Table of Contents

Outline

Following reading the chapter, students should:

1. Identify similarities and differences in continuing teams and ad hoc teams at the school and district levels
2. Explain how to organize effective meetings
3. Explain how to facilitate effective meetings

School and District Collaborative Teams

Continuing teams are focused on ongoing tasks that schools and districts must contend with yearly.

Task forces or ad hoc teams are organized when a need arises and are focused on a particular issue that is not typically ongoing.

High-performing and successful teams avoid the pitfalls associated with these disadvantages. These teams are able to identify their purpose and goals, recruit their best talent, and help those who are affected by decisions understand decisions and perspectives.

Advantages to Teams	Disadvantages to Teams
Broad perspectives/diverse points of view	Teams can be time consuming and difficult to schedule
Members learn more about how decisions are made at the school and district levels	“Group think” can occur, causing members to get along with other members
Better informed decisions can be made	Prone to riskier decisions or interventions, as one individual does not have to assume responsibility
A culture of collaboration and commitment can be formed	Group polarization can cause others to perceive unfairness in team decisions
Morale can be increased and greater participation in decision making tends to mediate some disagreements	The logistics of organizing teams can be difficult, particularly ad hoc teams

Organizing and Facilitating Effective Team Meetings

Once the need for a team is identified, the team must be organized. Once organized, a team must begin its work with someone facilitating the process.

Organizing Teams

This process includes:

• Identifying the team members.
• Identifying the roles of team members.
• Identifying the specific task(s) to be addressed (in some cases where a team is formed to explore a problem, this step may be part of an ongoing process).
• Identifying outcomes for the team to deliver.
• Identifying methods for evaluating the success of the collaboration for achieving the outcomes.

Facilitating Effective Teams

First, as a facilitator, you must know who to invite to the meeting.

Second, good facilitators develop an agenda for the meeting.

Third, make sure everyone knows the time and location of meetings.

Fourth, establish the rules for the team process, particularly decision making.

Fifth, the facilitator should be authentic.

Sixth, during the meeting, the facilitator may deal with difficult people who are members of the team or interested observers.

Finally, seventh, after a meeting, the facilitator should follow up to make sure that decisions are being implemented, actions are being taken, information is being distributed, and the team process/meeting is evaluated as to its effectiveness and how it might be improved.

Outline

Many children struggling in the classroom will receive support in the general education classroom, not through special education. These supports and services may be provided in Tier One and Tier Two of the RTI model. These two tiers of the RTI model provide the pre-referral data of services and interventions that are tried before special education services are investigated.

• The RTI model aims to produce three things:
  • High-quality instruction and interventions matched to students’ individual needs
  • The utilization of learning rate and levels of academic performance
  • Important academic decisions based on data from learning rate and levels of academic performance
• Each tier of the RTI model provides more intensive interventions for students, beginning at Tier One.
• The RTI model has replaced the discrepancy model in some schools and districts.
• In the RTI model, a special education teacher plays four main roles:
  • Manager
  • Diagnostician
  • Interventionist
  • Collaborator
• As a manager, the special education teacher is responsible for managing his/her caseload or grade levels. This may include completing paper work for intervention plans, progress reports, or IEPs.
• As a diagnostician, the special education teacher diagnoses students’ strengths and weaknesses. This may be done through administering assessments, interviews, or record reviews.
• As an interventionist, the special education teacher is responsible for providing his/her time to either provide interventions or instruct others on how to provide interventions. In some schools, special education teachers may provide interventions through a resource room or co-teaching models.
• In order to be successful at each of the three aforementioned roles, a special education teacher must be an excellent collaborator. The roles cannot be successfully performed without assistance and information from other educational professionals.

Tier One of the RTI model consists of effective instruction using evidence-based methods in the general education classroom. This tier begins with a universal screening or assessment in core content areas.

• Ongoing curriculum-based measure assessments monitor progress in this tier.
• Services, mainly differentiation of instruction, is completed by the general education teacher in this tier.
• Special education teachers provide support and collaborative relationships in Tier One, but typically do not provide the primary instruction or intervention.

Tier Two of the RTI model consists of more intensive interventions and services. The beginning of this tier usually starts when the general education teacher’s observations and data show that the student is continuing to struggle despite the evidence-based practices at Tier One.

• Tier Two incorporates curriculum-based assessments, data driven instruction, and services found at Tier One.
• Tier Two incorporates fidelity checks to verify that interventions and instructions are implemented appropriately.
• Tier Two involves more collaboration and team-based support.
• Parents play a key role in Tier Two services and interventions and should be involved in the process.
• In Tier Two, the special education teacher plays a larger role in terms of services and instruction. This requires more collaboration with other professionals.
• Tier Two can be divided into two broad areas:
  • Pre-referral assessments
  • Pre-referral intervention
• There are three steps to pre-referral assessment:
  • Identifying the target behavior in general terms
  • Defining the target behavior in observable and measurable terms
  • Analyzing the target behavior to determine cause
• Pre-referral intervention may include providing more instruction, different types of instruction, more individualized attention, or a different curriculum that addresses the student’s area of need.

The way Tier Two operates and functions will depend on the school and district. Two generally accepted forms of Tier Two models are standard protocol and problem solving.

• The standard protocol approach allows for evidence-based interventions that are predetermined to be implemented quickly to meet a student’s needs.
• The standard protocol approach may save a district time and resources, but meets only the general needs of a student instead of the specific and individual needs.
• The problem-solving approach is designed to meet the specific needs of an individual child; however, it requires much more time and resources.
• Schools may also implement a hybrid approach combining both standard protocol and problem solving, depending on the child.

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

Following reading the chapter, students should be able to:

1. Summarize the laws that guide special education and protect the rights of people with disabilities
2. Explain the team-based procedures used to determine eligibility for special education
3. Identify the types of formal and informal assessments used in the eligibility process
4. Cite the importance of the team in the IEP process
5. Determine the role of team members in the eligibility and IEP process

Referral Procedures

Legal Provisions

The eligibility determination and implementation of the special education process is guided by laws designed to protect the rights of people with disabilities and ensure they receive an appropriate education.

Americans with Disabilities Act–ADA defines a disability as a physical or mental impairment that impacts one or more major life activities. It is a civil rights law designed to protect people with disabilities from discrimination by promoting accessibility in places of employment and any entity that provides services.

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act–504 is a civil rights law and has the same definition of a disability as ADA. It protects a person with disabilities from discrimination in any place, program, and/or organization that receives federal financial assistance by requiring they provide reasonable accommodations to people with disabilities.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act–IDEA identifies 13 specific disabilities, each with a qualifying definition, that have the potential to impact a student’s education and learning. IDEA is an educational law that provides more protection for students with disabilities, age birth to 21 years, than the reasonable accommodations provided by either ADA or Section 504. IDEA guarantees students with disabilities the right to zero rejection, nondiscriminatory testing, a free and appropriate public education, least restrictive environment, due process, and parental participation.

Zero Rejection–A child cannot be denied a publicly funded appropriate education no matter his or her disability.

