Glossary
academic language
Words commonly used in educational contexts across the disciplines.
affixes
Meaning units (prefixes and suffixes) that are added to root or base words.
alphabetic principle
The principle that there is a one-to-one correspondence between phonemes (or sounds) and graphemes (or letters); letters represent sounds.
analog
A strategy of comparing patterns in words to ones already known.
anecdotal notes
Written observations taken by the teacher—usually on a clipboard—of literacy-related behaviors in an authentic literacy context.
authentic assessment
A coordinated, graded set of textbooks, teacher’s guides, and supplementary materials from which to teach reading.
automaticity
Fluent performance without the conscious deployment of attention.
basal readers
A learning theory suggesting that children are active learners who organize and relate new information to their prior knowledge.
big book
An enlarged version of a book used by the teacher for mediated reading instruction so that students can track the print and attention can be focused on particular phonemic elements.
cloze procedure
An instructional technique in which certain words are deleted from a passage by the teacher, with blanks left in their places for students to fill in by using the context of the sentence or paragraph.
code switch
The use of English for known words and the home language for words not yet acquired in English.
cognates
Words with similar spellings and meanings across languages.
compound words
A word made up of two or more base words, such as football.
comprehension
The interpretation of print on a page into a meaningful message that is dependent upon the reader’s decoding abilities, prior knowledge, cultural and social background, and monitoring strategies.
constructivist model of learning
Beginner-oriented books that contain the same letters or word patterns currently being studied, or those previously taught.
context
The surrounding information in a sentence or text.
context-relationship procedure
A strategy utilized to help students integrate new words into their meaning vocabularies.
contract spelling
Children have a written agreement with the teacher each week to learn specific words.
conventional spelling stage
The final stage of spelling development, in which the child has mastered the basic principles of English orthography and most words are spelled correctly.
criterion-referenced test
A test for which scores are interpreted by comparing the test taker’s score to a specified performance level rather than with the scores of other students.
critical literacy
Encourages readers to actively analyze texts and connect what they read to the real world; evaluate common assumptions and stereotypes present in the text; interpret and understand author point of view, motives, and possible biases; and take action to address a social justice issue.
cueing systems
The four language systems that readers rely upon for cues as they seek meaning from text: graphophonic (based on letter–sound relationships); syntactic (based on grammar or structure); semantic (based on meaning); and pragmatic.
cumulative progress indicators
A description of specific activities that accompany curriculum standards to assist the teacher in observing when such standards are being demonstrated by students.
curriculum-based assessment
Assessment that ties evaluation directly to the literacy curriculum to identify instructional needs.
decodable text
Beginner-oriented books that contain the same letters or word patterns currently being studied, or those previously taught.
decodable texts
Unconventional spellings, or approximations, resulting from an emergent writer’s initial attempts to associate sounds with letters.
decode
The translation of written words into verbal speech for oral reading or mental speech for silent reading.
decoding
The translation of written words into verbal speech for oral reading or mental speech for silent reading.
developmental spelling stages
Stage-like progressions that children advance through when learning to spell, characterized by increasingly complex understandings about the organizational patterns of words, including precommunicative, prephonetic, phonetic, transitional, and conventional spelling stages.
developmentally appropriate practice
Moving from emergent literacy to the first stage of conventional literacy, early readers are able to read appropriately selected text independently after an introduction given by an adult. These readers use early reading strategies; for example, they begin to attend to print and apply the one-to-one correspondence of matching sounds to letters in order to read, and they commonly look at beginning and ending letters in order to decode unfamiliar words. Early writers typically progress through five stages of invented spelling, ranging from writing the initial consonant sound through phonetic and transitional phases.
diagnostic reading tests
Age-related, norm-referenced assessment of specific skills and behaviors children have acquired compared with other children of the same chronological age.
dialogic reading
Journals that provide a means of two-way written communication between learners and their teachers, in which learners share their thoughts with teachers, including personal comments and descriptions of life experiences, and the teachers, in turn, write reactions to the learners’ messages.
dialogue journals
Journals that provide a means of two-way written communication between learners and their teachers, in which learners share their thoughts with teachers, including personal comments and descriptions of life experiences, and the teachers, in turn, write reactions to the learners’ messages.
domain-specific vocabulary
Vocabulary specific to a discipline or content area.
dyad reading
A paired reading activity in which students alternately read aloud or listen and summarize what their partner has read.
