Chapters

Chapter 1 Review Questions

Review Questions From The Book

List and briefly describe five reasons for the study of history.
What is historiography? What issues are typically studied in historiography?
What is history? Do you agree that history has an empirical component?
In what sense can the historian be objective?
List and describe three hypotheses regarding the pattern or direction of history.
Describe specific developments in the latter part of the twentieth century that contributed to the advance of scholarly work in the history of psychology.

Additional Review Questions

What are the advantages of studying history?
Briefly summarize the different meanings of historiography.
Identify and define the components of a history.
Describe the different meanings of objectivity in historical methods.
Identify the natural biases that historians face when writing history.
Provide support for the belief that historical events exist in patterns.
Identify and summarize the perspective that there actually is no pattern or meaning in history.
Compare these two theories about the forces that shape history: prevailing conditions shape historical events versus extraordinary humans shape historical events.
Why were early histories of psychology considered internalist?
Describe the dramatic changes that appeared in psychological histories after the mid-1960s.

Practice Quizzes

Resources

Online Resources: Historiography

www.feministvoices.com/

A multimedia digital archive of the history of women and feminist perspectives in psychology. The site features original biographies and oral history interviews. Dr. Alexandra Rutherford maintains the site.

www.apadivisions.org/division-35/index.aspx

The website for the Society for the Psychology of Women (Division 35 of the American Psychological Association) promotes feminist scholarship in the study of the psychology of women.

Print Resources: Historiography

Psychology of Women Quarterly is a peer-reviewed journal that publishes material on the psychology of women and gender from a feminist perspective. It is the official journal of the Society for the Psychology of Women and includes articles relevant to the history of women in psychology.

Allwood, C. M., & Berry, J. W. (2006). Origins and development of indigenous psychologies: An international analysis. International Journal of Psychology, 41(4), 243–268.

Offers insights into factors that foster the emergence of local, or indigenous, psychologies using data from researchers from different areas of the world. The issues raised in this article (e.g., local versus mainstream psychology and future prospects for a universal psychology) are gaining importance among historians of psychology.

Benjamin, L. T., Jr. (1980). Women in psychology: Biography and autobiography. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 5(1), 140–144.

Lists approximately one hundred sources of biographical and autobiographical material on eminent women in psychology.

Bohan, J. (1996). Re-placing women in psychology: Readings toward a more inclusive history. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.

Provides deeper explanations of why women are invisible in early histories of psychology.

Brock, A. C. (2016). The future of the history of psychology: Revisited. History of Psychology, 19(3), 175–191.

Reflections on a previous publication (from a different author) concerning the future of history of psychology as an academic area of research.

Brock, A. C. (2016). The new history of psychology: Some (different) answers to Lovett’s five questions. History of Psychology. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1037/hop0000036.

An article of interest to historians of both science and psychology for its perspective on the debate about the accuracy of early histories of psychology relative to newer histories.

Evans, R. B. (1988). E. G. Boring: Reflections on a discipline builder. American Journal of Psychology, 101(4), 561–575.

Commentary on the way in which scholars have viewed the contributions of E. G. Boring, one of the most influential historians of psychology.

Furumoto, L. (1989). The new history of psychology. In J. S. Cohen (Ed.), The G. Stanley Hall lecture series (Vol. 9, pp. 5–34). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Describes the manner in which the story of psychology had traditionally been presented and argues that adopting new approaches to recording history enhances our understanding and provides a more complete representation of the past.

Guthrie, R. V. (2004). Even the rat was white: A historical view of psychology (2nd ed.). New York: Pearson.

Enlightening for audiences who are either familiar or unfamiliar with the field of history of psychology. The author offers evidence that racism has impacted the manner in which the history of psychology has traditionally been presented and argues that exposing this reality yields a history that is accurate and objective.

Helson, H. (1972). What can we learn from the history of psychology? Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 8(1), 115–119.

Article published when the value of studying the history of psychology and the methods that had been used to study it became subject to scrutiny and criticism. Helson offers seven answers to the question he poses.

Henle, M. (1976). Why study the history of psychology? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 270, 14–20.