Nondiscriminatory Testing–To determine special education eligibility, a multi-factored evaluation must occur using unbiased assessments.

Free and Appropriate Public Education–All students are guaranteed a free and appropriate education or FAPE.

Least Restrictive Environment–A child should not be moved from the general education classroom due to a disability unless it is absolutely necessary for the well-being of the child.

Due Process–The process and procedures are in place to determine eligibility, develop an IEP, and provide services in a timely and nondiscriminatory manner.

Parental Participation–Caregivers have the right to participate in the design and implementation of their child’s education program.

Eligibility Team-Based Practices

The determination of eligibility begins with a referral. Once a referral is made, the parents or guardians are contacted by the team to explain the process, establish a collaborative working relationship, and obtain parental consent. It is important that parents are fully aware of the eligibility process and procedures, as well as their rights of parental participation.

Multi-factored Evaluation

A multi-factored evaluation (MFE) is a team-based information gathering process to determine if a student is eligible for special education.

Formal Assessment Instruments

The types of formal assessments used in a MFE may include developmental assessment, screenings, individualized intelligence tests, individualized academic achievement tests, adaptive behavior scales, behavior rating scales, and specific related-services assessments.

Developmental assessments are a type of rating scale typically used with children birth to five years.

A screening is a short assessment designed to identify potential problems.

Individual intelligence tests measure a student’s cognitive ability or intelligence quotient (IQ) in comparison to others.

An individual academic achievement test is often administered if there is an academic content area of concern.

Adaptive behavior scales assess strengths and areas of need in general areas, such as daily living skills and community participation, and more specific areas, such as social skills, motor skills, communication, and generalizing basic academic skills.

When a student exhibits inappropriate classroom behaviors that interfere with his/her learning or the learning of others, then a behavior rating scale may be administered.

Informal Assessments

There is more to a student than what can be determined by tests and therefore formal assessments alone cannot provide a complete picture of a student and his/her strengths and areas of need. Informal assessment information should also be obtained to provide a clearer picture and ensure proper identification. Such assessments are:

• Interviews or questionnaires given to caregivers
• Interviews done with the student
• Observations of the student
• Ongoing progress monitoring through curriculum-based measurements
• Review of a student’s academic history

Individualized Education Program

Once a child has been identified as having a disability and deemed eligible for special education services, the team then begins writing an individualized education plan or IEP. The IEP is a legal document that details the students free and appropriate education, as well as his/her least restrictive environment.

Writing an IEP

Present Levels of Performance (PLOP)–PLOPs are utilized to create and monitor educational goals.

Goals–goals state a student’s expected degree of growth in one year in a particular area of need. They are observable, measurable statements aligned with a PLOP and detail a learning target that the student will work toward during the course of a year.

Special Education and Related Services–specific special education and related services that a student needs to participate and make progress in school.

Other Team Decisions

Some other important decisions the IEP team must make are in regard to assessments and transitions. The team must decide if the student will participate in statewide and district-wide assessments or alternate assessments and what accommodations are necessary, if any, to adequately measure a student’s academic or functional achievement.

Team Members Roles

Determining eligibility and writing an IEP are both team-based processes. Key team members for both eligibility and IEP are the parents or guardians, general education teacher, special education teacher, school administrator, and, if at all possible, the student her or himself.

Parents are the experts on their child and the only consistent team members throughout their child’s educational career.

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

Following reading the chapter, students should:

1. Identify the role of the team in determining the existence of disabilities, especially learning disabilities, intellectual disabilities, and emotional disturbances
2. Understand the primary characteristics of the disabilities under IDEA
3. Recognize the importance in considering the individual person rather than the characteristics of the disability in determining an educational plan
4. Recognize the types of instructional considerations needed to determine the appropriate education for a student with disabilities

High-Incidence Disabilities

Learning Disabilities (LD)

Affects the way a person learns and processes information. It accounts for the largest category of students under IDEA and affects approximately 5% of the total U.S. public school population.

Considerations for the Team

The student has difficulties processing, understanding, and/or using language, but typically the cause of this difficulty is unknown. Through the eligibility process, the team will exclude vision, hearing, physical or motor impairments, intellectual disability, emotional disturbances, or any environmental, cultural, or economic factors as the cause for the learning difficulties. These exclusions leave a learning disability as the most likely cause.

The second way a team can determine eligibility for LD under IDEA is by documenting a student’s lack of response to appropriate intervention. This is often done through a multi-tiered system of support such as RTI.

Intellectual Disability (ID)

Intelligence refers to a person’s general mental capability and involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly, and learn from experience.

Considerations for the Team

IDEA’s definition of an intellectual disability has four main eligibility components: cognitive ability, adaptive behavior, age of onset, and effect on education. The team needs to consider all four in determining eligibility for special education and related services.

Emotional Disturbance (ED)

A condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child’s educational performance:

• An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors;
• An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers;
• Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances;
• A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; or
• A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems. The term includes schizophrenia.

Considerations for the Team

The student may have an unexplained inability to learn that is not the result of a cognitive deficit (low IQ), a sensory problem (hearing or vision), or health problem. The student may appear to have no friends or close relationships and/or have difficulties developing relationships with either peers or adults. The student may exhibit behaviors that are deemed improper for the situation or respond in emotionally inappropriate ways.

It is important for the team to remember that the range of behaviors and lack of specific defining characteristics can make determining ED eligibility more subjective than for other disabilities that rely on more specific characteristics or assessment scores.

Speech and Language Impairment (SLI)

A communication disorder, such as stuttering, impaired articulation, a language impairment, or a voice impairment that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.

Considerations for the Team

An SLI is an abnormal development of speech or language and is typically diagnosed by a speech and language pathologist. This abnormal development can be found in the student’s articulation, fluency, voice, and/or language. It is important for the team to remember that an SLI differs from a language delay.

Low-Incidence Disabilities

Nine disabilities are considered to be low-incidence disabilities because combined they encompass only about 20% of students served under IDEA. Low-incidence disabilities often involve a diagnosis by a medical professional of a specific condition, disease, or impairment.

Autism

A developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally evident before age three, which adversely affects a child’s educational performance.

Considerations for the Team

Autism affects a person’s behavior (repetitive or fixated patterns of behavior), socialization (play and developing relationships), and communication (use and understanding pragmatics, expressive and receptive language).

It is important for the team to remember that autism is a spectrum disorder and does not affect all students the same. Forty percent of students with ASD have average or above average intelligence, 25% are nonverbal, others may have an intellectual disability or strong visual, math, artistic, or musical abilities.

Deaf-Blindness

Simultaneous hearing and visual impairments, the combination of which causes such severe communication and other developmental and educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for children with deafness or children with blindness.

Considerations for the Team

Deaf-blindness does not mean that a student has no vision and no hearing, but he/she does have a significant degree of both vision and hearing loss that causes such educational issues that the student cannot be accommodated in a special education program for students who are only deaf, only blind, or have multiple disabilities.

Deafness

A hearing impairment so severe that a child is impaired in processing linguistic information through hearing, with or without amplification, that it adversely affects a child’s educational performance.

