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Sübedei Ba’atar: portrait of a Mongol general

Timothy May

In the thirteenth century, the Mongol Empire emerged from the steppes of Mongolia to become the largest contiguous empire in history. Although Chinggis Khan (1162–1227) founded the empire, it continued to expand long after his death. Much of the empire’s success had to do with Chinggis Khan’s latent talent for organization, emphasis on loyalty, military reforms, and his keen eye for talent. The most notable of all Mongol military commanders was Sübedei Ba’atar (1176–1248).

Sübedei was deeply involved in Chinggis Khan’s unification of the Mongolian steppes. He entered Chinggis Khan’s household as a slave and eventually became one of his most trusted commanders. He participated in the wars against the Jin Empire (1125–1234) and the rapid destruction of the Khwarazmian Empire that dominated much of Central Asia and Iran. He, along with the general Jebe, pursued the fleeing Sultan Muhammad Khwārazmshāh II, who only escaped Sübedei by dying from dysentery on an island in the Caspian Sea. Sübedei and Jebe then continued westward, defeating a Georgian army (and possibly affecting the Fifth Crusade), before turning north and crossing the Caucasus Mountains. As they entered the Kuban steppes, they defeated an army of Alans and then a combined army of Kipchaks and southern Rus’ at the Battle of the Kalka River (1223). Although the Mongols won an overwhelming victory, Jebe died during the battle.

Afterwards, Sübedei withdrew across the Volga River, skirmishing with Kipchaks and the Volga Bulghars before completing a rendezvous with the armies of Jochi (d. 1225), Chinggis Khan’s eldest son. This reconnaissance en force is a military feat that has never been duplicated and remains one of the most amazing feats in all of military history. Sübedei then led the initial forays into Xi Xia in 1225, which rose in rebellion while Chinggis Khan was in Central Asia. After Chinggis Khan’s death, Sübedei remained active, probing the Mongols’ western borders, which now reached the Yaik River (Ural River), before leading final Mongol onslaught against the Jin Empire. Sübedei led a masterful campaign that culminated with the sack of Kaifeng, the remaining Jin capital, in 1233.

Sübedei returned to Mongolia for a quriltai or council in 1234. At this quriltai the second Mongol ruler, Ögödei (r. 1229–1241) (often referred to in the sources as Qa’an) ordered Sübedei to lead a Mongol army, estimated at 150,000 men to march west and bring all they encountered under the will of Heaven (Tenggeri). It is for this campaign that Sübedei is best known. Although Batu (d. 1256), the son of Chinggis Khan’s eldest (and possibly illegitimate) son, Jochi, was the nominal commander, Sübedei was the true commanding general. Under his direction, the Mongols subdued the Volga Bulghars, Kipchaks, Alans, the Rus’ principalities, and the kingdom of Bulgaria as well as devastating Hungary and Poland. After this campaign ended in 1242, Sübedei returned and briefly retired to the steppes of Mongolia where he died in 1248.

This brief sketch of his life demonstrates that we know a great deal about Sübedei’s life. He has a biography in the Yuan Shi, a Chinese history of the Mongol Empire, compiled from the court records during the Ming era (1368–1644). Sübedei is also mentioned frequently in other Chinese, Persian, Arabic, Rus’, Latin, and Mongolian sources. All of these discuss his actions as a military commander. The Secret History of the Mongols, a Mongolian source that details the life and rise to power of Chinggis Khan, gives us but a glimpse into Sübedei’s thoughts in a few brief passages. What we do not have, however, are any actual sources from Sübedei himself – and for good reason. It is almost certain he was illiterate and the Mongols did not have a tradition of memoir writing. Chinggis Khan, however, introduced literacy to the Mongols (albeit he remained illiterate) in 1204 and the Uyghur script is still used today.

The text below is a series of imagined letters from Sübedei and one from his son Uriyangqadai (1199–1271), to Subedei’s grandson Aju (1234–1287), both of whom served as notable generals. The letters are based on Mongolian, Persian, Russian, Latin, Arabic, and Chinese sources and I have attempted to maintain a Mongolian idiom, similar to the anonymous author of The Secret History of the Mongols. The letters would have been written on parchment, birch bark, and perhaps paper. Due to the plethora of leather and sheepskin in nomadic societies, it is also likely that this would have been a common source of writing material. Due to the Mongols’ conquest of China, Central Asia, and much of the Middle East, paper was accessible as well. Using the jam or yam, the pony-express-like postal system of the Mongols, high ranking Mongols such as Sübedei could send messages with little difficulty. These imagined letters are an attempt to view key events in Sübedei’s operations in eastern Europe through his eyes.