early readers/writers
Behaviors seen in young children when they use texts (both traditional and electronic) and writing tools to imitate reading and writing activities, even though the children cannot actually read and write in the conventional sense.
emergent literacy
Able to use multiple sources of information flexibly to accurately read a variety of unknown texts with appropriate expression and phrasing. Fluent readers are able to read for meaning with less attention to decoding and can independently solve problems encountered in the text. Fluent writing uses mostly conventional spelling and children are able to write expressively using increasingly rich vocabulary and more complex sentences.
encoding
Transferring oral language into written language.
experience-text relationship
A lesson format for narrative text that helps students to develop prior knowledge and relate it to what they read.
experimental spelling
A whole-to-parts approach where meaning is considered to be more critical than the underlying skills of reading.
explicit instruction
Teacher control of the learning environment through structured, systematic lessons, goal setting, choice of activities, and feedback.
expository frame
A basic structure for expository text designed to help students organize their thoughts for writing or responding to text.
expressive writing
Personal writing that expresses emotion such as diaries or letters.
false cognates
Words that sound alike and may seem to be related but have quite different meanings.
family literacy night
An event where relatives and children read books together and participate in a variety of literacy-related activities.
fluency
Achieving speed and accuracy in recognizing words and comprehending text, and coordinating the two.
fluent readers/writers holographic stage
The earliest language acquisition stage, in which one word is used to represent a concept or idea.
formal assessments
Standardized tests given under controlled conditions so that specific groups can be compared primarily for purposes of program evaluation.
formative assessment
During instruction, the process of ongoing data-gathering, usually informal, that informs and guides teachers as they make instructional decisions.
frustration level
A level of reading difficulty at which a reader is unable to cope; when reading is on the frustration level, the reader recognizes approximately 90 percent or fewer of the words encountered and comprehends 50 percent or fewer.
grade-level equivalency score
A conversion of a score on a test into one that tells how a child compares with others in the same grade; e.g., a grade equivalent score of 4.5 on a reading test would suggest that the child is reading as well as children in the normative sample who are in the fifth month of fourth grade.
gradual release of responsibility
An approach to teaching that shifts the responsibility for thorough learning from the teacher to the student in steps (“I do,” “we do,” “you do”).
grand conversation
A response to text strategy whereby students share personal connections to the text, make predictions, ask questions, and show individual appreciation.
graphemes
A written symbol that represents a phoneme.
graphophonic information
Cues based upon sound or visual similarities.
group profile
A listing of scores on a specific reading or writing skill that allows the teacher to view the strengths and weaknesses of the whole class for purposes of reteaching and reporting to parents and others.
guided reading
A teacher-mediated instructional method designed to help readers improve skills, comprehension, recall, and appreciation of text.
high-frequency words
Words common in reading material that are often difficult to learn because they cannot be easily decoded.
high-stakes assessments
Assessment tools mandated by the state or district in which the teachers work that are often used to determine how well children are doing compared with other children in the area, state, or nation and whether certain programs will be funded.
holistic approach
An early meaning-based method of reading instruction requiring children to use the context alone to figure out words they do not know.
homonyms
Words that are pronounced the same but have different spellings.
hypermedia projects
Like multimodal projects, these projects combine text, graphics, audio, and video, but they also include hyperlinks in the presentation. Because the presentation includes links, they may not be viewed in a linear sequence.
independent level
A level of reading difficulty low enough that the reader can progress without noticeable obstructions; the reader can recognize approximately 98 percent of the words and comprehend at least 90 percent of what is read.
individual dictation
A strategy in which the student dictates a message while the teacher writes it down, sounding out the words in front of the child. interactive writing: A mediated writing experience used to assist emergent readers in learning to read and write. With help from the teacher, children dictate sentences, and the teacher verbally stretches each word so children can distinguish sounds and letters. Children use chart paper to write the letter while repeating the sound.
informal assessments
A level of reading difficulty low enough that the reader can progress without noticeable obstructions; the reader can recognize approximately 98 percent of the words and comprehend at least 90 percent of what is read.
informal reading inventory
An informal assessment instrument designed to help the teacher determine a child’s independent, instructional, frustration, and reading capacity levels. instructional level: A level of difficulty low enough that the reader can be instructed by the teacher during the process; in order for the material to be at this level, the reader should be able to read approximately 95 percent of the words in a passage and comprehend at least 75 percent.