Considerations for the Team

A person who is deaf cannot hear most, if any, sound including spoken language. Deafness does not affect a student’s cognitive ability, but students who are deaf often need specialized instruction to help with speech, communicating, and participating in school.

Hearing Impairment

An impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance but is not included under the definition of “deafness”.

Considerations for the Team

As opposed to deafness, students who are hard of hearing do have some degree of hearing. The hearing impairments may be slight, mild, moderate, severe, or profound and may make it difficult for the student to hear, decipher, and use spoken language. Again, this impairment does not affect cognitive ability.

Multiple Disabilities (MD)

Simultaneous impairments (such as intellectual disability-blindness, intellectual disability-orthopedic impairment) in which the combination of impairments causes such severe educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for one of the impairments.

Considerations for the Team

This category does not include Deaf-Blindness. MD typically affects more than a student’s cognitive ability; therefore, functional, behavioral, and daily living skills should be considered when developing an educational plan.

Orthopedic Impairment

The term includes impairments caused by a congenital anomaly, impairments caused by disease (e.g., poliomyelitis, bone tuberculosis), and impairments from other causes (e.g., cerebral palsy, amputations, and fractures or burns that cause contractures).

Considerations for the Team

It is important for the team to know that there are three main types of orthopedic impairments: neuromotor impairments, degenerative diseases, and musculoskeletal disorders.

Neuromotor impairments	abnormality of, or damage to, the brain, spinal cord, or nervous system that sends impulses to the muscles
Degenerative diseases	how muscles develop
Musculoskeletal disorders	disorders that result in physical limitations

Other Health Impairment (OHI)

Having limited strength, vitality, or alertness, including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the educational environment, that

1. is due to chronic or acute health problems such as asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and Tourette’s syndrome; and
2. adversely affects a child’s educational performance.

Considerations for the Team

The law includes examples of multiple types of neurological and medical disabilities; the team needs to remember that those are not the only disabilities covered under OHI. The team also needs to consider not only the student’s academics but also his/her level of strength, energy, and/or attentiveness when determining appropriate interventions, services, and supports.

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

An acquired injury to the brain caused by an external physical force, resulting in total or partial functional disability or psychosocial impairment, or both, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance. The term applies to open or closed head injuries resulting in impairments in one or more areas, such as cognition; language; memory; attention; reasoning; abstract thinking; judgment; problem solving; sensory, perceptual, and motor abilities; psychosocial behavior; physical functions; information processing; and speech.

Considerations for the Team

A person is not born with a TBI, nor is it a disease, but it is brain damage that occurs after birth and is typically caused by an accident or injury that changes how the brain functions. Traumatic brain injuries can affect how a person moves, acts, thinks, and learns, leading to physical disabilities, social, and/or emotional problems, cognitive issues, and behavioral problems.

Visual Impairment Including Blindness

An impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely affects a child’s educational performance. The term includes both partial sight and blindness.

Considerations for the Team

It is important for the team to remember that visual impairment does not necessarily mean blindness and that visual impairments can range from mild to severe but do not affect a student’s cognitive abilities.

Developmental Delay (Only used in some states, ages three to nine)

Delays in one or more of the following areas:

• physical development;
• cognitive development;
• communication development;
• social or emotional development; or
• adaptive development.

Because of the developmental delays, the student needs special education and related services.

Considerations for the Team

Students with developmental delays have deficits in at least two areas of physical, cognitive, communication, social or emotional, or adaptive development. This delay may be temporary in that the student overcomes the deficit with the appropriate interventions, or the student may eventually become eligible for services under another disability category.

Other Educational Considerations for the Team

Accommodations

Supports provided that do not change the expectations set for typically developing peers. Accommodations are designed to allow students to learn or show their knowledge without the interference of their disability or lowering expectations.

Modifications

Modifications lower expectations by typically making a student accountable for less knowledge.

Instructional Strategies

Students with disabilities often need direct, specific, and concrete instruction for academic behavioral and functional tasks and skills. Direct instruction can also be used and includes explaining the skill or knowledge the student is going to learn, teaching the skill or knowledge, modeling the skill or use of the knowledge, and having the student practicing it while providing feedback as to what the student is doing well and what he/she needs to improve upon.

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

Following reading the chapter, students should:

1. Identify the six essential components for cross-grade level collaboration
2. Explain the special considerations for cross-grade level collaboration across grade bands
3. Describe the roles of content area and specialist teachers in collaboration
4. Describe organizational structures to support cross-grade level collaboration

Cross-Grade Level Collaboration

Essential Components for Cross-Grade Level Collaboration

Collaboration across grade levels to support transitions from grade to grade needs to be a primary consideration when teachers collaborate with one another. In schools in which a collaborative culture across the grade levels does not exist, students may transition from a classroom in which the expectations of the teacher and curriculum positioned the student as disabled, to a classroom in which the expectations shift and the disability is no longer readily apparent. There are six essential components for cross-grade collaboration:

Time

To maximize the impact of collaborative time on student learning, it is recommended to devote ten hours a week for teachers to engage in time to think and work with colleagues on instructional plans.

Shared Goals

As a collaborative group of colleagues, teachers need to identify the shared goals they have that are grounded in the needs of their students and the specific culture of their school. Developing shared goals to which all the teachers in a school feel invested facilitates cross-grade collaboration.

Student Centered

For cross-grade level collaboration to impact teaching and learning, the goals of the group should be aligned to the individual classroom goals of each teacher involved.

Professional Learning

In order to plan meaningful professional learning experiences for teachers, planning must begin with the end goal of student learning. Keeping in mind the shared goals of the group and the outcomes desired for student learning are at the heart of planning meaningful professional learning experiences for any collaborative group.

Reflection

Cross-grade collaboration, particularly in its beginning stages, requires teachers to reflect on which components are working well and which components may need to be revised as teachers consider the needs of students across the grade levels in the school.

Community

A strong school community leads to increased collaboration among colleagues who are comfortable sharing with one another, teaching in front of peers, and giving and receiving feedback. Community is both an outcome and a requirement of cross-grade collaboration.

Developmental and Age-Level Considerations for Cross-Grade Level Collaboration

Early Childhood Grades

The early childhood grade band includes preschool through grade three. Collaboration among all of these professionals is a chief responsibility as young children enter school for the first time at the beginning of this grade band and progress to the end of the grade band, where they must be prepared for the demands of the intermediate grades. Transition decisions in the early years of school are critical to the development of a solid foundation for future success for students. Teachers at the early childhood level must collaborate across grade levels to consider students’ readiness for the academic and social demands of preschool through third grade. Decisions about grade retention in these early years of school are less impactful on the social and identity development of the student than they can be as students grow and become more a part of their peer group.

Middle School

The middle school grade band involves grades four through nine. Middle schools are typically designed to foster collaboration among teachers. Content area teachers specialize in one or two areas, and students begin to change classes to meet with these teachers. Teams of three to four teachers are formed to provide students with a “home base” within the larger middle school environment.

