Chapter Resources

Chapter 2 – STRUCTURE AND REGULATION

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Outline of this chapter in the book

Every country has an authority for the overall regulation of broadcasting. They allocate station frequencies and set limits to transmitted power in order to avoid interference. They impose certain programme standards, set rules and monitor the output of stations to ensure the rules are kept.

No radio station and no radio producer exists in a vacuum. In addition to the national regulator there may be additional advisory bodies and pressures such as sponsors, advertisers and so on. Every station is likely to have its own governing council, board, or owner, to whom the manager reports and the station may be part of a large organisation or a media chain.

Community radio – audio interview

Community radio shares the spectrum with commercial radio and public service broadcasting, but its aims and targets are in some ways different. Daniele Fisichella is Manager for Future Radio in Norwich, UK, and after just six weeks as boss he explained to Jeff Link his approach to the job.

Useful links

USA Federal Communications Commission:

www.fcc.gov

National Association of Broadcasters in the USA:

www.nab.org

UK Office of Communication:

www.ofcom.org.uk

Australian Communications and Media Authority:

www.acma.gov.au.

Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission:

www.crtc.gc.ca

Communication Authority of Kenya:

www.ca.go.ke

Community Media Association:

www.commedia.org.uk

Canadian Campus and Community Radio Association:

www.ncra.ca

Chapter 3 – THE RADIO STUDIO

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Outline of this chapter in the book

This chapter introduces radio studio operations, either in the ‘self-op’ mode or using other operational staff. Even the best programmes, with good production and presentation, will fail if the operational technique is not of the same high quality.

A proficient producer who is in command of the tools of the trade can then concentrate on what broadcasting is really about – the communication of ideas in speech and music.

Digital technology

Digital production techniques are now quite common and the examples that follow demonstrate some of the advantages and pitfalls. We also provide audio resources for practical exercises in digital sound editing.

Compression

Here are examples of good and bad practice in audio dynamic compression, which can be used to increase the perceived loudness of audio and give it some extra ‘punch’.

Listen to an example of the use of light dynamic compression.

Next, an example of the excessive dynamic compression.

In order to reduce the amount of data required for the transmission of digital audio, digital compression is often used to reduce the size of the audio file.

Bit depth and sample rate are two variables (bit depth is the number of bits of information in each sample). Standard Compact Discs use 16 bits at a sample rate of 44.1K but other devices like DVD-Audio and Blu-ray Discs can support higher rates.

Bit depth and sample rate have a direct effect on the resolution of each sample, each reduction in size reducing the audio fidelity. Listen to these examples to hear the way the audio quality is affected by using different forms of digital compression.

First the original recording as a stereo WAV file, 16 bit, sampled at 44.1 KHz. Although the duration is just 32 seconds, the size of the file is 5.5 MB.

Here the same music has been converted to an MP3 file in a format of 128 Kb per second, with a sample rate of 44100. MP3 is a ‘lossy’ format and reduces the file size to a tenth of the original at just 0.5 MB. Can you notice a reduction in audio fidelity when compared to the original WAV file?

Here the same music has been converted to an MP3 file in a format of 64 Kb per second, with a sample rate of 22050 Hz. The file has now been reduced to a size of 0.25 MB, but the loss of fidelity is noticeable.

Here the same music has been converted to an MP3 file in a format of 20 Kb per second, with a sample rate of 11025 Hz. The file has now been reduced to just 80 KB, but the quality has deteriorated noticeably.

Digital editing exercises

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Here are six audio editing exercises which will help you polish your digital editing skills. Exercises 1–4 are speech-based whilst exercises 5 and 6 involve music.

Editing Exercise 1 – Edit the short introduction to remove the morning reference for an evening repeat slot, making the audio say ‘Hello and welcome’.

Editing Exercise 2 – Edit the audio to put the numbers in the correct sequence from 1 to 10.

Editing Exercise 3 – Edit the audio to remove as many hesitations and pauses as possible. Try to create a natural flow to the speech.

Editing Exercise 4 – Here Stafford Bell is interviewed by Robert McLeish. The task is to edit the audio to create a three-minute piece on oral history for a speech radio station.

Editing Exercise 5 – Edit the audio so the notes played on the piano are in an ascending scale.

Editing Exercise 6 – This is a track by singer–songwriter, Ervin Munir. The track was recorded in his own studio and requires editing. Remove the countdown at the beginning and edit any pauses and retakes to create a track which is ready for broadcast. (The track should begin with a fade on the sea sound effects. By selecting the cut points carefully, it is possible for the edits to be totally undetectable in the finished edit.)

Assessing your edits

The test for any edit (speech or music) is whether the cut is noticeable. It can be useful to play a suspect edit to another person – it is easy for the editor to get too close to the work and the judgement of a second pair of ears is sometimes useful.

We have completed the music edits in Ervin Munir’s song and you can listen to the track here. (Try the edits yourself first though – no cheating!)

Chapter 4 – USING THE INTERNET AND SOCIAL MEDIA

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Outline of this chapter in the book

This chapter discusses the way the Internet has revolutionised the way the listener and the broadcaster communicate. The Internet has also introduced new ways for listeners to listen and broadcasters to broadcast. Social media has provided new ways for listeners to get in touch and share content.

The ‘Internet revolution’ has been largely driven by the audience. Broadcasters initially found it difficult to accept that no one person owns the Internet and there is no ‘gate-keeper’. This methodology is very different from the original model of the radio industry. Now it is possible for anyone to set up a radio station without the usual restrictions of spectrum and wavelength agreements. After a short period of playing ‘catch-up’, the industry has eagerly embraced the Internet, delighted that radio is being brought to new audiences through ever expanding platforms.

Case study

David Clayton is the Editor of BBC Radio Norfolk, a local station covering the east coast of England, and he admits that social media made a big contribution to the coverage of a storm surge around the coast of Norfolk in 2013. With nearly 100 miles of coastline exposed to the North Sea, the risk of dramatic coastal erosion and flooding is high. The station and its team of presenters had already established a good rapport with listeners via social media and, in addition to the team of regular reporters, this was a great opportunity for ‘citizen journalism’.

In this audio David Clayton discusses how social media can play a part during a developing story. The package includes illustrative clips from BBC Radio Norfolk’s storm coverage and is introduced by Jeff Link.