informational texts
Nonfiction texts that provide factual information about a topic; expository text.
interactive story writing
A mediated writing experience used to assist emergent readers in learning to read and write. With help from the teacher, children dictate sentences, and the teacher verbally stretches each word so children can distinguish sounds and letters. Children use chart paper to write the letter while repeating the sound.
interactive writing
A mediated writing experience used to assist emergent readers in learning to read and write. With help from the teacher, children dictate sentences, and the teacher verbally stretches each word so children can distinguish sounds and letters. Children use chart paper to write the letter while repeating the sound.
interest and attitude inventory
An informal assessment device that allows teachers to discover how their students feel about reading and about themselves as readers.
knowledge chart
(also known as K-W-L) A process intended to be used before and after the reading of an expository selection to document what students already know, what they wish to find out, and then what they have learned after reading the selection.
language experience approach (LEA)
An approach in which reading and the other language arts are interrelated and the experiences of children are used as the basis for the material that is written and then used for reading.
learning logs
Journals students use to summarize a day’s lesson and to react to what they have learned.
leveled books
Books that are assigned levels with subtler differences in the difficulty between levels than more traditional “grade-leveled” texts.
literacy scaffolds
Structures that provide a template for a writing idea; scaffolds allow the learner to achieve at a higher level than would be attainable without the scaffolds.
look-say method
Place to collect evidence of a child’s literacy development. It may include artifacts collected by the child, the teacher, or both.
masking
Using a sliding frame or other device to help children focus on a particular word or part of a word.
meaning vocabulary
That body of words whose meanings one understands and can use.
metacognition
A person’s awareness of his or her own thinking and the conscious efforts to monitor this awareness.
metalinguistic ability
The conscious awareness of sound, meaning, and the practical nuances of language.
minilessons
A short lesson on reading procedures, concepts, strategies, or skills taught based upon teacher observation of the need for it.
mirror blogs
Blogs that allow children to reflect upon their thinking or about lessons or content that has been introduced.
miscue analysis
A procedure that lets the teacher gather important instructional information by providing a framework for observing students’ oral reading and their ability to construct meaning.
miscues
An unexpected reading response (deviation from text).
morning message
Children observe as the teacher writes a meaningful morning message addressed to all the children on the board about a specific event that is planned for the day or about an interesting question. The morning message is used as an instructional tool for discussing skills children are learning, such as conventions of writing or phonic elements.
morpheme
The smallest meaning-bearing linguistic unit in a language.
morphology
The aspects of language structure related to the ways words are formed from prefixes, roots, and suffixes (e.g., “re-heat-ing”) and are related to each other.
multimodal literacy
A form of literacy requiring today’s students to be literate in multiple modes of communication, including the ability to read, produce, and interpret text, graphics, images, sound, and videos.
new literacies
Ways to read and write texts, and also to view and visually represent texts in new and exciting ways, often including enhancements such as video and audio; often in electronic rather than traditional print format and available for viewing on various devices.
nonstage theory phonemespened
A theory that suggests that unskilled and skilled readers use the same strategies to figure out unknown words.pened=Instruction in the association of speech sounds with printed symbols.
norming group
A procedure that lets the teacher gather important instructional information by providing a framework for observing students’ oral reading and their ability to construct meaning.
norm-referenced achievement test
A test designed to yield results interpretable in terms of the average results of a sample population.
onset
All the sounds of a word that come before the first vowel.
oral recitation lessons (ORL)
Three-part lessons designed to increase oral reading fluency.
patterned stories
Narrative pieces written by students based upon books with clear patterns that can be emulated.
phonemic awareness
A division of phonological awareness that refers to a child’s ability to manipulate, classify, and listen to each speech unit, or phoneme, in order to distinguish words with different meanings made from them.
phonemic awareness
The ability to hear, identify, and manipulate individual sounds in spoken words.
phonetic stage
The third stage of spelling development, in which consonants and vowels are used for each spoken syllable.
phonics
(predictable texts) Books or texts that use repetition, rhythmic language patterns, and familiar patterns; sometimes called pattern books.
phonological awareness
The recognition that speech is made up of a variety of sound units that can be segmented into larger “chunks” known as syllables.
phonological sensitivity (PS):
A term used to describe the dual components of phonological processing: phonological awareness and phonemic awareness.