High School

High schools are traditionally organized according to content areas in which teachers form teams within specific departments according to their identified content areas. High school teachers can benefit from cross-grade level collaboration that also supports cross-curricular connections. For all students, but in particular for those in need of additional support, the initial steps to acquiring a skill may lie within the standards of one content area but grow and expand within the standards of another content area and across grade levels.

Organizational Structures That Provide Time Needed for Cross-Grade Level Collaboration

Finding the time and space for collaboration is likely the most significant barrier facing any school. Specific structures that provide time needed for cross-grade level collaboration include professional learning communities and team planning time.

Professional Learning Communities

Professional learning communities provide the time and space for cross-grade level collaboration to occur, as teachers pursue topics of inquiry grounded in their interests and needs, not those specifically pertinent to their individual grade level. Professional learning communities can provide an outlet for cross-grade level collaboration within a school building, but it can also provide a bridge for teachers who need to expand beyond their school doors.

Team Planning

The concept of a team of teachers within a school attends to the essential components to cross-grade level collaboration discussed previously; specifically, community and shared goals. Schools that are supportive of teachers working in cross-grade level teams need to provide time and space for team planning to occur. Time for team planning at multiple levels is essential for teachers to engage in deep, collaborative discussions surrounding student learning.

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

Following reading the chapter, students should:

1. Identify various barriers to collaboration and consultation
2. Cite examples of conceptual, attitudinal, professional, and pragmatic barriers
3. Cite examples of how each of the types of barriers might be overcome

Barriers to Collaboration and Consultation

Conceptual Barriers

Schools and individuals develop their own concepts about how schools and teachers operate and the roles of teachers, professionals, families, and students. Development of new collaboration and consultation skills often takes time and substantial changes in people’s roles and how the school operates to develop and improve. Being involved in collaborative teaming may very well require those involved to change attitudes about their roles and the school culture. Change often breeds anxiety, particularly when the change requires development of new knowledge and skill sets.

Attitudinal Barriers

Attitudinal barriers should not be construed automatically to mean an individual must possess a “bad” attitude. Rather, consider that one’s attitudes about oneself, others in the work environment and community, and the expected roles of various professionals and community members are shaped by years of practice, experience, and the school culture.

Pragmatic Barriers

Pragmatic barriers are often logistical in nature and significantly impact formal, planned collaboration and consultation processes. Scheduling time for planning is typically a challenge as well as the competing responsibilities of those involved.

Professional Barriers

Professional barriers are not entirely separate from the conceptual and particularly attitudinal barriers discussed earlier. Professional barriers, for our purposes, include those barriers presented by one’s professional education and training, licensure, and specified professional roles often understood through years of practice in a particular school or district.

Overcoming Barriers to Collaboration and Consultation

Using Professional Development Learning Communities to Overcome Conceptual and Attitudinal Barriers

As discussed in chapter 6, there is not universal agreement on what Professional Development Learning Communities (PLC) are, how they should be formed, or how they should be sustained.

There are many different models of PLCs, which may work better in some districts than others.

Pre-service Teacher Preparation to Overcome Professional Barriers

PLCs are certainly one model for developing collaboration skills that assist pre-service teachers to overcome professional barriers such as their specific licensure area. PLCs are often cited as one of the better methods for overcoming such areas among practicing teachers.

It would appear good leaders engage in five actions that serve as catalysts for building and supporting collaborative work among teachers:

Leadership Strategies for Overcoming Logistical Barriers

Leadership strategies can come in at least two ways. One is to support the development and maintenance of collaborative team processes. The second is to remove logistical barriers that prevent or impede that development and maintenance.

1. Critical analysis of the initial state of affairs and ongoing analysis
2. Advocacy for collaboration personally and to internal and external constituencies
3. Leaders obtain, leverage, and allocate resources to support collaboration
4. Leaders actively work at facilitating collaboration
5. Leaders monitor the progress of collaborative teams

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

Following reading the chapter, students should:

1. Discuss the rationale for co-teaching
2. Describe the characteristics of co-teaching
3. Describe the six co-teaching models
4. Apply the co-teaching models to practical examples
5. List the conditions necessary for successful co-teaching partnerships

Why Co-teaching?

Co-teaching can be successfully implemented with students with mild to severe disabilities and with young children, as well as students at the secondary level.

Co-teaching allows the meshing of the unique knowledge and skills each teacher can bring to the classroom.

Co-teaching requires that teachers plan to use their classroom space to best meet the needs of all students and to work collaboratively to plan lessons, use materials, and monitor student progress.

Co-teaching is generally defined as two educators sharing space and materials to collaboratively plan and provide instruction to a group of diverse students.

The characteristics of co-teaching are:

Two professionals
Diverse student populations
Jointly delivering instruction
Sharing classroom space

Six Co-teaching Models

One Teach, One Observe

In the one teach, one observe model, one teacher teaches and the other observes during instructional times.

The observing teacher may be gathering data on the performance or behavior of a particular student.

The teachers can switch these roles as needed.

One Teach, One Drift

The drifting co-teacher may move about the classroom, manage student behavior, observe students work, and provide assistance to students as needed.

Co-teachers share the same space and students, but they also share more in classroom management responsibilities than in the one teach, one observe model.

Station Teaching

The station teaching model involves the co-teachers planning and instructing a portion of the lesson content in stations through which the students move.

Parallel Teaching

The parallel teaching model involves each co-teacher planning and instructing students on the same material.

Each teacher presents information to a smaller heterogeneous group of students in the class.

The smaller teacher-student ratio created by two learning groups allows for greater discussion, interaction, and closer supervision.

Alternative Teaching

The alternative teaching model involves each co-teacher planning and instructing the students. In this model, each teaches a separate heterogeneous group of students.

While one co-teacher works with a group for a specific purpose, the other co-teacher works with the remainder of the class.

Team Teaching

In team teaching, co-teachers take equal responsibility for all aspects of the classroom: management, planning, preparing materials, delivering instruction, and assessing student learning outcomes.

This model is the most collaborative.

Conditions for Successful Co-teaching

Administrative Support

A primary need identified by teachers who engage in co-teaching includes the importance of support from school administration for the partnership.

Administrator support for co-teaching can come in many forms, from the initial introduction of the concept to the team, to the provision and participation in professional development to develop co-teaching skills.

Professional Development

Implementing co-teaching effectively involves a deep knowledge of the multiple factors involved in co-teaching, including an understanding of the models it can take on in classrooms.

Successful co-teaching depends upon an in-depth understanding of the process and a willingness to continue to learn about how to engage in it successfully.

Collaborative Planning Time

Collaborative planning time is critical for successful co-teaching.

Co-teachers can use collaborative planning time in a variety of ways, and the more well-developed the co-teaching relationship is, the more fluid the use of this time becomes.

Willingness

Co-teaching will only be successful as a partnership if the participants are willing and self-motivated to engage in the practice.

The first and most important component of co-teaching involves this willingness to participate in a practice that will initially push a teacher beyond the comfort zone and provide challenges, but with significant payoff for both teaching and learning.

Equity of Roles

When teachers think about how to share instructional roles, three components remain constant: joint planning, joint instruction, and joint evaluation.

Responsibility for student learning through lesson planning and assessment should be equitably shared between both teachers.