The radio coverage of the night led the Norfolk station to win a Gold Award in the journalism category at the annual Radio Academy Awards ceremony in London. The judges said that the radio station’s coverage was:

Vivid, dramatic but always responsible reporting that placed this talented news team right at the heart of a developing story. This is local news-gathering at its finest – when radio becomes the essential ‘go-to place’ for information. Story telling that was always in touch with its community, often moving, and always compelling.

• Those involved in the award-winning coverage were:
• Anthony Isaacs – Assistant Editor
• Nanette Aldous – News Editor
• Andrew Turner – District Reporter
• Clare Worden – Reporter
• Wally Webb – Radio Car Reporter
• Vikki Irwin – Reporter
• David Whiteley – Reporter
• Graham Barnard – Presenter
• Edd Smith – Programme Producer

Useful links

Social Media Today is an independent, online community for professionals in PR, marketing, advertising or any other discipline where a thorough understanding of social media is mission-critical. Content provides insight and lively debate about the tools, platforms, companies and personalities that are revolutionising the way in which we consume information:

www.socialmediatoday.com

About.com is one of the largest online premium publishers of expert-created content and one of the most visited sites in the US. About.com’s 1,000 experts help millions of users to answer questions, solve problems, learn something new and find inspiration:

www.webtrends.about.com

Chapter 5 – ETHICS

Outline of this chapter in the book

The idealism of journalists and broadcasters to seek the truth and to serve a properly informed public leads to a widespread continuing debate to codify best practice. As a result, sets of rules, standards and codes of practice regulate how journalists do their work.

Governments, institutions, commercial interests and individuals have things to hide. Truth can affect personal reputations, share prices, votes, and individual wealth or power, but the desire for total truth is not universal, hence the need for journalists in particular to have a set of rules to govern what they do. In the interests of transparency it is also important for everyone to know what these rules are.

Useful links

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The United Nations is an international organisation founded in 1945 after the Second World War by 51 countries committed to maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations and promoting social progress, better living standards and human rights. You can read the full text of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights here:

www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/

UNESCO was created in 1945 in order to respond to the firm belief of nations that political and economic agreements are not enough to build a lasting peace. The website has a section with relevant media standards for different countries, concerning freedom of expression; access to information; and ethical and professional standards in journalism:

www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/freedom-of-expression/professional-journalistic-standards-and-code-of-ethics/

Journalism codes and guidelines

The National Union of Journalists, UK’s code of conduct has set out the main principles of UK and Irish journalism since 1936. All journalists joining the NUJ have to sign up and agree that they will strive to adhere to its professional principles:

www.nuj.org.uk/about/nuj-code

The BBC Editorial Guidelines outline the BBC’s values and standards. They apply to all BBC content (but the principles are good for most broadcasts and broadcasters). In addition, the Editorial Policy Guidance Notes section supplements the main Editorial Guidelines:

www.bbc.co.uk/editorialguidelines

Society of Professional Journalists, USA’s Ethics Committee’s purpose is to encourage the use of the Society’s Code of Ethics, which promotes the highest professional standards for journalists of all disciplines:

http://www.spj.org/ethics.asp

Corporation for Public Broadcasting, USA. This guide provides an overview of some of the most important ethical issues that face public radio, as identified by public radio journalists. It offers principles and standards for ethical practice, in keeping with public radio’s commitment to the highest standards of journalism:

www.cpb.org/stations/radioethicsguide

The Poynter Institute, California, is a non-profit school for journalism located in St. Petersburg, Florida:

www.poynter.org

The Inter Press Service mission statement on their website states that they are ‘Giving a voice to the voiceless’:

www.ips.org/

Chapter 6 – WRITING FOR THE EAR

Outline of this chapter in the book

This chapter offers much practical advice regarding writing for radio and explains how writing words to be heard by the ear is quite different from writing words to be read by the eye. This is just a summary of what you will read in the full chapter.

General tips when writing for radio

The layout of sentences, their order and construction has to be thought through in order to be totally clear and unambiguous at their first hearing. It must make immediate sense. Whether you are writing a 15-minute talk, a one-minute voice piece or a cue to a recorded interview, the basic rules and pitfalls of radio writing are vital.

Before starting to write anything the two questions you need to ask yourself are ‘Who am I talking to?’ and ‘What do I want to say?’

We generally speak in quite short sentences – 15 or 16 words is about right. When writing for radio, forget the mass audience who may be listening. Avoid openings like, ‘Some of you may have seen…’. Instead write directly for the person you want to talk to, seeing them as you write: ‘You may have seen….’

Also avoid talking about your listener. Don’t say, ‘Listeners who want to contact us should…’. Instead be personal, speaking directly to the listener: ‘If you’d like to contact us….’

Beware of ambiguity

Words can have more than one meaning. Different words may have the same spelling, such as a type of flower and the past tense of rise (rose); or the spelling can be different, such as carat and carrot. On the radio, the fact that the spelling is different is of no help, so words and phrases can easily be confused. The broadcaster has a responsibility to make sentences clear. Here are some of the examples of ambiguous news stories:

• ‘The man was found lying on the pavement by his wife.’ – What picture does that give you? Of a man lying alongside his wife? The story was of a shooting incident where the victim was found by his wife, lying on the pavement – and that’s how the sentence should have been structured.
• ‘The report published today said that with the use of HRT there was no greater risk of contracting cancer.’ – This example of ambiguity is from a story that was meant to calm the fear that HRT treatment might increase the likelihood of cancer. Does it mean that the risk was no greater, or that the risk could not be greater?
• ‘The Union said the report was wrong.’ Or ‘The Union, said the report, was wrong.’ – Two little commas alter the whole sense as to who was wrong.
• ‘Our reporter spoke to Mister X on the golf course, as he played a round with his wife.’ – Watch out for the double entendre – unless of course you intend to be funny!

Chapter 7 – NEWS – POLICY AND PRACTICE

Outline of this chapter in the book

Newsrooms vary in size, from the large multi-platform production area of the BBC in London to the small community station, which may have just one desk and one reporter. This chapter in the book discusses in depth the policy and practice of news on the radio, opening with a definition of news – ‘News is that which is new, interesting and true’.