Henle argues that the task of researching and recording a history is essential for minimizing the chance that we will repeat errors of the past. History is valuable because the nature of our cognitive processes is such that it is difficult for humans to see errors in their thinking.

Holliday, B. G. (2009). The history and visions of African American psychology: Multiple pathways to place, space, and authority. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15, 317–337.

Describes roles that African American scholarly and professional associations and intellectual traditions played in fostering African American psychology in the United States. Includes a comprehensive timeline of key events in the history of African American psychology.

Lovett, B. J. (2006). The new history of psychology: A review and critique. History of Psychology, 9(1), 17–37.

An article of interest to historians of science and psychology but also valuable to individuals learning the history of psychology. The author asserts that new histories of psychology (written beginning in the 1980s) are limited in certain ways and these limitations will influence and impact the writing of history moving forward.

O’Connell, A. N., & Russo, N. F. (Eds.). (1990). Women in psychology: A bio-bibliographic sourcebook. New York: Greenwood Press.

Each chapter summarizes one individual’s biography and contributions to psychology.

Pickren, W. E., & Dewsbury, D. A. (Eds.). (2002). Evolving perspectives on the history of psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

A compilation of previous publications from many eminent, contemporary historians of psychology. Chapters are grouped into topical sections.

Richards, G. (2002). Putting psychology in its place. (2nd ed.). East Sussex, UK: Routledge.

Appropriate for an undergraduate course in history of psychology but useful for more advanced learners as well. Chapters are grouped into sections such as early theoretical systems, the nature of research subjects, and cultural issues (e.g., religion and war).

Samelson, F. (1974). History, origin myth and ideology: ‘Discovery’ of social psychology. Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior, 4(2), 217–232.

The content of this article may be better suited to historians, but it illustrates the importance of objectivity in writing a history as well as the value of skepticism in cases where a single history is routinely presented as the only version of events (i.e., fact).

Scarborough, E., & Furumoto, L. (1987). Untold lives: The first generation of American women psychologists. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

Describes biographical material from several individuals to illustrate factors (e.g., family, marriage, and the nature of higher education in America in the early 1900s) that influenced the professional lives of women psychologists.

Stocking, G. W., Jr. (1965). On the limits of ‘presentism’ and ‘historicism’ in the historiography of the behavioral sciences. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 1(3), 211–218.

The content of this article (different approaches to history that a historian might choose when writing about his or subject matter) is important for anyone attempting to understand the task of writing a history. Stocking’s point: an approach that seeks to understand the past for its own sake makes it possible for an historian to see which of the significant facts (in the context of the past) can be said to be significant today (valuable in helping us understand the present).

Wettersten, J. R. (1975). The historiography of scientific psychology: A critical study. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 11(2), 157–171.

This article seems suited to professional historians but is relevant to students of the history of psychology. Wettersten’s point: in an attempt to show that scientific psychology progresses in a linear fashion from early practices and theories to current ones, historians of scientific psychology paint a misleading picture of the discipline.

Chapter 2 Review Questions

Review Questions From The Book

Define the term epistemology.
Distinguish between a priori and a posteriori knowledge.
Differentiate between nativist and empiricist accounts of depth perception.
Briefly explain at least five different ways of assessing truth.
What risks come with the reliance on authority for knowledge?
According to Karl Popper, what is the key distinguishing feature between a legitimate science and pseudoscience?
Trace Kuhn’s view on the development of science. What does Kuhn mean by terms such as normal science and paradigm?
If you were arguing for Feyerabend’s philosophy of science, what evidence would you employ?
List and briefly describe Aristotle’s four kinds of causation.
Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic teleology.
Advance three arguments in support of determinism and three arguments in defense of free will.
Outline two monistic and two dualistic approaches to mind and brain.
Which of the various mind–brain positions seems most adequate to you? What are some of the problems with this position?
Outline two major problems for psychogenic identity theory encountered in recent research on embryo experimentation.
What are the strengths and weaknesses of arguments by analogy?