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

1. Describe the transdisciplinary model of consultation
2. Describe how this model relates to multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary models of consultation
3. List the practices involved in consultation
4. Identify key principles of consultation

Consultation

Collaboration can take many forms; sometimes co-teaching is just not a feasible option or is not necessary.

Consultation, as it relates to teaming, involves key stakeholders in a child’s education coming together to communicate, collaborate, and coordinate services to meet a student’s unique needs.

There are six steps to consultation:

The first step of consultation is entry
The second step of consultation is problem identification
The third step of consultation is planning
The fourth step of consultation is intervention
The fifth step of consultation is evaluation
The sixth step of consultation is exit

There are six elements to consultation:

System–The team that is serving the student and the multiple ways in which the student is educated.
Perspective–Thoughts or viewpoints influencing how the team operates.
Approach–The steps taken in order to work collaboratively in order to meet a student’s needs.
Prototype–The pattern according to which the consultation occurs.
Mode–The manner in which the collaboration occurs.
Model–A representation of the working collaborative process.

Models of Collaboration

Multidisciplinary–Teams are loosely formed groups of professionals who consult with one another on the educational needs of a student.

This model of collaboration aligns with a medical, pull-out model of instruction, as teams do not function as a unit to support a student in the least restrictive environment.

Assessment is done in isolation and results are not automatically shared with others who work with the students.

Interdisciplinary–Teams follow a similar structure to the multidisciplinary teams, but there is a higher degree of collaboration and communication on the part of the team members.

These teams meet more frequently than multidisciplinary teams to discuss student progress and coordinate instruction. Interaction between team members occurs within the meetings, but not in the delivery of service.

Transdisciplinary–There is a “collective responsibility for the creation and implementation of the educational and therapeutic plan. No individual is solely responsible for the progress and development in any particular skill area” (Hernandez, 2013, p. 485).

There are three phases in bringing a transdisciplinary team together:

• Organizing the team
• Facilitating the team process
• The team is developed and implemented in the school to serve students

Due to the high degree of collaboration and communication that occurs, the following components must be considered.

Team Member Roles

Family Members–Family members are the most important members of the team, as they know the child and his or her background best.

Educator–A team will of course include both general and special educators who are responsible for providing instruction on a daily basis to the student.

Therapists–Therapists, such as the speech-language pathologist, physical therapist, or occupational therapist will be members of the school team, depending on the needs of the child.

Medical Personnel and Other Professionals–Medical personnel, mental health professionals, tutors, or other professionals relevant to the needs of the child might also be included on a team.

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

Following reading this chapter, students should:

1. Explain how the need for related services is determined
2. List several related service providers
3. Describe the roles of related service providers in schools
4. Discuss how related service providers work with school teams to provide services to students

Related Services Determination

Related services are needed supports, both academic and nonacademic, to most effectively serve students with a free and appropriate education.

Supports could include things such as speech and language services, occupational therapy, or counseling for a student or family in crisis.

Determining if a student qualifies for related services is done during the eligibility assessments for special education.

During this assessment process, a student should be evaluated on all areas of her or his suspected disability.

If a student qualifies for related services, the services are specified on their IEP or 504 Plan.

Related Services Personnel

Speech-Language Pathologists

Speech-language pathologists (SLP) provide critical services to students with communication disorders.

A speech-language disorder could be the primary disability for a student, or it may be related to another disability category.

SLPs provide support for communication and swallowing problems, such as articulation issues, including how sounds are pronounced and put together to form words.

The role of the SLP on the IEP team will change with the degree to which speech and language impairment is affecting the student as compared to other disabilities. If speech and language impairments are the primary disability, the SLP will be a primary member of the team. When speech and language impairments are a secondary disability, then the SLP must work effectively with the team to develop an IEP.

Occupational Therapist

An occupational therapist (OT) specializes in assisting students in performing activities of daily living (ADL) in both academic and nonacademic areas.

OTs analyze the school environment and recommend and/or provide the supports and modifications to help students overcome barriers and fully participate in all aspects of the school day.

OTs may work one-on-one with students, support post high school, and address other sensory, motor, or cognitive needs

OTs collaborate with team members to recommend instructional strategies and interventions to increase student participation. They may work with school personnel on ways to adapt the school environment to make it more accessible for all students.

Physical Therapy

Physical therapy focuses on improving a student’s posture, movement, and muscle strength. This therapy is provided to students with deficits in gross motor skills.

PTs and PTAs may work one-on-one with students on a variety of skills that help develop posture, muscle strength, and mobility, such as running, walking, skipping, throwing a ball or climbing.

PTs and PTAs may collaborate with teachers on developing seating arrangements for the classroom or recommend strategies and supports that facilitate posture.

Psychological Services

Psychological services are designed to promote the mental health and behavioral well-being of students.

Psychological services can be provided by a school psychologist or other qualified professional, such as school counselors or social workers.

School psychologists work with students to provide counseling and behavioral supports. They may work one-on-one or in small groups with students who have difficulties with social skills, behavior management, or developing relationships with teachers or peers.

Academically, they may assist students in developing appropriate study skills like time management or organization and facilitate academic interventions.

School psychologists also assess individual students to determine their strengths and areas of need, especially for eligibility purposes.

Social Work Services

School social workers use their knowledge in child development and family dynamics to address social and psychological concerns.

In working with individual students or small groups, school social workers provide counseling, intervention, and support services to help students cope with stressful situations, crisis, and/or family troubles.

School social workers can help the team better understand family and community factors that affect a student’s performance in school. They may provide the link between schools, families, and community resources.

Assistive Technology

Assistive technology (AT) is a service that enables a student to communicate and participate fully in the school day.

Commonly used devices include computers, access systems, and specialized software.

AT devices are provided to students based on the content of their IEP goals.

Audiology Services

A school audiologist helps a student with hearing loss or an auditory processing disorder to navigate curriculum.

An audiologist may fit and maintain technology; provide in-service training; provide guidance to support personnel, teachers, and families; participate in IEP meetings; diagnose or assess hearing loss and auditory processing disorders; implement hearing loss prevention programs; assess students’ functional classroom performance; conduct a hearing screening; and assess classroom acoustics for students who have hearing disorders

Counseling Services

School counselors work with all students, including those with disabilities.

School counselors work with a student in counseling to address issues that interfere with his or her educational success, including anxiety and depression-related concerns. Counselors communicate with families and other agencies, as well as assist general educators in inclusive settings with issues related to behavior and classroom management.

Early Identification and Assessment of Disabilities

Early identification and assessment is an important related service provided to help identify disabilities as early as possible.

A lack of swift assessment and intervention can result in academic challenges later in life.

Interpreting Services

Oral language, cued language, or sign language transliteration services, and transcription services are all included under interpretation services.

Medical Services

Medical services are provided by a licensed physician to determine a child’s medically related disability and the need for special education.

Medical treatment and intervention is not included in a school service plan, thus medical services qualify as a related service when used for diagnostic or evaluation purposes only.

Orientation and Mobility Services

Student who are blind or have low vision will access orientation and mobility services to help them navigate the school and classroom environment.