‘New’ in that it is an account of events that the listener has not heard before – or an update of a story previously broadcast.

‘Interesting’ in the sense of the material being relevant, or directly affecting the audience in some way.

‘True’ because the story as told is factually correct.

The definition acts as a reminder of three crucial aspects of a credible news service and is also useful because it leads to a consideration of its own omissions. If all news is to be really ‘new’ a story will be broadcast only once. Yet there is an obvious obligation to ensure that it is received by the widest possible audience.

These are just some of the questions debated in this chapter:

• At what stage should the news producer update a story, assuming that the listener already has the basic information?
• What do we mean by ‘interesting’ when we speak not of an individual but of a large, diversified group with a whole range of interests?
• How do we define ‘important’?
• How does the broadcaster balance the short-term interest with the long-term?
• As for the whole truth – there simply is not time. So how should we decide what to leave out?

When a radio car is sent to cover a news story it is important that the team are aware of the local coverage. A detailed map is usually available at base illustrating the coverage available, as certain locations may be ‘blind spots’. The strength and quality of the signal can be affected by local conditions, topography and buildings. The BBC Radio Car on the left has a traditional extendable mast mounted on the roof, while the one on the right is equipped with a satellite dish.

Useful links

The mission of World Press Institute is ‘To promote and strengthen press freedom throughout the world’:

www.worldpressinstitute.org

The Alliance of Independent Press Councils is a loose network of independent content regulators for both press and broadcast media:

www.aipce.net/

The Ethical Journalism Network promotes ethics, good governance and independent regulation of media content:

www.ethicaljournalismnetwork.org

UNESCO Handbook, Reporters Without Borders – war zone safety:

http://en.rsf.org/handbook-for-journalists-17-04-2007,21744.html

Founded in 1948, the American Society of Journalists and Authors is the nation’s professional organisation of independent non-fiction writers:

www.asja.org

The future of Journalism – The Nieman Journalism Lab helps journalism figure out its future in an Internet age:

www.niemanlab.org

Chapter 8 – INTERVIEWING

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Outline of this chapter in the book

This chapter discusses various approaches to the radio interview, with good advice on how to achieve the best technical results.

Topics include:

• Types of interview. For the sake of simplicity, three types of interview can be identified. These are the informational, the interpretive and the emotional interview, although any one situation may involve all three categories to a greater or lesser extent.
• What the interviewee should know. No potential interviewee should feel rushed into undertaking an interview and certainly not without establishing the basic terms of the interview.
• Preparation before the interview. An interview is a conversation with an aim. There needs to be a balance of knowledge and ignorance that can be described as ‘informed naivety’.
• Question technique. Questions should be kept short and simple. Long rambling questions will get similar answers. The response tends to reflect the stimulus – this underlines the fact that the interviewer’s initial approach will set the tone for the whole interview.
• During the interview. The interviewer must be actively in control of four separate functions – the technical, the direction of the interview, the supplementary question and the timing.
• The ‘triangle of trust’. At its core, interviewing is founded on trust. It is a three-way structure involving the interviewer, the interviewee and the listener.

Click the button to download audio.

In this audio example we have an unedited interview with singer–songwriter Ervin Munir talking to Jeff Link. As you listen to the audio, do a professional assessment of the interview.

Consider:

• the style and approach of the interviewer
• the appropriateness of the questions
• the sound balance and environment chosen for the interview
• who the interview is aimed at

When you have listened, try to write a cue which could be used to introduce the interview.

Additional exercise

Using your editing software, cut the interview down to 2 minutes 30 seconds. Try to keep what you consider the most interesting answers in the interview, and don’t forget to write the cue!

Chapter 9 – VOX POP

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Outline of this chapter in the book

‘Vox populi’ is the voice of the people, the use of the opinions of ordinary members of the public.

In addition to practical tips on creating a vox pop, this chapter in the book explains how the vox pop can be a useful device for bringing extra dimension to a topic.

The principle is for the broadcaster, using a portable recorder, to put one, possibly two, specific questions on a matter of public interest to people selected by chance, and to edit together their replies to form a distillation of the overall response. While the aim is to present a sample of public opinion, the broadcaster must never claim it to be statistically valid, or even properly representative. It can never be anything more than ‘the opinions of some of the people we spoke to today’.

Used properly, the vox pop represents another colour in the broadcaster’s palette. It provides a contrast with the studio and helps the listener to identify with the station.

Vox pop editing practical

The task is to download the raw vox pop audio and edit the material to produce a crafted vox pop with a duration of one minute. 

In the audio, cinema-goers who had just watched the third Harry Potter film, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, were asked their thoughts, together with a few supplementary questions. Don’t forget to write a cue to introduce your completed vox pop.

Click the button to download audio.

Vox pop edit – our version

When you have completed your own edit, you can listen to our version of the edit here:

Chapter 10 – CUES AND LINKS

Outline of this chapter in the book

This chapter explains how the information needed to accompany a recorded interview or other programme insert has two quite separate functions:

• Information for the broadcaster – to provide studio staff with the appropriate technical data.
• Information for the listener – to introduce the item for the listener so that it makes sense in its context.

Integrated news system

A radio station with an integrated news system will have a digital process that provides all the information needed by the newsroom and the on-air studio. The screen, which may be touch sensitive, shows scripts, cues, the running order and audio. The stories that have audio inserts are shown with an icon.

On the screen shown above, the running order is on the left and script and cues appear on the right. ‘Messages’ at the top are sent to a specific screen – like visual talkback. ‘Flash Ticker’ is information to the whole system.

Purpose of the cue – information for the broadcaster

Before a recorded programme or item can reach the air, the producer, presenter or studio operational staff require certain information about it. In any given system this appears in a standard format and a typical ‘audio label’ provides details of:

• the name of the piece, otherwise known as the ‘slug’ or ‘catchline’
• the form of the item – interview, actuality or voice piece etc.
• the initials of the reporter
• the ‘in’ and ‘out’ cues of the item as recorded
• the duration of the item
• the intended date of transmission

The studio presenter or host now has a clear indication of how to introduce the item. It may be necessary to alter words to suit a personal style, but a good cue writer will write in a way that fits the specific programme.

