calendrical ritual

A ritual that is performed on a regular basis as part of a religious calendar.

cargo cult

Religious movement occurring among small-scale societies of Melanesia in response to culture contact; the movement focuses on the attainment of trade goods.

channeling

When a person becomes a source of communication for a supernatural agent.

choice fatigue

A situation in which individuals in a culture are faced with too many options, such as when a single dominant church is replaced by numerous denominations and sects.

chromolithograph

A type of colored printed poster.

cicatrization

Scar formation at the site of a cut or wound.

circumcision

A surgical procedure during which the foreskin is removed from the penis.

cleromancy

Divination by the casting of lots such as the rolling of a die or the drawing of straws.

clitoridectomy

A surgical procedure characterized by removal of the clitoris as well as parts or all of the labia minora.

cognition

The processes of the human brain, including perception, attention, learning, memory, concept formation, and problem solving.

collective conscious

A set of beliefs shared by members of a social group that functions to limit the natural selfishness of individuals and promote social cooperation.

collective unconscious

Inborn elements of the unconscious that are manifested in dreams and myths.

communitas

A state characterized by a sense of equality, community, and camaraderie.

contagious magic

Magic that is based on the Law of Contagion, utilizing things that once were in physical contact with an individual.

cordophone

A musical instrument with taut strings that can be plucked or strummed, hit, or sawed, such as a harp or violin.

core shamanism

Michael Harner’s concept of the core and nearly universal methods of shamanism without a specific cultural context.

covenant

A formal, binding agreement.

creator god

A god that is responsible for the creation of the physical earth and the plants and animals that live upon it.

crisis ritual

A ritual that arises spontaneously, frequently in times of crisis.

cross

An upright pole with a transverse piece in the middle or near the top. Used for execution by the Romans; now a symbol for the Christian religion.

cult

Historically a particular form or system of religious worship. Most commonly used to describe a small, recently created, and spiritually innovative group, often with a single charismatic leader. Connotations of the term include that the leader is evil, is in total control of his followers, and believes that the end of the world is imminent.

cultural anthropology

The anthropological study of contemporary human societies and their cultures.

cultural relativism

Attempting to analyze and understanding cultures other than one’s own without judging them in terms of one’s own culture.

cultural violence

Aspects of culture that are used to justify structural or direct violence and make it seem natural.

culture

Human beliefs and behaviors of a society that are learned, transmitted from one generation to the next, and shared by a group of people.

culture area

A geographical area in which societies share many cultural traits.

cursing ritual

An antitherapy ritual that involves reciting a curse to bring about illness and death.

deliberate divination

Divination that someone sets out to do.

demon

A spirit being, usually evil.

denomination

A religious group that differs on just a few points from the mainstream religion.

diaspora

Movement of a population out of their homeland.

diffusion

The apparent movement of cultural traits from one society to another.

discovery

New awareness of something that exists in the environment.

displacement

The ability to use symbols to refer to things and activities that are remote from the user.

divination

Supernatural techniques for obtaining information about things unknown, including events that will occur in the future.

divination ritual

A ritual that is used for the purpose of divination.

diviner

A religious specialist who specializes in divination.

doctrine of signatures

Belief that physical structures found in nature, such as the shape of a plant, are indicative (or signatures) of their potential use in healing.

dowsing

Method of divination whereby water and other underground resources are located by use of a forked stick.

emic perspective

The study of a society through the eyes of the people being studied.

empirical

Perceived through our senses.

endocannibalistic anthropophagers

The term endocannibalism refers to the eating of one’s own people, and the term anthropophagers refers to the eating of human bodies.

entoptic phenomena

Visual effects that have their origin in physical changes within the eye.

essentialist definition

A definition that looks at the essential nature of religion.

ethnobotany

The anthropological study of the use of plant material, especially in healing.

ethnocentrism

Using one’s own culture as the basis for interpreting and judging other cultures.

ethnographer

A person who produces an ethnography.

ethnographic present

Speaking or writing about cultures in the present tense although what is described might no longer exist.

ethnography

The descriptive study of human societies.

etic perspective

The study of a society using concepts that were developed outside of the culture.