Parent Counseling and Training

This related service is geared toward assisting parents to better understand the special needs of their child and to assist them with information that can help their child be more successful in academic and other environments.

A wide variety of professionals, such as special education teachers, therapists, or behavior specialists, may provide this service depending on the specific areas of need.

Recreation Services

Therapeutic recreation involves the use of sports, games, arts and crafts, music, dance, drama, and nontraditional recreational activities to improve or maintain the physical, mental, and emotional well-being of students who receive special education services.

Rehabilitation Counseling Services

Vocational rehabilitation services focus on career development and preparing students for employment, independence, and integration into school, work, or community groups.

School Health Services

School health and nursing services can be a critical related service for some students who have medical conditions.

Such services might include medication administration and ensuring that students with disabilities have a written emergency plan for such things as medical emergencies and nonmedical emergencies.

Transportation Services

How a student with a disability travels to and from school as well as in and around school buildings is crucial to successful participation in the curriculum and activities of the day.

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

Following reading of this chapter, students should:

1. Provide a rationale for student collaboration
2. Discuss the differences between cooperative learning and collaborative learning
3. List the eight key principles for student collaboration
4. Describe several models for student collaboration

Student Collaboration

Learning within a social context is different from learning independently, thus special consideration needs to be given to the design of collaborative learning tasks in an inclusive classroom.

Collaborative learning has been shown to have a positive effect on student learning over individual, competitive situations and can meet more learning style needs within a classroom than direct instruction.

Interpersonal skills that are critical for later personal and professional success can be learned through collaborative learning.

Peer scaffolding–Students develop a shared or intersubjective understanding of the situation and have the opportunity to teach each other, taking on some of the instructional responsibilities of the teacher.

Cooperative Learning versus Collaborative Learning

Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning is widely employed in K–12 classrooms.

Cooperative learning includes any form of instruction in which students are working together for a purpose; successful cooperative learning in a classroom requires more than just placing students in a group and letting them work at a task together. Mutual interdependence, collective problem solving, and striving for a common goal are characteristics that mark a group activity as cooperative learning.

The role of the instructor in cooperative learning is to provide structure for the learning experience, monitor the group process and provide feedback, and assess the final outcome according to a set of criteria.

Collaborative Learning

Collaborative learning is an evolution of cooperative learning.

In collaborative learning, the social development of the group is a priority. There is an increased emphasis on sharing outcomes with others and the social constructive nature of learning.

Collaborative learning helps students to prepare for the world of college and career in which they will be accountable for their own responsibilities, but must also work in conjunction with others to achieve their goals.

Collaborative group work includes independent assignments and accountability that are completed in consultation with other students working on a similar task or goal.

Principles of Student Collaboration

Size

More is not always better when it comes to collaboration at any level. When forming collaborative groups of students, three to four members is ideal for an effective process.

Composition

Collaborative groups can be formed randomly, numbering students off in a fixed pattern to produce a group of mixed ability, styles, and goals. Groups can also be formed according to similar abilities, goals, or learning styles.

Roles

For a group to be collaborative, roles should be more fluid and dynamically taken on by members based on the needs of the group. However, particularly when working with young students or students of varying abilities, defining roles within a group should be a decision a teacher makes as the lesson is planned.

Interdependence–is an important component to collaborative groups, and it requires students to become reliant on one another in order to be productive and successful in achieving a common goal.

Norms

For any group to function effectively, it is important to establish norms that will govern the interactions of the group. In a collaborative group within a classroom, this might include respecting one another, allowing every person a turn to talk, taking turns completing tasks, etc.

Time and Task

In a classroom, teachers need to set forth some guidelines concerning the amount of time groups will have to meet and work, as well as how the task will be evaluated and defined.

Classroom Context

No classroom is just like another, and the tangible and intangible differences in classroom contexts influence the instructional activities that occur. This can include the space and resources that are utilized in and outside of the classroom, or the investment of the teacher in scaffolding and preparing students to engage in collaboration.

Assessment

Decisions about assessment of collaborative work should be made based on the goals of the learning activity and the collaborative experiences and skills of the group members.

Role of the Teacher

The teacher in a collaborative classroom really becomes the “lead learner”, rather than the teacher.

The role of facilitator becomes important and critical as students learn to take on the norms and habits of working collaboratively.

Models of Student Collaboration

Peer Learning

In peer learning, collaborative groups can be formed for the specific purpose of peers taking on the role of the teacher. Groups should be flexible and driven toward clarifying or extending content taught in the class.

Cross-Grade Level

Implementation of cross-grade level collaboration is largely dependent on the context of the school. Students who are asked to engage in cross-grade level collaboration should have some preparation for the norms of collaborative learning.

Jigsaw

Students have opportunities to work in multiple levels of collaborative groups surrounding an area of study. Students group together and become “experts” in one specific area of the overall topic. After becoming “experts” in this area, new groups are formed with other “experts” in other areas. The different “experts”, now grouped together, then teach each other their content areas.

Inquiry Groups

Inquiry groups are collaborative groups formed to explore an area of interest. Inquiry groups represent a significant shift in the collaborative process, as they involve less structure from the teacher and more latitude in the direction of the learning on the part of the students.

Project-Based Learning

Project-based learning, also called problem-based learning, places students in heterogeneous, collaborative groups to work on an authentic problem or project. Students take on significantly more control of the learning process within the group than in the previous models.

Web 2.0

The proliferation of interactive technologies available via the Internet has revolutionized opportunities for student collaboration. Social media, interactive Internet sites, wikis, and online software programs have opened space within classrooms for students to collaborate within and beyond their classroom doors in innovative, and seemingly endless, ways.

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

Following reading the chapter, students should:

1. Determine the components of interpersonal communication
2. Identify the steps and skills needed for active listening
3. Understand nonverbal communication and its impact on interpersonal communication

Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication is the means by which a person conveys a message to another person or group of people, no matter the setting, group, or topic.

Mediated Communication

Interpersonal communication can be mediated and facilitated through the use of an electronic device such as a computer or cell phone.

Mediated communication is invaluable to educators because of the distance and time it saves in sending and receiving messages.

Mediated communication often lacks the ability to send and receive information in current time and provide immediate feedback.

Mediated communication does not have the advantage or support of nonverbal cues in helping to decipher the emotions or importance that a person attributes to a message.

Face-to-Face Communication

Face-to-face communication is direct interpersonal communication because the communication occurs between the partners at the same time and in the same space.

Successful direct communication relies on a solid, clear command of the language and appropriate word choice.

There are two main components of direct interpersonal communications, active listening skills and nonverbal cues.

Active Listening Skills

Actively listening requires the receiver to hear a message, interpret it, reflect upon it, and provide feedback to the speaker in order to acknowledge or clarify the message.

Steps of the Listening Process

Active listening is a six-step process that demonstrates through words and actions that a person is focused on the speaker, open to the message, reflecting on and clarifying what is being said, able to summarize key points, and able to provide an appropriate response.