In the case of an interview, the first question will often be cut from the recording and transferred in script form to the introduction so that the insert begins with the first answer. This style is a very common form of cue, but it is only one of many and it should not be over-used, particularly within a single programme. It is easy for cues to become mechanical and it is important to search for fresh approaches.

Purpose of the cue – information for the listener

There is an art to writing good cue material. It must be interesting, act as a ‘signpost’ and be informative. A cue should make a promise about what is to follow. Having gained the listener’s interest, it is then important to satisfy their expectations, so the introduction must be informative. One purpose of an introduction is to provide the context within which the item may be properly understood. There may have to be:

• a summary of the events leading up to or surrounding the story
• an indication of why the particular interviewee was chosen
• clarification of technical terms and jargon
• the name of the interviewer/reporter

Back announcement

It is usual to include a brief back announcement, which may also refer to related items that may follow. The general rules concerning cue material – to be interesting, to grab the listener and to be informative – apply equally to the links between items and to the introductory announcements given to whole programmes.

Chapter 11 – NEWSREADING AND PRESENTATION

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Outline of this chapter in the book

Good presentation stems from an understanding of the medium and from having a basically caring attitude towards the listener.

This chapter explains how the news presenter should be friendly, respectful, informative, helpful and personal.

These audio examples show how the voice can be used effectively to communicate meaning in a news bulletin. The newsreader is Peter Dorling.

Emphasis – Modulating the voice helps with meaning and understanding.

Quotes – Sometimes it is necessary to convey ‘quotes’ in a story.

Rhythm – Rhythm can help to make the results more accessible.

Chapter 12 –THE DISCUSSION

Outline of this chapter in the book

This chapter describes how to produce a discussion programme on the radio.The aim is for the listener to hear arguments and counter-arguments expressed in conversational form by people actually holding views with conviction. The broadcaster can then remain independent.

This studio discussion table is complete with a computer screen, a cue light and reverse talkback for the presenter. The table has three legs to reduce obstruction and stop it wobbling on an uneven floor. There are mics and headphones for each contributor

The acoustically transparent top consists of a loose-weave cloth surface over a layer of padding. This improves the sound of the voices by reducing reflections, which would be a problem with a table with a hard shiny surface.

Here are some further topics around the subject of ‘The Discussion’ that are developed in this chapter of the book:

• Format of the discussion. At its simplest, there will be two speakers representing opposing views together with an impartial chairperson. The producer may of course decide that such an arrangement would not do justice to the subject; that it is not as clear cut as the bi-directional discussion will allow and it might therefore be better to include a range of views – the ‘multi-facet’ discussion.
• The role of the chairperson. Having selected the topic and the team, the programme will need someone to chair the discussion. The ideal chairperson is knowledgeable, firm, sensitive, quick-thinking, neutral but challenging, and courteous. He or she will be interested in almost everything and will need a sense of humour – no mean task!
• Preparation. The subject must be researched and the essential background information gathered and checked. The chairperson must have the facts to hand and have a note of the views already expressed so as to have a complete understanding of the points of controversy.
• Advice to contributors. For example, you can suggest that a contributor needs to crystallise and hold on to the two or three most important points to put over – but not to come with a prepared list of things to say. Also that the listener is likely to identify more readily with reasoned argument, based on a capacity to appreciate both sides of a case, than with dogma and bigotry.
• Speaker and subject control. The chairperson’s main task is to provide equal opportunity of expression for all participants, and this may mean reigning in an over-exuberant speaker. The chairperson should also obtain clarification of any technical jargon or specialist language that a contributor may use. Acronyms and abbreviations, particularly of organisations, are generally far less well understood by the listener than the people sitting round a studio table may think.
• Technical control. As an aid in judging the effect of changes in voice level or unwanted sounds, the chairperson will often wear headphones. These headphones may also carry talkback from the producer, for example, he or she may suggest additional ideas, questions or points of discussion that might otherwise be overlooked.
• Ending. Many a good programme is spoiled by an untidy ending. The chairperson should avoid giving the impression that the programme simply ran out of time.

Chapter 13 – PHONE-INS

Outline of this chapter in the book

This chapter describes how to approach the production of a phone-in programme and outlines the staffing variations beyond the basic format, in which the host simply takes the calls as they come in.

Here are some topics that are developed in detail in the chapter:

• Technical facilities. The technical means of taking calls and putting the callers on the air. The options of accepting several calls simultaneously and the origination of calls from the studio – i.e. a phone-out – are also discussed.
• Programme classification. The producer of a phone-in must decide on the aim of the phone-in and produce it accordingly – just throwing the lines open to listeners can result in a hopeless muddle.
• Choosing the calls. The person vetting the calls quickly develops an ear for the genuine problem, the interesting point of view, the practical or the humorous. He or she should also be skilled in spotting callers who might not be suitable for the programme.
• The role of the host. An experienced host will let people have their say and express their views on matters which concern them but will be well-versed in the law of libel and defamation and be ready to terminate a caller who becomes obscene, overtly political, commercial or illegal in accordance with the programme policy.
• Staffing, studio operation and use of ‘delay’. It is the responsibility of the presenter to ensure that there is reasonable control of the programme but, as an additional safeguard, it is possible to introduce a delay time between the live event and the transmission. Some radio stations and broadcasting authorities insist on having a delay mechanism in place.

Chapter 14 – LISTENER PARTICIPATION

Outline of this chapter in the book

This chapter discusses effective ways to establish a two-way contact with listeners and how the broadcaster–listener relationship can be made more authentic by encouraging listeners to take part.