Additional Review Questions

Identify and list the epistemological issues that are directly relevant to the history of psychology.
List and define the major philosophical problems that shaped the development of psychology.
Identify and briefly define the epistemological concepts that refer to abilities or capacities built into living systems.
How are terms such as a posteriori and learning related to experience?
Compare authority with at least one other criterion by which we claim to know truth.
Define falsifiability and its role in Karl Popper’s epistemology.
Summarize the major points that Karl Popper, Thomas S. Kuhn, and Paul K. Feyerabend make in their epistemologies.
Describe Paul K. Feyerabend’s position on the scientific method.
Explain how Karl Popper and Thomas S. Kuhn each promote slightly different versions of an evolutionary epistemology.
Why might Paul K. Feyerabend’s theory of knowledge be labeled “revolutionary”?
Explain why a psychologist is concerned with causality.
Identify and briefly describe a classic approach to causality.
Briefly summarize a modern approach to causality.
Define the doctrine of free will.
Explain why psychological theories rooted in biology are more consistent with determinism than with the doctrine of free will.
Identify the subjects that are of interest in epistemology and in ontology.
List and define the different forms of monism.
Evaluate pluralism against monism and dualism.
Explain why psychogenic emergentism is not a perfect solution to psychogenic identity theory.
Identify a model as it applies to science and provide two examples.

Practice Quizzes

Resources

Societies And Associations: Philosophy And Psychology

http://psychology.ucalgary.ca/istp/

The International Society for Theoretical Psychology provides a forum for discussing contemporary psychological issues in the context of the relationship between theoretical psychology and both the history of psychology and the philosophy of knowledge. Its site links to related organizations and a library of its newsletters.

www.theoreticalpsychology.org/

Society for Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology, Division 24 within the American Psychological Association. Its focus is issues relevant to both psychology and philosophy, some of which are an integral part of the history of psychology.

Print Resources: Philosophy And Psychology

Philosophical Psychology covers scholarship in areas that bridge psychology and philosophy. Some topics may not be familiar to students of history of psychology but coverage does include articles about historical figures (e.g., Fechner, Ebbinghaus) and concepts and processes such as perception.

Philosophy of the Social Sciences is a journal of international scholarship in the philosophical foundations of the social sciences. Content may not be completely familiar to students of psychology but includes topics such as scientific paradigms and qualitative versus quantitative research methods.

Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology. A peer-reviewed publication of the American Psychological Association and the official journal of the Society for Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology (American Psychological Association Division 24). Content represents the intersection of psychology and philosophy.

Theory and Psychology is a peer-reviewed publication that addresses theoretical issues in the discipline, many of which are important to the history of the field, for example, operationism, explanation, and measurement.

Baer, J., Kaufman, J. C., & Baumeister, R. F. (Eds.). (2008). Are we free? Psychology and free will. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Solid resource for introducing readers to the various issues involved in studying free will in the context of psychology today.

Baumeister, R. F. (2008). Free will in scientific psychology. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(1), 13–19.

Describes how it is possible to subject free will to scientific study.

Dilman, I. (1999). Free will: An historical and philosophical introduction. London: Routledge.

This publication seems suited to both students and instructors who may not be familiar with free will as a philosophical concept. Chapters describe the positions that eminent philosophers (and Freud) have held regarding the notion of free will.

Fodor, J. (1968). Psychological explanation: An introduction to the philosophy of psychology. New York: Crown.

Classic work in this field and valuable to history of psychology students in that it illustrates the nature of discourse about psychological issues (e.g., the concept of mind, behaviorism versus mentalism) that occurs among philosophers.

Robinson, D. N. (1985). Science, psychology, and explanation: Synonyms or antonyms? In S. Koch & D. E. Leary (Eds.), A century of psychology as science (pp. 60–74). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

The content of Robinson’s chapter is appropriate as a complement to a course in history of psychology and useful in challenging students to think about psychology’s status as a science.

Robinson, D. N., & Mos, L. P. (Eds.). (1990). Annals of theoretical psychology. (Vol. 6, pp. 105–124). New York: Plenum.

This volume may be more suited for advanced audiences familiar with the study of the philosophy of psychology. However, it is a solid resource for introducing readers to the fact that these important issues exist in psychology.

Rychlak, J. F., & Rychlak, R. J. (1990). Free will is a viable, verifiable assumption: A reply to Garrett and Viney. New Ideas in Psychology, 8, 43–51.