The six steps to active listening are:

• Focus on the speaker–remain distraction free
• Be open and receptive to the message–this does not mean the listener agrees with the message.
• Paraphrase both the verbal and nonverbal message–this will let the other party know the listener understood the message.
• Ask questions–this will clear up any confusion the listener may have.
• Restate and summarize the main idea–this again does not mean the listener agrees with the message, but understands the main idea.
• Provide a response–share any ideas, feelings, or thoughts.

Barriers to Active Listening

It can be hard for a listener to be quiet and focus rather than interrupt the speaker with his or her own thoughts and ideas or to ignore internal and external distractions.

Time is also a barrier to active listening, as it initially takes more time to engage in.

Another barrier to active listening is assuming that to be in a leadership or management role, one needs to be knowledgeable and decisive.

Active listening may be especially challenging when it involves mediated communication or is not face-to-face.

Nonverbal Cues and Communication

Nonverbal communication is a form of communication that does not involve words or language (except in the case of sign language) and is often the primary way humans communicate emotions, moods, sarcasm, and attitudes.

People are often unaware of their nonverbal communication and how it is perceived and interpreted by the receiver.

Nonverbal messages are more subtle and vulnerable to more subjective interpretation than verbal communication, which tends to be more direct and more easily clarified with a question or follow-up.

Nonverbal Cues

Nonverbal communication is made up of nonverbal cues, the nonlinguistic behaviors of a person that communicate information and are often used by others to form an impression.

Studies have shown that it takes as little as one-tenth of a second to use nonverbal cues to form an impression about a person based on facial appearance alone.

Visible nonverbal cues also include kinesics or how a person moves or uses the body. This can be broken down into three different types: gestures, facial expressions, and posture.

Other Considerations about Nonverbal Communication

Just like verbal cues can be misunderstood or misinterpreted, so can nonverbal cues. Nonverbal cues can lead to even more uncertainty because they are subtle, subject to interpretation, and people often are not aware of their impact. Three things to keep in mind about nonverbal cues and communication are the difference between nonverbal behaviors and nonverbal communication, the rules that guide nonverbal communication, and the cultural influences of nonverbal communication.

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

Following reading the chapter, students should:

1. Identify the causes and costs of conflict among teams
2. Identify strategies for managing conflict among teams
3. List and explain the various steps in due process procedures

The Causes and Costs of Conflict

Effective communication skills can be instrumental in avoiding conflicts when each individual is understood, respected, and encouraged to participate in collaborative teaming.

Managing conflict, unfortunately, tends to be a skill that develops over time and with experience and practice in application of the skill.

Conflict can be useful even when it is inevitable; however, when it is not managed well, it can be quite destructive.

There can be considerable costs to unresolved conflict including:

• It can create costs
• It wastes time
• It can lead to bad decisions
• One or more members may transfer schools or move to another district
• Leaders may have to restructure teams to avoid conflicts among members
• Sabotage may occur
• Team members are quite likely to lose motivation
• Team members may miss work to avoid conflicts

Typical causes of conflicts may include:

• Clearly articulated purposes and goals for the team have not been expressed
• Meeting times are not realistic or meetings are cancelled or changed without sufficient notice
• Team members may harbor long-term resentments toward one another
• Team members’ personalities may not complement each other
• Team members were not selected thoughtfully and with care
• Individual team members have very different expectations of one another and the team as a whole

Managing Conflict

In general, there are several principles to managing conflict at any grade level among teams. To manage conflict, parties must first agree to negotiate. Second, team members must gather various points of view; communication is key during this step. Third, team members must find common interests. Fourth, team members need to create win-win options. Fifth, team members need to evaluate the options identified. Finally, team members need to reach an agreement.

When looking at who should be responsible for conflict resolution, school leaders (such as principals and lead teachers) need to be prepared to help aid in conflict resolution and model positive behaviors for other staff members.

In the case of conflict among school personnel and families of students with disabilities, there are specific steps that must be followed under IDEA—you may hear this called “going to due process”.

Due Process Procedures

Free appropriate public education (FAPE) is typically at the heart of due process conflicts.

Initially, parents or schools may request a mediation hearing. A neutral third party is involved who can work with both parties. Unless both the school and family waive the right to mediation, this step is required prior to more legally formal proceedings. It is beneficial to resolve conflict during a mediation meeting as “due process” is time consuming and expensive.

If a resolution is not reached within a specified time frame, the parties will present their “cases” to an impartial hearing officer. If a resolution is not reached following this hearing, the State Education Agency will provide a review of the local hearing and render a decision.

If a resolution is not reached after the state review, either party may file a civil court action.

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

Following reading the chapter, students should:

1. Name the four subsystems of families
2. Cite the seven family functions
3. Identify barriers to family participation as identified by parents and school personnel
4. Cite examples of how those barriers might be overcome

Principles of Defining Families and Family Functions

As educators, we must have an inclusive view of the fabric that makes up the student’s family rather than assuming a viewpoint in concert with previous particular notions about what is a family and how it should work.

Family by Definition

A family is the basic unit of society in which a group of individuals coexist to meet a group’s needs as well as individual needs collectively.

This definition has changed dramatically from the stereotypical husband, wife, and two children model.

Family Systems

A family system or family unit is made up of members who are influenced by factors both internal and external to the family.

There are four family subsystems:

1. Marital partner subsystem
2. Parental subsystem
3. Sibling subsystem
4. Extra-familial subsystem

Family Functions and Interactions

Family Functions

• Economic needs–contending with obtaining and spending money
• Daily care needs–this may be an area of tremendous need in families with children who have special needs
• Socialization needs–not absolutely necessary, but adds to the quality of life
• Recreational needs–not absolutely necessary, but adds to the quality of life
• Self-definition needs–the way each member of the family defines him/herself as an individual
• Affection needs–ways in which each family member has opportunities to know they are loved
• Educational/vocational needs–the needs in which educators have the most capabilities

Effective Family Interactions

First, communication should be clear and open. Any messages that are sent should have appropriate content and feeling. Additionally, roles and responsibilities should be clear but maintain flexibility to address changing situations. Children need to have clear boundaries, but members must also understand that changes in time and circumstances may lead to adjustments in each individual’s role.

Barriers to Family Involvement

Logistical barriers–these barriers involve complications that families may have arranging time away from home or work.

Communication barriers–when families do not share the same cultural or socioeconomic backgrounds of school personnel, communication styles may differ.

Barriers resulting from misunderstandings–develop when there is a lack of understanding of schools. Families may be overwhelmed by or simply unfamiliar with the complex ways in which a school and its personnel “work”.

Barriers Identified by Professionals

Parental apathy–parental or caregiver apathy can be a major obstacle to involving families in a child’s education. This perception of professionals may be exacerbated when there are cultural/linguistic and/or socioeconomic differences between the majority teacher culture and that of families.

Time constraints–educational professionals, like families, also have limited time for collaboration and encouraging the collaboration of families in school.

Lack of professional expertise–some educators may feel they lack the skills and knowledge to interact effectively with and support families.