There are many ways of stimulating involvement and the book approaches the subject of listener participation via these topics:

• Letters, phone-calls, emails, texts and tweets. Programme correspondence may be classified under three general headings – material intended for use on-air, correspondence that requires a response, and things that can be forgotten. Listeners can be invited to follow the station’s Facebook or Twitter accounts, and these can provide effective two-way communications with the audience.
• Programme follow-up. Much of this can be dealt with by means of standard replies or by fact-sheets, website forms etc. Complaints, in particular, need special attention and, if the matter is serious and the station is genuinely in the wrong, an apology should be broadcast in the same slot as the offending transmission.
• Texts and emails. Stations are now finding that texts and emails have become the most common way for a wide range of listeners to contribute to programmes. From a production point of view texts are a most convenient way to communicate with the audience, as the incoming texts can appear directly on a computer screen for reference on-air. Texts are an ideal means of handling brief responses to programme items and a convenient way to accept answers to competitions.
• Radio helpline. This is a useful item, putting people with a specific need in touch with possible sources of help. For a small community station such links might vary from someone’s search for a particular ‘out of print’ book or ‘lost and found’ information, to a noticeboard of job vacancies. Other forms of help can be along the lines of a ‘bought and sold’ market or exchange, although the station must be sure to take no responsibility for the goods or services on offer. Help or action lines can also be opened after a particular programme, for example dealing with illness or disability.
• Special involvement. Often, listener participation is sought for a particular purpose, such as a Birthday Club for children, story-writing and other competitions, or raising money for good causes by asking for donations.
• Travelling roadshow. This is when a popular programme takes to the road, broadcasting each time from a different venue, generally ‘live’ in front of an audience. This could be one of the daily sequences, such as the drive time show, a music programme with its regular DJ, or a programme of the ‘Any Questions?’ type.
• Major events. The one-off major public event gives plenty of scope for a station to interact with its audience. These provide opportunities to find out about the likes, dislikes and needs of people, or simply to promote the station, extending its audience in size, reach or quality. This may take the form of a music festival or rock concert, and may be a commercial enterprise at an established venue, charging for admission and broadcasting the performance.

Chapter 15 – MUSIC PROGRAMMING

Outline of this chapter in the book

This chapter discusses the wide subject of programming music. Many stations allow little or no freedom for presenters in the choice of tracks, but some leave it entirely up to the show’s host. Most have all the music sources hidden away, to be brought up by the computer keyboard while others play CDs – or even vinyl – in the studio.

The chapter delves into the subject in great detail through the following headings:

• Operational practice. Current formats, audio levels, talk-overs, fades and pre-fading to time.
• Music copyright. Virtually every recording somewhere carries the words, ‘all rights of the producer and of the owner of the recorded work reserved. Unauthorised public performance, broadcasting and copying of this recording prohibited’. This is to protect the separate rights of the composer, publisher, performers and the recording company, who together enabled the recording to be made.
• Metadata. Metadata is similar to a vinyl sleeve. At the most basic level, the metadata consists of the album title, song title, artist, genre and timing. This can be expanded to include cue points and information regarding the length of the intro, how the track ends (fades Y or N), artwork, lyrics, technical notes and complete credits – composer, sidemen in the band etc. The metadata can provide this additional information for the listener, as selected data can be sent directly to a digital radio system with text display, or to a streaming server. It can also be used to fulfil the station’s obligations regarding music reporting.
• Likes and dislikes. Nothing divides an audience more than music. Dislikes seem to be pretty universal, which leads to a lot of ‘zapping’ or channel hopping. On the other hand people appreciate ‘genuine wit and passion for the music’.
• Clock format. Designing a music programme on a one-hour clock face has several advantages for both the presenter and the scheduler. It enables the producer/presenter to see the balance of the show between music and speech, types of music and the spread of commercials; it is a great help in maintaining consistency when another presenter has to take over; and it enables format changes to be made with the minimum of disruption. It is a suitable method to use regardless of the length of the programme. The clock provides a solid framework from which a presenter may depart if need be, and pick up again just as easily. It imposes a discipline but allows freedom.
• Choosing music – item order and computerised selection. Many stations regulate the use of music in a totally systematic way, for example to prevent the same tracks being used in adjacent programmes. The scheduling is then in the hands of the one of the many types of computer software.
• Requests and dedications. Where they do exist, it is all too easy to forget that the purpose is still to do with broadcasting. There is a temptation to think only of those who have requested, rather than of the audience at large.
• Presentation technique. The DJ must communicate personally, creating a sense of friendship with the audience. On the air, each presenter must find his or her own style and be true to it. No one person or programme will appeal to everyone but a loyal following can be built up through maintaining a consistent approach. Experts in their own field of music can make excellent presenters. The listener should obviously enjoy the tracks but half the value of the programme is derived from hearing authoritative comment from someone who knows the field well.

Useful links

PRS. Copyright and intellectual property:

www.prsformusic.com

Copyright Hub. Copyright and intellectual property:

www.copyrighthub.co.uk

Chapter 16 – SEQUENCES AND MAGAZINES

Outline of this chapter in the book

A sequence or strip programme is often a daily show, such as the breakfast or morning show, or the evening drivetime. It generally runs for between two and four hours and may use music with a wide audience appeal. A magazine programme is usually designed with a specific audience in mind, and is more tightly structured.

This chapter in the book approaches the subject of producing sequences and magazine programmes via topics such as these:

• Building an audience. Encouraging a regular audience by creating positive listener expectations and then fulfilling or, better still, exceeding them. The most potent reason for tuning in to a particular programme is that the listener liked it the last time.
• Programme title. This is the obvious signpost and it should both trigger memories of the previous edition and provide a clue to content for the uninitiated. Sequences, for instance DJ programmes, are often known by the name of the presenter – ‘The Jack Richards Show’ – but a magazine title should stem directly from the programme aims’ content.
• Signature tune. In this area of programming, signature tunes are much less common than they were, but when they are used they can serve as a signpost intended to make the listener turn up the volume. A signature tune is best if it goes some way to convey the style of the programme – light-hearted, urgent, serious or in some way evocative of the content. Fifteen seconds of the right music can be a useful way of quickly establishing the mood.
• Transmission time. Many stations construct their daily schedule with a series of sequences in fixed blocks of three or four hours. It is obviously important to have the right presenter and the right style of material for each time slot.
• The presenter. Perhaps the most important single factor in creating a consistent style, the presenter regulates the tone of the programme by his or her individual approach to the listener. This can be outgoing and friendly, quietly companionable, informal, briskly businesslike, or knowledgeable and authoritative. It is a consistent combination of characteristics, perhaps with two presenters, which allows the listener to build a relationship with the programme based on ‘liking’ and ‘trusting’. Networks and stations that frequently change their presenters, or programmes that ‘rotate’ their anchor people, are simply not giving themselves a chance.
• Information content. The more local a sequence becomes, the more specific and practical the information it gives can be. It may be either carried in the form of regular spots at known times or simply included in the chat.
• Programme variety. Each programme should create fresh interest and contain surprise. It is easy for a daily magazine – particularly a news magazine – to become nothing more than a succession of interviews. Each may be good enough in its own right, but heard in the context of other similar material, the total effect may be worthy but dull. In any case, long stretches of speech, especially by one voice, should be avoided. Different voices, locations and actuality, as well as the use of music bridges and stings, can produce an overall effect of brightness and variety.
• Programme ideas. Producing a good programme is one thing, sustaining it day after day or week after week, perhaps for years, is quite another. There are some ideas here regarding how to keep the programme sounding fresh.