phonology
The study of the sound system of language.
play centers
Areas of the classroom containing inviting props and set aside for spontaneous dramatic play.
polysemantic
A word having multiple meanings, such as the word fast.
portfolio
A parts-to-whole approach to reading instruction in which all the reading skills are taught sequentially.
precommunicative stage
The initial stage of spelling development, in which the child scribbles random letters with little concept of which letter makes which sound.
predictable books
The construction of meaning from coded messages through symbol decoding, vocabulary awareness, comprehension, and reflection.
predictable texts
Books or texts that use repetition, rhythmic language patterns, and familiar patterns; sometimes called pattern books.
prefixes
Meaningful chunks attached to the beginnings of words, such as re + play = replay.
prephonetic stage
The second stage of spelling development, in which the child becomes aware of the alphabetic principle.
process-oriented assessment
Assessment that relies on the teacher’s observation of the child’s actual reading and writing abilities.
prosody
Appropriate expression in oral reading that sounds much like conversational speaking.
question-answer relationships
A strategy in which students become aware of their own comprehension processes, particularly the importance of the knowledge they bring to text and their role as active seekers rather than passive receivers of information through reading.
reading
Words that are recognized by the reader immediately, without having to resort to decoding.
reading capacity level
The highest level of material children understand when the passage is read to them.
reading readiness
The level of preparedness for formal reading instruction.
reading response journal
A journal in which readers record their first reactions to something they have read.
realia
Pictures, brief video clips, or objects introduced in tandem with a new word or concept to build new associations with the words, especially used for the benefit of English Learners, to provide accessibility to the associated print.
reciprocal teaching
A technique to develop comprehension and metacognition in which the teacher and students take turns predicting, generating questions, summarizing, and clarifying ideas in a passage.
reliable
Yielding consistent assessment results over time.
Response to Intervention
A framework that incorporates both assessment and intervention with the goal of yielding immediate benefits to the student. Assessment data are used to inform interventions and determine their effectiveness. Using RTI, instruction and intervention shift toward a supportive function that allows teachers to make instructional decisions based upon their students’ needs.
retelling
Teachers analyze children’s retellings of text to gauge their level of comprehension and use of language. In examining the retellings, teachers look for the number of events recalled, how children interpret the message, and how children use details or make inferences to substantiate ideas.
rimes
Words with rime have two parts: onset (the consonant or consonant blend at the beginning of the word), and rime (the ending letters that are shared). Thus, rime is the vowel and any letter that follows the beginning consonant or consonant blend. (Example: am in Sam.)
root words
A word to which prefixes and/or suffixes are added to create new, but related, words.
rubber-banding
The process in which the teacher stretches out all the sounds in a word so learners can pay attention to each phoneme or sound.
running record
A procedure for analyzing students’oral reading and noting their strengths and weaknesses when using various reading strategies.
scaffold
A support mechanism by which children are able to accomplish more difficult tasks than they could without assistance.
schema
A pre-existing knowledge structure developed about a thing, a place, or an idea; a framework of expectations based upon previous knowledge.
semantic map
A graphic representation of the relationship among words and phrases in written material.
sentence stems
The first two or three words of a sentence followed by blank spaces offered to students to support initial attempts at writing.
sentence strips
Rectangular pieces of tag board or construction paper upon which are written individual sentences from a story students have read.
shared reading
A mediated technique whereby the teacher reads aloud while students follow along using individual copies of the book, a class chart, or a big book.
sheltered instruction
When teaching English learners, efforts by the teacher to bridge the language gap by providing meaningful contexts for words and concepts being introduced. In providing sheltered instruction, the teacher may use pictures, film clips, charts, and graphs as well as gestures, charades, and pantomime to get concepts across.
sight vocabulary
Words that are recognized by the reader immediately, without having to resort to decoding.
sight vocabulary words
A theory that suggests that children go through three stages in acquiring literacy: the “selective cue stage,” the “spelling-sound stage,” and the “automatic stage.”
sight words
Words that are recognized by the reader immediately, without having to resort to decoding.
silent period
The initial stage in second language acquisition when a learner is increasing receptive vocabulary but not able to express ideas orally.
skills-based approach
Broad curricular goals containing specific grade-level targets or benchmarks. They represent systematic ways for educators to ask themselves, what do we want our students to know and what do we want them to be able to do?
