target audience for a programme.
noddy shot in television interviews, shots of the interviewer reacting silently (often by nodding) to the interviewee’s responses to questions.
observational documentary a documentary form in which the programme-maker aims to observe neutrally what would have happened even if he or she had not been present.
Ofcom the Office of Communications, a government body responsible for regulating television and other communications media in Britain.
off-line editing the first stage of editing a completed programme, where the sequence of shots, sounds and music is established.
online editing the final stage of editing a completed programme, where effects are added and a high-quality version of the programme is produced.
ORACLE the text-based information service provided by ITV and carried by analogue television signals.
outside broadcast the television transmission of outdoor events such as sport or ceremonial occasions, using equipment set up in advance for the purpose. Abbreviated as OB.
outsourcing obtaining services from an independent business rather than from within a television institution, usually as a means of cutting costs.
outtake a shot or sequence which was omitted from a finished programme, because of a mistake during production or an artistic decision.
PAL Phased Alternate Line transmission of television pictures, a German technical standard introduced in the 1960s making possible improved picture quality and colour pictures.
pan a shot where the camera is turned to the left or turned to the right. The term derives from the word ‘panorama’, suggesting the wide visual field that a pan can reveal.
pan-and-scan capturing a section of an image and enlarging it to fill the television frame, a technique used to fit wide film images into the square television screen.
pastiche the imitation of forms or conventions in another text. The term can convey a negative view that the imitation is less effective or valuable than the original.
patriarchy a social system in which power is held by men rather than women, and masculine values dominate.
pay-per-view specific television programmes (such as sports events or films) offered to subscribers on payment of a fixed, one-off fee.
people meter a device resembling a television remote control, used in sample households to monitor what viewers watch. Viewers record which channels they watch and for how long.
period drama television fiction set in the past, most often the nineteenth or early twentieth centuries.
personal video recorder (PVR) a device that records digital television onto a microchip for storage and replay, and can automatically record programmes it thinks the viewer will enjoy.
personalities people appearing on television who are recognised by audiences as celebrities with a media image and public status beyond the role they play in a particular programme.
Pilkington Report the report of a government committee chaired by Lord Pilkington (1960) whose recommendations included the setting up of a second BBC television channel.
pitch a very short written or spoken outline for a programme, perhaps only a few sentences, often used to persuade a commissioning producer to commission the programme.
point of view shot a camera shot where the camera is placed in, or close to, the position from where a previously seen character might look.
polysemia the quality of having multiple meanings at the same time. Texts like this are called ‘polysemic’.
pool system in journalism, grouping journalists together to share information so that not all of them need to be present at a news event.
popular culture the texts created by ordinary people (as opposed to an elite group) or created for them, and the ways these are used.
Postmaster General the person appointed by government to regulate communications institutions such as the Post Office, radio and television.
postmodernism the most recent phase of capitalist culture, the aesthetic forms and styles associated with it, and the theoretical approaches developed to understand it.
preferred reading an interpretation of a text that seems to be the one most encouraged by the text, the ‘correct’ interpretation.
prime time the part of a day’s television schedule when the greatest number of viewers may be watching, normally the mid-evening period.
private sphere the domestic world of the home, family and personal life.
privatisation the policy of placing industries or institutions in the hands of privately owned businesses, rather than state ownership.
producer the person working for a television institution who is responsible for the budget, planning and making of a television programme or series of programmes.
production values the level of investment in a television production, such as the amount spent on costumes, props, effects and sets.
progressive encouraging positive change or progress, usually implying progress towards fairer and more equal ways of organising society.
psychoanalysis the study of human mental life, including not only conscious thoughts, wishes and fears but also unconscious ones. Psychoanalysis is an analytical and theoretical set of ideas as well as a therapeutic treatment.
public service in television, the provision of a mix of programmes that inform, educate and entertain in ways that encourage the betterment of audiences and society in general.
public sphere the world of politics, economic affairs and national and international events, as opposed to the ‘private sphere’ of domestic life.
public television television funded by government or by private supporters, rather than solely by advertising.
quality in television, kinds of programme that are perceived as more expensively produced and, especially, more culturally worthwhile than other programmes.
quota a proportion of television programming, such as a proportion of programmes made in a particular nation.
ratings the number of viewers estimated to have watched certain programmes, as compared to the numbers watching other programmes.
realism the aim for representations to reproduce reality faithfully, and the ways this is done.
reality TV programmes where the unscripted behaviour of ‘ordinary people’ is the focus of interest.
reflexivity a text’s reflection on its own status as a text, for example drawing attention to generic conventions, or revealing the technologies used to make a programme.
register a term in the study of language for the kinds of speech or writing used to represent a particular kind of idea or to address a certain audience.
regulation the control of television institutions by laws, codes of practice or guidelines.
resistance the ways in which audiences make meaning from television programmes that is counter to the meanings that are thought to be intended, or that are discovered by close analysis.
satellite television television signals beamed from a ground transmitter to a stationary satellite that broadcasts the signal to a specific area (called the ‘footprint’) below it.