Rychlak, J. F., & Rychlak, R. J. (1990). The insanity defense and the question of human agency. New Ideas in Psychology, 8, 3–24.

Symons, J., & Calvo, P. (Eds.). (2009). The Routledge companion to philosophy of psychology. London: Routledge.

Strong resource for students of philosophies of mind, psychology, and science. The authors explore philosophical issues and concepts that are embedded in psychology and this information is neatly categorized in chapters that will seem familiar to students of psychology: e.g., cognition, biology.

Viney, W. (1990). The tempering effect of determinism in the legal system: A response to Rychlak and Rychlak. New Ideas in Psychology, 8, 31–42.

Watson, R. I. (1967). Psychology: A prescriptive science. American Psychologist 22(6), 435–443.

A classic publication in which Watson, concerned that psychology struggles for consensus about the nature of its content, describes themes necessary to organize the discipline. Many of these reflect inquiries that characterize philosophy, e.g., the nature of knowledge, the nature of mind and matter.

Philosophy Of Mind • Consciousness • Mind–body Problem

Resources for these topics are relevant to material in this chapter but are also relevant at various other points in the textbook.

Blackmore, S. (2005). Conversations on consciousness: What the best minds think about the brain, free will, and what it means to be human. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

An enjoyable series of conversations about the nature of consciousness between the author and various colleagues, written in plain language.

Gregory, R. L. (Ed.). (2004). The Oxford companion to the mind. (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Reference manual with hundreds of entries related to mind from the fields of philosophy, physiology, and psychology. Provides good starting point for a reader to gain a basic understanding of a particular concept, theory, process, or individual relevant to the study of mind.

Heil, J. (Ed.). (2004). Philosophy of mind: A guide and anthology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

The content seems generally suited to professional philosophers but certain chapters provide deeper information on topics relevant to the psychological approach to mind (e.g., Computing machinery and intelligence).

Hook, S. (Ed.). (1960). Dimensions of mind: A symposium. New York: New York University.

Paperback publication that contains articles written by eminent philosophers and psychologists of the time (e.g., Wolfgang Kohler, P. W. Bridgman, Herbert Feigl, Fritz Heider, B. F. Skinner, and Ernest Nagel). It is valuable for both professional and student audiences as it provides a historical perspective on timeless issues in philosophy of mind, such as the relationship between minds and machines and concept formation).

Kim, J. (2011). Philosophy of mind. (3rd ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Provides a good introduction to issues that comprise the study of philosophy of mind. Sections will seem familiar to psychology students, for instance, ones that address materialism and physicalism, dualism, and the nature of consciousness.

Kirk, R. (2003). Mind and body. Chesham, UK: Acumen.

An introduction for those who may be unfamiliar with this topic.

Lowe, E. J. (2008). An introduction to the philosophy of mind. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Useful for readers to gain a deeper understanding of the issues central to philosophy of mind. Chapter topics will be familiar to history of psychology students, for instance, those that address minds and bodies, and action, intention and will.

Rousseau, G. S. (Ed.). (1990). Languages of psyche: Mind and body in Enlightenment thought, Clark Library lectures 1985–1986. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Provides good overview for readers to appreciate the scope of the mind–body issue in eighteenth-century Europe and its expression in areas such as medicine, physiology, and literature.

Wright, J. P., & Potter, P. (2000). Psyche and soma: Physicians and metaphysicians on the mind-body problem from Antiquity to Enlightenment. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Provides a good introduction to the positions that eminent historical figures, from ancient Greece to the eighteenth century, have held on the nature of the relationship between mind and body.