Eucharist

A Christian sacrament that commemorates Jesus Christ’s last supper by consecrating bread and wine.

evolutionary approach

An approach that focuses on the questions of when and how religion began and how it developed through time.

fasting

The act of abstaining from eating and drinking over a period of time.

folktale

A traditional story that is part of the tradition of a society; not considered to be true.

foraging bands

Small communities that subsist by hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plant foods.

fortuitous divination

Divination that simply occurs without any conscious effort.

functional approach

An approach that is based on the function or role that religion plays in a society.

functional definition

A definition that is based on the role that religion plays in a society.

fundamentalism

A religious movement characterized by a return to fundamental principles, usually including a resistance to modernization and an emphasis on certainty through a literal interpretation of scriptures.

ghost

The soul of an individual after death that remains in the vicinity of the community.

glossolalia

Unintelligible speech that mimics normal speech; known as “speaking in tongues.” In religious practice, it is generally believed to be the voice of the supernatural speaking through the person.

god

An individual supernatural being, with a distinctive name, personality, and control or influence over a major aspect of nature (such as rain or fertility), that encompasses the life of an entire community or a major segment of the community.

graphology

Divination through handwriting analysis.

haruspication

Divination by the examination of entrails of sacrificed animals.

healer

A religious specialist who concentrates on healing.

hedonism

Pursuit of or devotion to pleasure as a matter of principle.

herbalist

A specialist in the use of plant and other material in curing.

heresy

Crimes against God.

hero myth

A common theme found in myths worldwide centered around the hero’s journey or monomyth.

high demand religion

A religious group in which much is demanded of members in terms of strict adherence to rules for thought and behavior.

holism

The study of human societies as systematic sums of their parts, as integrated wholes.

homeopathic magic

Magic that is based on the Law of Similarity.

horticulture

The use of cultivated domesticated plants without the use of fertilizers, plows, irrigation, and other agricultural technologies.

human universals

Characteristics that are found in all human societies.

hunting and gathering rites of intensification

A ritual whose purpose is to influence nature in the quest for food.

ideological ritual

A ritual that delineates codes of proper behavior, promotes community solidarity, articulates the community’s worldview, and assists the community in managing crises.

idiophone

A musical instrument that is struck, shaken, or rubbed, such as a rattle or bell.

image magic

A form of homeopathic magic in which an image represents a living person or animal, which can be killed or injured through doing things to the image.

imitative magic

Magic that is based on the Law of Similarity.

incorporation

The final stage of a rite of passage in which the individual is reintroduced to the community in his or her new status.

increase rite

A type of ritual whose purpose is to aid the survival and reproduction of a totemic plant or animal.

incubi

Male demons who have sex with human women while they sleep, resulting in the birth of demons, witches, and deformed children.

indirect violence

Not based on the actions of a single actor.

Includes both cultural and structural violence.

infibulation

Form of female genital cutting including excision of the clitoris, labia minora, and most of the labia majora.

Inquisition

A unit of the Roman Catholic Church that convened to judge cases of heresy.

inspirational divination

A type of divination that involves a spiritual experience, such as a direct contact with a supernatural being through an altered state of consciousness

interpretive approach

Idea that cultural systems are understood by studying meaning; religion is a cluster of symbols that provides a charter for a culture’s ideas, values, and way of life.

invention

Coming up with a solution to a problem using the technology at hand.

jinn

In the Islamic religion, a spirit being created of fire.

karma

The effect of a person’s behavior during the series of phases of the person’s existence. Karma is seen as determining the person’s destiny.

kiva

A ceremonial chamber, often built underground, that is found among Native American societies in the American Southwest.

Law of Contagion

Things that were once in contact continue to be in contact after the physical connection is severed.

Law of Similarity

Things that are alike are the same.

Law of Sympathy

Magic that depends on the apparent association or agreement between things.

legend

A traditional story about past events that is considered to be true; usually contains an element of reality—a known character, event, or place.

liminality

The state of ambiguous marginality that characterizes the transition phase of a rite of passage.

linguistic anthropology

The anthropological study of language.

magic

Ways in which a person can compel the supernatural to behave in certain ways.

mana

An impersonal supernatural force.

Marxist approach

Idea that religion is a construction of those in power, designed to divert people’s attention from the miseries of their lives; a way of getting people to go along with capitalist culture.

medium

A practitioner who intentionally communicates with the supernatural to find information.

membranophone

A musical instrument that incorporates a taut membrane or skin such as a drum.

menarche

A young woman’s first menstruation.

messianic movement

A type of revitalization movement that is based on the appearance of a divine savior in human form who will bring about the solution to the problems that exist within the society.

millenarian movements

A type of revitalization movement that envisions a change through an apocalyptic transformation.

modernity

A philosophical movement based on ideas of rationality, objectivity, reason, and science as the means of gaining knowledge, truth, and progress.

monomyth

A theme common to many myths that tells of the adventures of a culture hero.

monotheism

A belief in one god.

mummification

A technique of preserving a dead body involving drying and preservatives.

mystery religion

A religion whose beliefs, practices, and true nature are known only to those who have been initiated into the religion.

myth

A sacred story that provides the basis for religious beliefs and practices.

nationalism

A sense of identification with and loyalty to one nation above all others.

nativistic movement

A type of revitalization movement that develops in traditional societies that are threatened by the activities of more technologically advanced societies.

necromancy

Divination through contact with ancestors or the dead.

negative peace

The absence of war.