Chapter 17 – MAKING COMMERCIALS

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Outline of this chapter in the book

This chapter examines the theory and practice of making radio commercials. The radio advert is not there simply to amuse people or to impress the chairman, but is primarily designed to move goods off shelves, cars out of showrooms and direct customers eagerly towards services. The radio advertiser must use a good deal of skill in motivating a target audience to a specific action. The effective advertisement will be judged on how well it interests, informs, involves, motivates and directs. Listen to these examples and judge how effectively each one meets these aims:

Marie Curie. A serious uncluttered approach for charity. (Courtesy: Impact FCA! Agency / Marie Curie Cancer Care)

Safe Driving. A commercial illustrating the dangers of doing two things at once. (Courtesy: AMV BBDO/Dept for Transport) (Re-recording by Mhairi Campbell)

Health Education Authority. Using dry humour to convey a pretty serious message. (Courtesy: DDB)

Home Office – Guns. Another example of a serious message conveyed in a woman’s voice as a straight appeal. (Crown Copyright, The Home Office. Production COI)

British Airways. A good use of stereo to bring the halves – left and right – together. The sound reinforces the message. (Courtesy: M & C Saatchi)

SEAT Arosa Car. An intriguing use of stereo, differentiating between the left and right sides of the brain. (Courtesy: Chysalis Creative/ Galaxy 101)

Cancer Research – Sweary Science. Cancer Research UK’s Race for Life in partnership with Tesco. Creative use of words to deal with a sensitive subject. (Courtesy: Agency Mother London)

Cancer Research – Sweary Science. Cancer Research UK’s Race for Life in partnership with Tesco. Creative use of words to deal with a sensitive subject. (Courtesy: Agency Mother London)

Useful links

Radio Advertising Bureau:

www.rab.co.uk

Codes of Practice:

www.cap.org.uk/advertising-codes.aspx

All India Radio Code:

www.allindiaradio.gov.in/Information/Commercial%20Code

Chapter 18 – OUTSIDE BROADCASTS

Outline of this chapter in the book

The outside broadcast, or ‘remote’, allows the broadcaster to escape from the confines of their buildings into the world that is both the source and the target for all their enterprise. The extent of the equipment available can vary from a simple combination of laptop, microphone and portable recorder to a fully equipped outside broadcast vehicle.

This chapter in the book examines thoroughly the subject of OBs via a selection of topics including:

• Planning. It is at this first stage that programme requirements must be established and the technical means budgeted. Is it to be ‘live’, or recorded on-site? What duration is expected? Once there is a definite plan, the resources can be allocated – people, facilities, money and time.
• Visiting the site. A reconnaissance is essential. It is useful to have a checklist and try to anticipate what the actual conditions will be like on the day.
• Communications to base. If the programme is ‘live’, how is the signal to be sent to the studio? What radio links are required? Is the site within available radio car range? Are ISDN land lines available?
• People. Anything more than a simple radio car or mobile phone job may require a number of people with various specialist skills, and a large event with the public present may require the services of security staff. The list grows with the complexity of the programme, as does the cost.
• Hazard assessment. During the reconnaissance visit there must be a careful assessment of the potential hazards and plans made to minimise risks to staff, performers and members of the public.
• Equipment. This is best organised on a category basis – engineering equipment, programme essentials, personal equipment, administrative essentials and transport requirements.
• Programme research. Obtaining information about who is taking part, the history of the event, how many people have attended on previous occasions, the order of what’s happening and so on, is a useful preparatory activity for the broadcast itself. Additional research using libraries, press cuttings, the Internet etc. may be necessary at this stage for the commentators.
• Liaison with the base studio. Staff at the base studio need to be kept informed of what is planned, and with live programmes they should have copies of the running order and be involved in a discussion of any special fill-up material or other instructions in case of a technical failure.
• Publicity. The producer should ensure that everything has been done to secure the appropriate advance publicity.

Useful links

You can access a BBC Risk Assessment form here:

www.bbc.co.uk/safety/resources/forms-and-documents.html

Chapter 19 – COMMENTARY

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Outline of this chapter in the book

This chapter explains how radio is ideal for creating pictures in the mind of the listener. Radio is more flexible than television in that it is possible to isolate a tiny detail without waiting for the camera to ‘zoom in’ and it can create a breadth of vision much larger than the dimensions of a glass screen. The aim of the radio commentator is therefore to recreate in the listener’s mind not simply a picture but a total impression of the occasion. This is done by the careful choice of words, the speed and style of the delivery and allowing the sounds of the action to help to create the atmosphere.

Commentary is a real test of communication skills and the commentator should remember to describe the scene and event in glorious 3D, left and right, up and down, and foreground and distance. The other senses can also be called upon to create a realistic image in the imagination of the listener.

Here are three exercises to help you hone your communication skills. You can use the downloadable materials in pairs or as a group.

Commentary exercises

Commentary Exercises 1 – Getting the picture with illustrations.

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There are five two-dimensional illustrations in a PDF document; the idea is for you to communicate the illustrations, one at a time, to a partner or a group. For each illustration one person will act as the commentator and describe the illustration to a partner or to the rest of the group. The aim is for the commentator to communicate the illustration as accurately as possible, simulating a radio broadcast by using only words. The listener or listeners should then try to draw what the commentator describes on a sheet of paper.

The illustrations can be viewed online or printed if required.

Commentary Exercises 2 – Getting the picture with photos

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There is more colour in the images of this exercise, which has five photographs in the PDF document. Once again, the task is to communicate the images,

one at a time, to a partner or a group. Again, one person should act as the commentator and describe the image to a partner or to the rest of the group, simulating a radio broadcast by using only words. The listener or listeners try to draw the scene the commentator describes on a sheet of paper.