Related Resources

Online Resources: Philosophy

Use these resources to explore philosophical issues in metaphysics, ontology, and epistemology—branches of philosophy relevant to the emergence of scientific psychology.

http://philpapers.org/

PhilPapers is a searchable, online bibliography of current philosophical works from a variety of sources (e.g., journals, open access archives), maintained by the Centre for Digital Philosophy at the University of Western Ontario and the Philosophy Documentation Center. Entries in its table of contents include topics relevant to psychology and the sciences in general (logic, epistemology, metaphysics, and philosophy of mind).

https://situsci.slink.dal.ca/

Situating Science: Science in Human Contexts is an online forum for the study of science and technology in Canada. One of its four themes, Historical Epistemology and Ontology, explores the nature of knowledge and existence—philosophical topics that have great importance in the history of science in general and psychology specifically. Its website resources include links to relevant organizations, and links to videos and podcasts it sponsors.

http://plato.stanford.edu/

The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Center for the Study of Language and Information at Stanford University) is a comprehensive, searchable online compilation of topical entries in the field of philosophy. Content is uploaded and maintained by experts in the field.

www.iep.utm.edu/

The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy is a comprehensive, searchable online compilation of topics and philosophers across philosophy founded by Dr. James Fieser. Entries are submitted by experts and undergo a review process before being accepted into the database.

www.oxfordbibliographies.com/obo/page/philosophy

Oxford Bibliographies website provides lists of current research guides across many different fields including philosophy.

https://podcasts.ox.ac.uk/

The University of Oxford in England hosts podcast lectures from university faculty. Many cover individuals and subjects relevant to the history of psychology (e.g., David Hume, Thomas Hobbes, mind–body problem, free will and determinism, knowledge, general philosophy, and philosophy of mind).

www.ted.com/talks

The TED website hosts videos of informative and entertaining public lectures concerning a variety of issues. Most are contemporary in nature but some address topics with historical relevance to the sciences and philosophy.

www.bbc.co.uk/programmes

The British Broadcasting Corporation website BBC Programmes is an impressive compilation of BBC television and radio broadcasts—some available and some archived—organized by genre and format. Pages for archived broadcasts include text information on the topic and links for further study. Of interest to students of history of psychology are podcasts in the Science and Technology section of the category Factual Science and Nature. Some relevant broadcasts include All in the Mind, The Life Scientific, and The Power of the Unconscious.

www.historyofphilosophy.net/

The History of Philosophy website (King’s College London and the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich) hosts an impressive volume of podcast episodes on the history of philosophy appropriate for both scholars in the field and individuals new to this area. Topics include the classical era, antiquity, and medieval philosophers of Western civilization as well as important historical figures from Islamic and Indian philosophy.

www.openculture.com/freeonlinecourses

The website for Open Culture provides links to a large selection of free online courses delivered by instructors at universities such as Yale, Penn State, and Johns Hopkins and among them are several philosophy lectures and courses.

Societies And Associations: Philosophy

http://philsci.org/

The Philosophy of Science Association promotes scholarship in philosophy of science and its website provides links to relevant journals, archives, and organizations.

http://royalinstitutephilosophy.org/

The Royal Institute of Philosophy in London offers links to teaching resources and links to videotaped educational lectures (London Lecture Series) and interviews (Royal Institute of Philosophy Broadcasts), which cover topics of concern to both philosophy and psychology, for instance, mind, self, experiments, and perception. The Institute also produces educational topical guides for display on the site.

Print Resources: Philosophy

Philosophy is an official journal of the Royal Institute of Philosophy and serves the academic philosopher as well as specialists in other fields (e.g., law, psychology, education) whose interests lie in philosophical perspectives.

The British Journal for the History of Philosophy is the official journal of the British Society for the History of Philosophy and its coverage includes scholarship on individuals (e.g., Aquinas, Heidegger, Avicenna, and Dilthey) and topics (e.g., love and emotions, voluntary action) important to the history of psychology.

Think: Philosophy for Everyone is an official publication of the Royal Institute of Philosophy. It covers scholarly material relevant to thought-provoking questions concerning philosophy and everyday life. Topics include the mind–body problem, atheism, the existence of souls, and induction.

Coverage for the Journal of the History of Philosophy includes scholarship on important philosophers in the history of psychology (e.g., John Dewey, Descartes, Kant) and topics such as the early history of thought.

Philosophy of Science is the official journal of the Philosophy of Science Association and coverage includes topics of interest to philosophy and science in general, including behavior, teleology, the nature of data, and theories of brain.

The Directory of Open Access Journals website provides access to English- and non-English-language peer-reviewed journals including ones relevant to philosophical issues integral to science in general and psychology specifically.