Neo-Paganism

A revival of pre-Christian religious practices.

neoshamanism

A modern spiritual practice that draws on some concepts and practices of traditional shamanism, but is usually used as a method for improving an individual’s life.

new religious movement

A historically recent religious movement, often involving new leaders and new scriptures or new interpretations of older religious traditions.

noninspirational divination

Forms of divination that are performed without the direct involvement of supernatural beings.

offerings

Economic exchanges designed to influence the supernatural.

omen

A fortuitous happening or condition that provides information.

omniscient

State of being all-knowing.

oneiromancy

Divination by the interpretation of dreams.

openness

A feature of symbols; the ability to create new symbols.

operant definition

A definition in which we define our terms so that they are observable and measurable and therefore can be studied.

oracle

A specific device that is used for divination.

ordeal

A trial by divination that is performed on the body of the accused person to determine guilt or innocence.

orientation association structure

The part of the brain that enables us to distinguish ourselves from the world around us and to orient ourselves in space.

ornithomancy

Divination from reading the path and form of a flight of birds.

otiose god

A god who is too remote and too uninterested in human activities to participate in the activities and fate of humans.

palmistry

Divination through the reading of the lines of the palm of the hand.

pan-Indian

Refers to activities that draw from many different Native American traditions.

pantheon

All gods and goddesses in a polytheistic system.

participant observation

A research method whereby the anthropologist lives in a community and participates in the lives of the people under study while at the same time making objective observations.

pastoral nomads

Societies that subsist primarily by herding domesticated animals.

pentacle

A five-pointed star.

pentagram

A five-sided figure.

periodic ritual

A ritual that is performed on a regular basis as part of a religious calendar.

peyotism

The ritual use of peyote, a hallucinogenic cactus.

Pharaonic infibulation

A surgical procedure performed on women that involves the complete removal of the clitoris and the labia minora and majora, the two sides of the wound then being stitched together, leaving a small opening.

phrenology

Divination through the study of the shape and structure of the head.

physical anthropology

The study of human biology and evolution.

pidgin language

A simplified language that forms from the fusion of two languages.

pilgrimage

A journey to a sacred place or a sequence of sacred spaces at which rituals are performed.

polytheism

A belief in many gods.

positive peace

Structural violence is not present.

possession

An altered state of consciousness that is interpreted as a deity taking control of a person’s body.

postmodernism

An emphasis on subjectivity over objectivity and a tendency toward reflexivity, or self-consciousness; all knowledge is seen as being a human construction that scholars must seek to deconstruct.

prescriptive ritual

A ritual that a deity or religious authority requires to be performed.

presentiment

A feeling in a person that something is about to occur.

priest

A full-time religious specialist who is associated with formalized religious institutions.

prophecy

Divination through the communication of a prophet.

prophet

Someone who communicates the words and will of the gods to his or her community, acting as an intermediary between the people and the gods.

protective ritual

A ritual that is performed at the start of, or during, a dangerous activity to protect the participants or to protect the community against disaster.

psychoduct

A pipe or tube that connects a tomb to a temple through which the spirit of the deceased may travel into the temple.

psychosocial approach

An approach to the study of religion that is concerned with the relationship between culture and psychology and between society and individual.

Purgatory

A place for souls who die with lesser faults for which there has been no repentance or for which the penalty is not wholly paid during the lifetime.

rank

The relative placement of a status in the society.

reincarnation

A belief in an immortal, eternal soul that is born again and again in different bodies.

relic

An object of religious veneration, especially a piece of the body or a personal item of a religiously important person, such as an ancestor or saint.

religion

The realm of culture that concerns the sacred supernatural.

religious ritual

A ritual that involves the manipulation of religious symbols.

resurrection

Dead people being brought back to life.

revitalization movement

A movement that forms in an attempt to deliberately bring about change in a society.

revitalization ritual

A ritual that is associated with a revitalization movement.

revivalistic movement

A type of revitalization movement that attempts to revive what is often perceived as a past golden age.

rites of passage

A ritual that occurs when an individual changes status, serving to legitimize the new status and to imprint it on the community’s collective memory.

ritual

A patterned, recurring sequence of behaviors.

sacred

An attitude wherein the subject or object is set apart from the normal, everyday world and is entitled to reverence and respect.