skills-based assessment
Assessment focusing on the use of tests to measure reading and spelling skills as well as the subskills of these areas.
sound boxes
Place holders for sounds used by children during phonemic awareness exercises.
sound mapping
Matching letters and letter combinations with sound (sound symbol association).
spelling conscience
A desire to spell correctly as evidenced by a student’s proofreading material or using resources to find out how to spell unknown words.
spelling consciousness
The ability to recognize that a word that has been written down is spelled correctly or incorrectly.
stage theory
Indicating understanding of the one-to-one correspondence of spoken and written words by finger-pointing.
standardized test
Achievement tests that are published, norm-referenced, group-administered, survey tests of reading ability.
standards
A perspective of early reading instruction from cognitive psychology and psycholinguistic learning that views children as bringing a rich prior knowledge background to literacy learning.
stanine
A way of reporting test scores that distributes them into nine groups, with 1 being the lowest and 9 the highest.
story frame
A basic outline for a story designed to help students organize their ideas about what they have read.
structured listening activity
An activity in which students listen to a story accompanied by visuals that support the action in the story and then retell the story with the help of the visuals.
suffixes
Meaningful chunks attached to the ends of words, such as play + ing = playing.
summative assessment
Evaluative assessment or testing that results in a grade or ranking.
teachable moments
The spontaneous, indirect teaching that occurs when teachers respond to students’ questions or when students otherwise demonstrate the need to know something.
teacher observational portfolio
A progress file containing observations and informal assessments of children’s reading and writing behaviors and accomplishments.
telegraphic stage
The language acquisition stage in which an idea or concept is represented by two words.
text talk
An approach to read-alouds that is designed to enhance young children’s ability to construct meaning from decontextualized language to promote text comprehension and further language development.
think-aloud
A strategy in which the teacher models aloud for students the thinking processes used when reading or writing.
tracking
Ongoing assessment that is used to guide instruction and uses tasks that resemble real-world reading and writing; can be interpreted by a teacher who evaluates the performance in light of all the child’s strengths.
tracking
Indicating understanding of the one-to-one correspondence of spoken and written words by finger-pointing.
trade books
Any books that can be purchased by the general public in book stores, through mail order houses, or at book fairs.
transactional model
A perspective of early reading instruction from behavioral psychology that views children as empty vessels into which knowledge is poured.
transition words
Words that help connect one idea to the next; for example they may relate ideas (however, in addition) and define organization (first, second).
transitional readers/writers
Able to read unfamiliar text with more independence than can early readers. Transitional readers use meaning, grammatical, and letter cues more fully. They recognize a large number of frequently used words on sight and use illustrations in a limited way while reading. Transitional writers may use phonetic or invented spelling, but the spelling is easily readable; writing also begins to demonstrate characteristics of the transitional speller, able to apply spelling rules, patterns, and other strategies.
transitional stage
The fourth stage of spelling development, in which the child is able to approximate the spelling of various English words.
transmission model
A pedagogy that moved from a narrow focus on isolated subskills to one that encouraged teachers to look at reading more holistically, as part of the total communication process.
twin texts
Books that lead children from fiction into nonfiction by pairing related fiction and nonfiction books to form a bridge from reading stories to understanding factual content.
valid
Assessment measures what it purports to measure.
visual literacy
Ability to interpret and understand images, icons, video, photographs, graphs, charts, maps, and any other form of visual representation of ideas.
whole language philosophy
According to NAEYC, “a framework of principles and guidelines for best practice in the care and education of young children, birth through age 8.”
word bank
A collection of sight words that have been mastered, usually recorded on index cards.
word map
A visual illustration of a word, showing its meaning by offering examples and explaining what it is and what it is not.
word wall
A chart or bulletin board on which are placed, alphabetically, important vocabulary to be referred to during word study activities.
wordless books
Picture books without words.
writer’s workshop
A regular writing session with the goal of building students’ fluency in writing through continuous, repeated exposure to the process of writing. Writers’ workshop usually includes a minilesson, writing time, peer editing, student-teacher conferences, and sharing. Students may be encouraged to choose a topic or the teacher may use writing prompts.
writing process
A set of recursive stages in which a writer engages in activities designed to solve certain problems unique to a particular stage. For early writers, as with more experienced writers, the writing process typically includes prewriting, drafting, sharing, revising, editing, proofreading, and publishing stages.