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

Following reading the chapter, students should:

1. Name the essential elements to consider when planning a family conference
2. Cite important considerations inherent in a successful family conference
3. Identify strategies after a conference to facilitate family involvement
4. Understand ways to communicate with families
5. Define strategies to promote family involvement

Principles of Family Collaboration

Essential Elements to Planning a Family Conference

Some conferences may be planned as school-wide events, such as school open house nights. These conferences are important, as they can reach multiple families at one time or allow some families to feel more comfortable.

Other conferences may only involve one family and their child. It is important that these conferences are not only held when delivering negative news.

Conferences hold four main purposes:

1. Exchange of information
2. Develop rapport
3. Promote student achievement and progress
4. Mediate concerns or problems

Planning for the Conference

Notification–Notify parties well in advance that a meeting will occur

Preparation–Review any information or data needed for the meeting

Arranging the Environment–Create a warm, welcoming environment

Conducting the Conference

Make Introductions–In some cultures, “getting down to business” too fast can been seen as rude.

Incorporate Input–Allow family members to speak as early and often as possible

After the Meeting

• Review with the student the outcomes of the meeting whether he/she attended or not—assuming you have parental/caregiver consent to do so.
• Review the outcomes of the meetings with other professionals or stakeholders who were not able to attend and who have a need to know those outcomes.
• Communicate the action items and any critical next dates.
• Take time to reflect and evaluate how the conference went.

Additional Ways to Collaborate with Families

It is important that educators incorporate other communication ideas throughout a school year and beyond that are not specifically related to conferences. Some ways to do this are through:

• Written Strategies
• Handbooks
• Handouts
• Newsletters
• Daily Communications
• Report Cards, Grading, and Progress Reports
• Occasional Messages

Additional Ways to Communicate and Collaborate

Additional strategies that encourage family involvement might include unplanned meetings, group family meetings, or innovative usage of technology.

Group Family Meetings

For group family meetings, always be well prepared. Make sure the invitations to such meetings are planned well in advance. It is important that families have plenty of time to arrange attending.

Group meetings can provide an opportunity to give information to larger numbers of people at one time, answer questions, and listen to comments; therefore, they can be efficient.

Keep in mind the following list of possible options as you build collaboration and family involvement throughout the year.

1. Establish a network of mentor families who can provide information and support
2. Note any school-wide committees or task forces that need family members
3. Compile a list of volunteering opportunities
4. Identify any special skills or knowledge parents/caregivers may possess and inquire if they would be willing to mentor a student, make a presentation, or provide assistance in some other way
5. Devise in-services for parents or informational meetings
6. Encourage and support participation in the school’s parent teacher organization

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

Following reading the chapter, students should:

1. Identify diversity in its various forms and the impact on the family and learner
2. Cite barriers to working with diverse families and learners
3. Identify strategies for collaborating with diverse families and learners
4. Understand how professionals need to change
5. Provide ways to promote diversity through collaboration among various stakeholders

Building Collaboration

Educators value and embrace the critical importance of collaborating with families. However, it is even more important that educators evaluate with a critical lens what they are doing (or not doing) to reach out to their diverse families.

Identifying Diversity and the Impacts on the Family and Learner

Families in today’s society are more dynamic and diverse than ever before. It is important that educators use a broader lens of what constitutes a family beyond the traditional “mother, father, and two siblings” stereotype of the past. Remember three things when working with a diverse family:

1. No culture is inherently better than another
2. Though there may be some culturally based behaviors, these behaviors are always on a spectrum and should not be “assigned” to any given individual
3. Each individual is an individual and may or may not adopt cultural behaviors often assigned to someone from a particular cultural background

A critical component to increasing family involvement is the collaborative nature that exists between the school and the family.

Principles of Inclusive Collaboration

It is important not to assume that lack of participation equals lack of interest in the child or the school.

Barriers to Working with Diverse Families

• Work challenges
• Emotional challenges
• Language challenges
• Parent access challenges
• Cultural dissonance challenges
• Self-imposed challenges

Strategies for Collaborating with Diverse Families

The National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) has developed recommendations to enhance collaboration and break down barriers:

• A school must always be attentive for any structural changes that are needed to support family collaboration.
• Communication styles are different for each individual and for different cultural groups. Being knowledgeable in one’s own communication style as well as others’ is important.
• Try to ensure that there are no surprises for families that are already feeling apprehensive and uncomfortable in their relationship with schools.
• School and family collaboration will benefit from regular and positive communication.
• Conversations that emphasize strengths rather than weaknesses will provide benefits.

There a four steps to follow when planning to meet with diverse families:

1. Take initiative to meet and get to know the families.
2. Continue to build that foundation throughout the time with the family.
3. Consistently make sure to maintain and support family relationships.
4. Take time to assess, reflect, and grow.

Professional Change

It is an unfortunate truth that educators often make assumptions about families long before they should be made.

Professionals at all times must identify and address any bias or deficit views they may be adapting.

Promote Diversity through Collaboration with Stakeholders

Try to maintain an open communication policy with families (in your classroom, if not the entire school).

Try to build active parent associations and advisory councils in the school.

Be varied and creative about the ways the school involves parent volunteers.

Do everything possible to build an inclusive school culture.

Share responsibility for success and failures among all stakeholders.

Outline

Chapter Objectives:

Following reading the chapter, students should:

1. Define the features of community collaboration
2. Identify practices for effective interagency collaboration
3. Describe ways in which all involved parties can collaborate

Features Affecting Community Collaboration

Communication

While caregivers have no legal obligation to keep open lines of communication with schools, schools do have an obligation to keep families and community stakeholders informed.

Different types of communication, and how those forms of communication may serve a goal, should always be considered.

Participation

While it is appropriate to conduct some meetings with restricted attendance, many collaborative activities should encourage everyone to be involved.

Research has indicated that parent/caregiver involvement in the day-to-day operations of a school tends to strengthen academic performance and lower negative behavioral issues, such as absenteeism and truancy.

Increased participation from caregivers may expand contacts and resources for the school system, expand the expertise of a subject area, or provide direct financial assistance.

Governance

In order to build true collaborative relationships, it is critical that community members be involved in the governance of the school in some way. This may help negate some unnecessary and divisive disagreements.

Practices for Effective Interagency Collaboration

Ways in Which All Involved Come Together

One way in which schools have adapted to an expanded role in school-family-community collaboration is by becoming full-service (or community) schools.

Full-service schools, through collaboration with community agencies, offer entry to or information about such services as physical health services, mental health services, employment services, child care, parent/caregiver education, case management and referral for services to agencies, recreation, cultural events, and community policing and organizing neighborhood watch programs.

Ways in Which All Involved Come Together

IDEA, in particular, supports this concept of providing referral and access to community services for families with children with disabilities. In general, for all students, when families are able to reduce the stressors of other family needs, children’s academic and behavioral performance also tends to be improved.

Whether in specific full-service schools or through broader community collaboration, it is sometimes necessary for schools and community agencies to formalize their working relationships. Interagency agreements are written agreements that commit schools and agencies to work together, determine which is responsible for what services and costs, and how each agency will engage in their collaborative relationships. Such agreements are particularly important in early intervention services (in transition from early intervention to preschool programs) and in transition from school to post-school living for students with disabilities.