sacrifice

A gift designed to influence the supernatural in which an animal is killed.

scapulamancy

A divination technique in which a dried scapula, or shoulder blade, is placed in a fire and the pattern of cracks and burns are interpreted.

scripturalism

The practice of justifying beliefs and actions by reference to the religious text.

secondary burial

Some time after the initial burial the bones are removed and reburied.

sect

A new branch of a mainstream religion, usually involving new revelations, new scriptures, and a new leader.

separation

The first phase of a rite of passage in which an individual is removed from his or her former status.

shaman

A part-time religious specialist who receives his or her power directly from the spirit world and acquires status and the ability to do things through personal communication with the supernatural.

shrine

An object or building that contains sacred objects or is associated with a venerated person or deity.

situational ritual

A ritual that arises as needed, frequently in times of crisis.

small-scale

Describes relatively small communities that practice foraging, herding, or technologically simple horticulture.

social charter

A story that establishes the proper organization and rules of behavior of a society.

social rite of intensification

A type of ideological ritual that functions to reinforce the belief system and the values of the society.

sorcerer

A magician who specializes in antisocial, evil magic.

sorcery

Compelling the supernatural to behave in certain ways, usually with evil intent.

soul

The noncorporeal, spiritual component of an individual.

spell

The words that are spoken in a magic ritual.

spirit

A supernatural being that is less powerful than a god and is usually more localized; often one of a collection of nonindividualized supernatural beings that are not given specific names and identities.

spirit possession

An altered state of consciousness that is interpreted as a spirit taking over control of a human body and is either deliberately induced by a ritual performance or the consequence of an illness caused by a spirit taking control.

status

A social position that is defined in terms of appropriate behavior, rights and obligations, and its relationship to other statuses.

stigmata

Bodily wounds or pain considered by Christians to be visible signs of participation in the sufferings of Christ.

stimulus diffusion

What occurs when an idea moves from one culture to another and stimulates the invention of a new trait.

Structural violence

A form of violence where people’s basic needs are not being adequately met due to some social structure or social institution.

subincision

Form of genital cutting where the underside of the penis is cut and the urethra slit open.

succubae

Female demons who have sex with human men while they sleep, resulting in damnation of the men’s souls.

supernatural

Entities and actions that transcend the natural world of cause and effect.

superstitions

Simple behaviors based on magical thinking that are thought to bring about simple results.

supreme god

A god who resides at the top of a pantheon.

swastika

A symbol formed by two lines crossing at right angles with their ends bent at right angles in a clockwise or counterclockwise position.

symbol

A shared understanding about the meaning of certain words, attributes, or objects; something that stands for something else.

sympathetic system

The arousal system of the brain.

syncretism

A fusing of traits from two cultures to form something new and yet permitting the retention of the old by subsuming the old into a new form.

tabu

Objects and persons that are supernaturally prohibited. May also refer to certain behaviors that would bring about negative consequences through supernatural means.

tasseography

Divination through the reading of tea leaves.

technological ritual

A ritual that attempts to influence or control nature, especially in those situations that affect human activities and well-being.

tensegrity

A technique of body movements that aims to increase awareness of the body’s energy fields; developed by Carlos Castaneda.

terrorism

Public acts of destruction committed by those in a weaker position against non-military targets with the intent of causing fear.

theory of mind

The idea that people know, or think they know, what is going on in other people’s minds.

therapy ritual

A ritual whose function is to cure.

therianthropes

Creatures that are part human and part animal.

tithing

The giving or taking of a tithe, a tenth of one’s income or agricultural produce, usually in support of a religious institution.

totalism

The belief that religion is relevant to, and should be a part of, all parts of a society.

totem

A symbol or emblem that stands for a social unit.

totemism

A religious system that assigns different plant and animal species to specific social groups and postulates a relationship between the group and the species formed during the period of creation.

traditioning

The idea that religious texts are relevant to life today.

transition

The second phase of a rite of passage during which a person is in a liminal state and is moved from one status to another.

transmigration

A situation in which a soul passes from one body to another—human, animal, or even an inanimate object.

trickster

A god who gave humans important things or skills, often by accident or through trickery.

unitary state

An altered state of consciousness in which an individual experiences a feeling of becoming one with the supernatural.

urban legend

Contemporary story about people and events that never occurred, but are presented as real.

vampire

A person who has died before his or her time and who brings about the death of friends and relatives until his or her corpse is “killed.”

witchcraft

The ability of a person to cause harm by means of a personal power that resides within the body of the witch.

worldview

The way in which a society perceives and interprets its reality.

zombie

A corpse that has been raised from the grave and animated.