satire a mode of critical commentary about society or an aspect of it, using humour to attack people or ideas.
schedule the arrangement of programmes, advertisements and other material into a sequential order within a certain period of time, such as an evening, day or week.
semiotics the study of signs and their meanings, initially developed for the study of spoken language, and now used also to study the visual and aural ‘languages’ of other media such as television.
serial a television form where a developing narrative unfolds across a sequence of separate episodes.
series a television form where each programme in the series has a different story or topic, though settings, main characters or performers remain the same.
set-top box the electronic decoding equipment connected to home television sets that allows access to digital television signals.
shooting ratio the number of minutes of film used to film a scene or complete programme as compared to the screen-time of the finished scene or programme.
shot-reverse-shot the convention of alternating a shot of one character and a shot of another character in a scene, producing a back-and-forth movement which represents their interaction visually.
sign in semiotics, something which communicates meaning, such as a word, an image or a sound.
simulation a representation that mirrors an aspect of reality so perfectly that it takes the place of the reality it aims to reproduce.
slot the position in a television schedule where a programme is shown.
soap opera a continuing drama serial involving a large number of characters in a specific location, focusing on relationships, emotions and reversals of fortune.
sociology the academic study of society, aiming to describe and explain aspects of life in that society.
spectacle a fascinating image which draws attention to its immediate surface meanings and offers visual pleasure for its own sake.
spin-off a product, television programme, book, etc. that is created to exploit the reputation, meaning or commercial success of a previous one, often in a different medium from the original.
sponsorship the funding of programmes or channels by businesses, whose name is usually prominently displayed in the programme or channel as a means of advertising.
status quo a Latin term meaning the ways that culture and society are currently organised.
storyboard a sequence of drawn images showing the shots to be used in a programme.
strand a linked series of programmes, sharing a common title.
stripping in television scheduling, placing a programme or genre of programme at the same time on several days of each week.
structure of feeling the assumptions, attitudes and ideas prevalent in a society, arising from the ideologies underpinning that society.
subject in psychoanalysis, the term for the individual self whose identity has both conscious and unconscious components.
subscription payment to a television broadcaster in exchange for the opportunity to view programmes on certain channels that are otherwise blocked.
subtitle written text appearing on the television screen, normally to translate speech in a foreign language.
symbol a representation which condenses many meanings together and can stand for those many meanings in a certain context. For example, a brand-new car could be a symbol of wealth, social status and masculine prowess.
symbolic sign in semiotics, a sign which is connected arbitrarily to its referent rather than because the sign resembles its referent. For example a photograph of a cat resembles it, whereas the word ‘cat’ does not: the word is a symbolic sign.
syndication the sale of programmes for regional television broadcasters to transmit within their territory.
syntagm in semiotics, a linked sequence of signs existing at a certain point in time. Written or spoken sentences, or television sequences, are examples of syntagms.
taste and decency conformity to the standards of good taste and acceptable language and behaviour represented on television, as required by regulations.
teaser a very short television sequence advertising a forthcoming programme, often puzzling or teasing to viewers because it contains little information and encourages curiosity and interest.
telenovela a fictional continuing melodrama on television that lasts for a specific number of episodes. Telenovelas are particularly associated with South American television.
terrestrial broadcasting from a ground-based transmission system, as opposed to broadcasting via satellite.
text an object such as a television programme, film or poem, considered as a network of meaningful signs that can be analysed and interpreted.
textual analysis a critical approach which seeks to understand a television text’s meanings by undertaking detailed analysis of its image and sound components, and the relationships between those components.
title sequence the sequence at the opening of a television programme in which the programme title and performers’ names may appear along with other information, accompanied by images, sound and music introducing the programme.
tracking shot a camera shot where the camera is moved along (often on a miniature railway track) parallel to a moving subject of the shot while photographing it.
trailer a short television sequence advertising a forthcoming programme, usually containing selected ‘highlights’ from the programme.
treatment a short written outline for a programme, usually written for a commissioning producer to read, specifying how the programme will tell its story or address its subject.
uplink the electronic system which beams television signals from the ground to a satellite for onward transmission to a television institution elsewhere.
uses and gratifications a theoretical approach that assumes people engage in an activity because it provides them with a benefit of some kind.
utopia an ideal society.
variety programmes entertainment programmes containing a mix of material such as songs and comedy sketches.
vertical integration the control by media institutions of all levels of a business, from the production of products to their distribution and means of reception.
voice-over speech accompanying visual images but not presumed to derive from the same place or time as the images.
vox pop literally meaning ‘the voice of the people’, short television interviews conducted with members of the public, usually in the street.
voyeurism gaining sexual pleasure from looking at someone or something that cannot look back.
watershed the time in the day (conventionally 9 p.m.) after which programmes with content that may disturb children can be shown.
whip-pan a very rapid panning shot from one point to another.
zapping hopping rapidly from channel to channel while watching television, using a remote control (a ‘zapper’).