One letter, not in the print edition, is included here:

Letter 5

Year of the Dragon (1256)

Letter from Uriyangqadai to Aju

To Aju

You are to join me in the tamma assigned to prince Khubilai. As you lead your men remember the lessons your grandfather taught you or the story of his life.

Never forget that my father entered Chinggis Khan’s service not as a warrior, but as a servant. Our people, and my namesake, the Uriyangqai, were subjects of the Borjigid Mongols since the time of Tumbinai Sechen, the great-great-great grandfather of Chinggis Khan (circa 1122). Sübedei was just a youth when he joined his relative Jelme and Sübedei’s brother Cha’urqan after Chinggis Khan separated from his anda Jamuqa. There he entered Chinggis Khan’s service. When Chinggis Khan became Khan of the Borjigid, your grandfather swore to serve him and protect him. Never forget your oath, my son.

Your grandfather soon proved his worth and became a commander after being a member of Chinggis Khan’s bodyguard, fighting beside him. This is why he was known known as Sübedei Ba’atar and not as Subedei Noyan like so many others. He became one of Chinggis Khan’s four hounds along with Jebe, Jelme, and Qubilai. Like his four steeds Muqali, Bo’orchu, Boroghul, and Chila’un, they led elite regiments into battle, such as at Chakirmaut against the Naiman. As his hound, Sübedei also hunted down the enemies of Chinggis Khan. By the Year of the Rat (1204), Chinggis Khan now ruled all of the steppes between the Khingghan and Altai Mountains. Still, the Mongols had enemies that required attention. But first Chinggis Khan organized his Yeke Monggol Ulus. While he assigned men to the other 95 commanders, the Great Chinggis Khan permitted the great commanders Jebe and Sübedei to gather their own troops from our own people as well as those they defeated.

Though your grandfather is considered the greatest of generals, he never believed that his genius was innate. He always credited his ability to learn rather than natural ability. Long ago Chinggis Khan instituted a practice of having his commander teach their junior commanders so that they learn how to lead. Thus, unlike so many that we fight, our commanders are all well-trained. Of course, there are always some more talented than others, but no one commands men without being an apprentice to a senior commander, be they qarachu or from the loins of Chinggis Khan himself. Early, Sübedei accompanied Jebe on many missions. Jebe Noyan was, as your grandfather often told you, a brilliant tactician – but also impetuous. He dared much and succeeded. He commanded from the front and that is why he was slain by the Kibcha’ud. Never mistake bravery for wisdom. Jebe knew he could take risks because your grandfather could assume command should something happen. I hope you will be my apprentice as Sübedei was Jebe. Do not try to be me or your grandfather. Just learn from our wisdom.

Keep your bow string dry and your horses fat, my son. I hear Dali is wet, but has good pastures.

Notes

1. After Chinggis Khan defeated the Naiman in 1204, as part of the spoils of war he acquired the Uighur, Tatar-Tong’a, who had worked in the court of the Naiman Khanate. With the destruction of the Naiman khanate, Tatar-Tong’a became the tutor for Chinggis Khan’s children and taught them to read and write by adopting the Uighur script, it being based on Syriac, to Mongolian. From here, literacy became part of the education of the elite.
2. Uriyangqadai served during the Mongol conquest of the Song Empire. Uriyangqadai is best known for his conquest of the kingdom of Dali (modern Yunnan) in the 1250s. He served under the il-khan Qubilai, the future Qubilai Khan. While Qubilai held nominal command, Uriyangqadai held operational command. With the conquest of Dali, the Mongols now opened a second and southwestern front against the Song Empire.
3. Aju also served as a general under Qubilai Khan. He became quite adept at riverine warfare, something which had stymied Mongol operations in the past. He had also served with his father in Dali and assumed command when his father became ill. Aju, along with the Chinese general Liu Zheng (1213–1275), was responsible for the capture of Xiangyang. Aju also forcefully persuaded Qubilai in 1274 to commit to the final destruction of the Song Empire. While operational command was assigned to Bayan, Aju served as the primary field general. His skill at riverine warfare allowed the Mongols to resume of a war of mobility. Aju commanded the Mongol naval forces at Dingjia Island (March 19, 1275) and was instrumental in destroying other Song fleets. After the destruction of the Song, he was sent to deal with rebels in Mongolia and then west to Central Asia to fight the armies of Qaidu. He died in 1286 en route to Turfan in modern Xinjiang.
4. SHM §120.
5. SHM §124.
6. Jelme was a kinsman of Sübedei. The Qubilai mentioned here was a general and companion of Chinggis Khan, not his more famous grandson.
7. The kingdom of Dali was located in modern Yunnan in China. Uriyangqadai was to lead the army of Khubilai against it as part of Möngke Khan’s great offensive against the Song Empire which began in 1258.

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