Chapter 11 - Forensic Cyberpsychology

Chapter Summary

Cybercrime

• Cybercrime is any criminal activity carried out using computers and computer networks.
• Examples of cybercrime include malicious hacking, malware development and distribution, cyberterrorism, online sexual predators, creation and distribution of child pornography/child exploitation materials, online fraud, identity theft and copyright infringement.
• Other activities, such as cyberbullying, cyberstalking and deviant behaviour in online virtual worlds are not necessarily criminal offences, although aspects of them (such as physical threats or hate speech) may be offences in themselves.
• The term ‘hacking’ has mixed meanings, and attempts have been made to create terminology to more clearly differentiate between positive aspects of hacking and malicious hacking.
• Hacktivism is the use of hacking techniques in activism, but is not always a criminal act.
• Malware includes all kinds of malicious software, such as viruses, spyware and worms.
• Cyberterrorists use malware and hacking, but the definition of the term ‘cyberterrorism’ has been debated.
• Risks to children online include sexual predators, and the creation and distribution of explicit images of children.
• Some financial crimes online include advance fee fraud and identity theft.
• Susceptibility to online financial crimes can often be explained by decision-making biases researched in cognitive psychology.
• Copyright infringements are conducted by many otherwise law-abiding Internet users. Peer influence and low self-control appear to be related to offending.
• Avatars within online virtual worlds have sometimes been attacked and/or assaulted.

Categorising cybercrime

• There are several proposed taxonomies for cybercrime.
• David Wall (2001) listed four areas of harmful activity online: cyber-trespass, cyber-deceptions/thefts, cyber-pornography/obscenity and cyber-violence.
• He later proposed that cybercrime had three main criminologies: computer integrity crimes, computer-assisted crimes and computer-content crimes.
• Kirwan & Power (2013) differentiate between three types of cybercrime: crimes against the virtual person, Internet-enabled offences and Internet-specific offences.
• The term ‘old wine in new bottles’ is used to describe how many types of cybercrime have offline equivalents, but are conducted in a new setting.

Forensic psychology: an overview

• Films and television often depict the work of forensic psychologists in misleading ways.
• Forensic psychology is a broad topic, with many forensic psychologists working in settings such as prisons, probation centres, hospitals and universities.

Research topics in forensic psychology

• Offender profiling is one of many topics within forensic psychology. It has been applied to some areas of cybercrime, including malicious hacking.
• Offender profiling is one aspect of investigative psychology, which incorporates other ways in which psychologists can be of assistance to police investigations.
• Researchers attempt to determine what the risk factors of criminality are and to develop a greater understanding of specific types of offenders.
• Prediction of offending and reoffending, and the determination of the most appropriate methods of assessment and rehabilitation of offenders are commonly conducted by forensic psychologists.
• Forensic psychology also attempts to determine the most effective punishments for different types of offenders.
• The psychology of the courtroom is also considered by forensic psychologists, including research on the decision-making strategies of jurors and judges.
• The role of victims, crime prevention and fear of crime are also frequently studied in forensic psychology.

Theories of crime

• Theories of crime try to describe why crime occurs and who is most likely to become an offender.
• Single factor theories attempt to determine differences between offenders and non-offenders on specific traits.
• Learning theories are thought to be beneficial in explaining offending, especially social learning theory, which has been applied to digital piracy.
• Rational Choice Theory (RCT) attempts to explain crime in terms of criminal decision making given the possibilities of reward and punishment.
• Agnew’s General Strain Theory suggests that when people are placed under strain, some will resort to criminal means to achieve their goals.
• Neutralisations are methods of rationalising behaviour to reduce guilt and have been associated with digital piracy.
• ‘Cognitive distortions’ are distorted ways of thinking which may be similar to neutralisations, and are evident in many child predators and collectors of explicit materials depicting children.
• Labelling theory concerns how individuals label themselves and others, and the behaviours that this may result in.
• Routine Activity Theory considers how most criminal acts require the co-presence of a motivated offender, a suitable target and an absence of guardians.
• Crime tends to be socially constructed.
• Finally, there are some integrated theories of crime which attempt to provide a more cohesive model of offending than the individual theories alone.

Researching cybercrime

• Cybercrime is fast paced, but this does not negate the need for empirical evidence in forensic cyberpsychology as unfounded speculation can be dangerous.
• Research with cybercriminals can be problematic – for example, in terms of finding participants and ensuring their identity as cybercriminals.
• Where necessary, researchers must be careful to consider such limitations when presenting findings and suggestions for policy.