Commentary Exercises 3 – Video

This video exercise will test your commentary skills to the full. Record an audio commentary for radio as you watch the video, trying to communicate in words and sounds the atmosphere of the event. The Notting Hill Carnival is an annual event held on the streets of Notting Hill, which is part of the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea in London.

The roots of the Carnival date back to 1964 and the celebration has grown over the past 50 years to become one of the largest street festivals in the world. The Notting Hill Carnival has attracted around one million people in past years.

Good research is essential for a good commentary, so before you start your recorded commentary you will need to do some research; fortunately there are many websites with the background and history of the Carnival. When you feel you have enough information to go ahead, play the video and record your commentary. Remember to describe what you see, giving an overview before focusing too much on detail. Allow the music and sounds of the procession to add to the atmosphere when appropriate.

Playback and review

Listen critically to your commentary and play it back to someone who hasn’t previously seen the video. How effectively did your commentary create an image of the scene and convey the atmosphere of the occasion?

Listen to our version of the commentary

Our commentator, Mhairi Campbell, was at the Notting Hill Carnival and you can hear part of her commentary. The rain was heavy and she found some protection from the elements by setting her commentary point under a flyover. The noise levels from the music were considerable and the use of a ‘personal mic’ or ‘lip mic’, held close to the mouth, offers a better chance of controlling the level of the ambient noise.

Chapter 20 – MUSIC LIVE

Outline of this chapter in the book

This chapter discusses ways to achieve the best sound for a recording or broadcast of music. It explains how music balance is divided into two main groups – naturally balanced and studio balance. Some music, such as choirs and brass bands, already have an internal balance created by the conductor, while some groups need the balance to be achieved through a desk or mixer.

Example of a recording created in a virtual studio

Singer–songwriter, Ervin Munir, works with both acoustic and digital instruments. His songs include acoustic guitar and drums in addition to electric piano and software instruments created with the computer. His electric keyboard uses MIDI to interface with the computer. He also uses a tablet for displaying lyrics and scores.

This is the production screen for one of Ervin’s songs, ‘The Return’. You can listen to the song here:

If you would like to practise your music editing skills, go to Chapter 3.

You can listen to an interview with Ervin Munir in Chapter 8.

Chapter 21 – DRAMA PRINCIPLES

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Outline of this chapter in the book

This chapter discusses how the radio medium has a long and distinguished history of turning thoughts, words and actions into satisfying pictures within the listener’s mind by using the drama. There is no need for the producer to think only in terms of the Shakespearian play – the principles of radio drama apply to the well-made 30 second commercial, a programme trail, dramatised reading, five-minute serial or two-minute educational clip. The size and scope of the pictures created are limited only by the minds that devise and interpret them.

‘Spot’ FX

The description ‘Spot FX’ (effects) applies to any sound that can be created ‘real-time’ in the studio. They include ‘stage’ doors that can be opened and closed to order. They will often be adorned with door furniture, such as bolts, chains, locks, knockers etc., which will add to the realism. Common household objects are often all that is required: a telephone can be modified to ring with a switch; pebbles in a box can create the sound of marching feet; a container of corn starch and a pencil make an excellent substitute for walking in snow; and coconuts are perennial favourites for making the sound of a trotting horse.

Examples of the use of digital effects

Here is a short creative piece produced for young radio listeners. It uses sound FX and digital processing to stimulate the imagination. In collaboration with the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, the brief was to produce a short piece that was entertaining, educational and fun featuring AbracaDABra Radio’s wizard characters, Abby and Dabby.

Two more examples of post-production digital effects

This example demonstrates the use of digital effects to change the pitch of a voice.

This example uses digital effects to simulate a telephone.

Examples of the use of acoustic and microphones

Using the directional qualities of a microphone, a sense of movement can be created even in mono. Here a figure-of-eight microphone is used, with the voice actor moving to the less sensitive sides to create the effect of moving away. The sound of the door opening and closing completes the illusion.

Acoustic walk

A useful way to fully understand the range of different sounds and acoustics available in various locations is to record an acoustic walk. Holding the microphone at a natural distance of approximately 12 inches (30 cms), record a commentary as you move from area to area. Include a range of indoor and outdoor locations – it’s a good way to fully understand the capabilities and limitations of a microphone and recording device.

Here is an example of an acoustic walk using various actual acoustic environments, including a church, a public telephone call-box and outside locations.

Simulated acoustic walk

Software and hardware digital delay devices can effectively simulate different acoustics. In this example we have simulated the acoustic walk. The actual recording was made in a single location with a dry acoustic. The range of acoustics (to emulate those heard in the real walk) were simulated by using digital artificial reverberation and pre-recorded sound effects.

Production Practical – You can add your own digital reverberation effects to the ‘dry’ acoustic walk. Try to match the real acoustic environments as closely as possible.

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Chapter 22 – DOCUMENTARY AND FEATURE PROGRAMMES

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Outline of this chapter in the book

This chapter explains in detail how to plan, structure and compile documentaries and features. The main advantage of this approach over that of the straightforward talk is that the subject is made more interesting and colourful by involving more people, more voices and a greater range of treatment. It should entertain and tell a story while it informs and provokes further thought and concern.

Below are two audio examples – one a feature programme and the other a documentary. In addition we have provided all the audio you need to mix your own factual feature.

Audio 1 – A short feature. The Royal Mews, Buckingham Palace, London.

The Royal Mews is a combined stables, carriage house and garage of the British Royal Family. It is situated at Buckingham Palace in London, and many open days are held each year. The feature lasts just over six minutes and is aimed at younger listeners and parents. The feature uses interviews, vox pops, sound effects and music, and was originally broadcast on AbracaDABra Radio. The reporter and presenter is Jeff Link.

Practical production and mixing

Use your digital editing and mixing software to create your own version of the Royal Mews feature. All the sounds you need, including the music, interviews, vox pop, sound effects and links are available to download.

Click the button to view/download.

To download the audio files to your computer, right-click and save as (MS Windows) or Ctrl-click and save link as (Mac). The .zip file contains all the files to create the feature. When the zip is extracted, 17 separate audio files will be created.

Please note: you may use the files for personal use, but the audio must not be re-broadcast commercially in any form.

Audio 2 – Documentary. Farming Today This Week

‘Farming Today This Week’ is a specialist weekly programme on agriculture and fishing on BBC Radio 4. This documentary lasts 23 minutes and concerns the North Sea fishing industry and is recorded aboard a small trawler, the ‘Allegiance’. This programme covers the concerns of the fishermen. In the interests of balance and fairness, the viewpoint of the Minister was aired in another programme in the same strand.

Presenter: Miriam O’Reilly. Producer: Munazza Khan.

Chapter 23 – THE WORK OF THE PRODUCER

Outline of this chapter in the book

This chapter explains how the producer is essentially a creative person with ideas for programmes, items, people to interview, pieces of music or subjects for discussion. The producer is constantly looking for new ways to treat old ideas, or creating a fresh approach to radio use.

New ideas are not simply for the sake of being different but should stimulate interest and fresh thought. The producer must get involved physically and mentally in the community being served.

The producer has to be a wizard of multitasking, with the job summarised to four essential parts discussed in the chapter:

• Technical and operational
• Editorial
• Administrative
• Managerial

Useful links

Regarding the editorial compliance part of the job, this BBC guide is a very useful resource.

The BBC Editorial Guidelines are the BBC’s values and standards. They apply to all BBC content (but the principles are good for most broadcasts and broadcasters). In addition, the Editorial Policy Guidance Notes section supplements the main Editorial Guidelines:

www.bbc.co.uk/editorialguidelines

Chapter 24 – THE EXECUTIVE PRODUCER

Outline of this chapter in the book

This chapter describes the role and responsibilities of the Executive Producer. The name of the role varies with different organisations and can include

Senior Producer, Programme Manager or Controller, but the job is not so much to make programmes as to make and support programme-makers. Whether responsible for a programme strand, a station or a network, this senior editorial figure is there to listen to the output and provide feedback to the producers.

Useful links

This BBC website is described as ‘Everything you need to know about commissioning and the delivery process’:

www.bbc.co.uk/commissioning/

Chapter 25 – PROGRAMME EVALUATION

Outline of this chapter in the book

Programmes have to be justified and evaluated. Conscientious producers striving for better and more effective communication will want to know how to improve their work and achieve greater results. Programmes can be judged from several viewpoints, including production and quality evaluation; audience evaluation; and cost evaluation.

Useful links

Here are useful links with more information about programme evaluation.

RAJAR UK Radio Joint Audience Research (RAJAR UK ) is the official body in charge of measuring radio audiences in the UK. It is jointly owned by the BBC and the RadioCentre on behalf of the commercial sector. There are currently approximately 310 individual stations on the survey and results are published every quarter:

www.rajar.co.uk

Audience Dialogue is a consultancy specialising in media research in the broadest sense, covering evaluation, marketing and futures assessment:

www.audiencedialogue.net/

Chapter 26 – TRAINING

Outline of this chapter in the book

This chapter stresses the importance of training and explains how we learn in four main ways: by practical experience, by watching others, by studying theory and by trying things out to see if they work. In fact, the activities are connected; the process of observation leads us to draw conclusions about what appears to work and what doesn’t, and we can then test theories before launching out in practice. We monitor ourselves as we do that and the cycle starts again, like this (after Kolb).

It follows that a good training scheme for producers should contain all four elements in proportions suited to the participants.

Useful links

Here are some useful links relevant to training.

BBC Academy – training for BBC staff and also work with the wider industry. ‘Equipping people with skills they need for a lifetime of employability in the ever-changing media landscape’ is the description on the website:

www.bbc.co.uk/academy

Commercial Radio Australia Ltd – this is the national industry body representing Australia’s commercial radio broadcasters:

www.commercialradio.com.au

Based in Adelaide, the Australian Radio School offers a range of courses in radio:

www.australianradioschool.com

The New Zealand Radio Training School has two campuses on offer, one in central Auckland and the other in downtown Wellington:

www.broadcasting.co.nz/

The Connecticut School of Broadcasting recently celebrated 50 years of helping people start careers in radio, television, sports broadcasting and audio/video production:

http://www.gocsb.com/

Chapter 27 – BACK ANNOUNCEMENT

Outline of this final chapter in the book

Programme credits are not there to feed the ego or to reward you for your labours. Having announced your intentions and made your programme, as producer you must put your name to it. Credits are a vital element in the power that broadcasting confers on the communicator – personal responsibility for what is said.

Communication that is not labelled or attributed is of little use to the person who receives it. And if your programme is savaged by a critic or scorned by detractors, first check it by the standards of quality you believe in, and then remember the following, made in a speech a dozen years before broadcasting began, by the American President, Theodore Roosevelt:

It is not the critic who counts; not the man who points out how the strong man stumbles, or where the doer of deeds could have done them better. The credit belongs to the man who is actually in the arena; whose face is marred by dust and sweat and blood; who strives valiantly; who errs, who comes short again and again, because there is no effort without error and shortcoming; but who does actually strive to do the deeds; who knows great enthusiasms; the great devotions; who spends himself in a worthy cause; who at the best knows in the end the triumph of high achievement; and who, at the worst, if he fails, at least fails while daring greatly, so that his place shall never be with those cold and timid souls, who know neither victory nor defeat.

Credits

The authors of the Radio Production book and website, Robert McLeish and Jeff Link, would like to thank all those who have given encouragement and support. They include BBC colleagues Dave Wilkinson, Geoff Woolf, Kevin Johnson, Iain Meikle, Gerald Jackson, Graham Dixon, Chris Harris, David Clayton, Edd Smith and Stephen Bumfrey.

Daniele Fisichella at Future Radio, Kevin Potter at Hope FM Bournemouth, James Lacey of the Cloudbass media, Craig McLeish and Dr Graham Mytton, Mhairi Campbell, Susan Stranks and Rupert Ray of AbracaDABbra Radio.

Roger Stoll of MediAfrique, Jos Verhoogen, Tim Hollingdale and Paul Vernon of Feba Radio, Jane Elliot of the Nova Radio Network in Australia, Kevin Keegan of Trans World Radio, Andrew Steele of the International Communications Training Institute, Mike Adams of First Response Radio, Charles Randall from Paraiso School of Samba and Ervin Munir. Photos in the book without credits are the work of the authors.