Dancy, J., & Sosa, E. (2013). A companion to epistemology. (2nd ed.). Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.

Comprehensive reference volume on concepts that comprise epistemology. Entries may be more familiar to philosophy students than to psychology students but this volume is a good starting point to gain familiarity with important aspects of epistemology that are embedded in psychology’s history.

Jaegwon, K., & Sosa, E. (1999). A companion to metaphysics. (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Credo Reference.

Comprehensive reference volume on concepts that comprise the branch of philosophy known as metaphysics. Entries may seem more familiar to philosophy students but will be useful to psychology students in providing a starting point for understanding specific metaphysical concepts relevant to the history of psychology.

Chapter 3 Review Questions

Review Questions From The Book

Discuss psychological thought as it is encountered in documents and manuscripts from ancient cultures such as China, Egypt, and India.
Many of the early Greeks were interested in the primal substance of the world. Contrast Thales, Democritus, Anaximander, and Anaximenes with respect to their views on the primal substance.
Myia of the Pythagorean school provided some of the earliest advice on the care of infants. Briefly summarize her advice.
Contrast the philosophy of becoming as advanced by Heraclitus with the philosophy of being as advanced by Parmenides.
Trace the development of Greek medical thought from Aesculapius to Hippocrates.
How did Socrates argue against the relativism of Protagoras?
Briefly outline the contributions of Socrates to psychology.
Outline Plato’s conflict model of mental disorders.
Discuss Plato’s methodology. Include in your discussion a statement about Plato’s theory of forms and explain the meaning of his metaphor “eye of the soul.”
Briefly state Plato’s position on memory, perception, and motivation.
Contrast Plato with Aristotle with respect to their approaches to knowledge.
What was Aristotle’s approach to the soul–body question?
Outline Aristotle’s positions on memory, sensing, and motivation.
Briefly discuss Aristotle’s approach to dreaming.
What are the essential features of psychological and philosophical thought following Aristotle?

Additional Review Questions

Describe one major psychological theme in each of these ancient civilizations: Egypt, China, and India and Babylonia.
Briefly explain the role of number in early Chinese psychology.
Briefly explain the role of Jehovah in early Jewish philosophy and psychology.
Summarize the writings of the three philosophers of the Milesian school.
Offer two pieces of evidence that the Pythagoreans shift the nature of inquiry from cosmology to human problems.
Explain the specific aspect of Parmenides’s thought that stresses unity and permanence.
Describe the relationship between Zeno’s paradoxes and experience.
Explain the specific aspect of Heraclitus’s thought that emphasizes that constancy is an illusion.
Identify materialism (matter is the source of the universe) in the thoughts of Leucippus and Democritus.
Explain the role of love and strife in the works of Empedocles.
Describe two distinct explanations of perception offered by ancient Greek philosophers.
Describe the role of natural elements (fire, water, earth, air) in health and illness in the writings of two ancient Greek philosophers.
Summarize the ways in which Socrates’s concerns differed from those of ancient Greek philosophers before him.
Explain Plato’s position on the nature of sense objects and sensory information.
Define hylomorphism and its role in Aristotle’s philosophy.
In Aristotle’s psychology, explain why his views of sensation, imagination, and thought reflect empiricism to a greater degree than does his view of dreams.

Practice Quizzes

Resources

Online Resources: Ancient Philosophy Relevant To Psychology

http://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/Halsall/ancient/asbook.asp

The Internet History Sourcebooks Project is hosted by Fordham University. Its Ancient History Sourcebook section is of interest to history of psychology students who need resources on science in ancient Near East civilizations, and contributions to philosophy, science and medicine from Pre-Socratic and Hellenistic philosopher-scientists and physicians. Content is described as links to material that is “classroom usable.”

Print Resources: Ancient Philosophy Relevant To Psychology

Several publishers produce a series of edited handbooks that explain the actual writings of prominent figures in philosophy. These handbooks are often suited for non-professional audiences, cover major themes, and provide a good starting point for further research.

Routledge produces The Routledge Companion series and relevant volumes address the Pre-Socratics, Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle.
Cambridge University Press produces The Cambridge Companion series and volumes include Aristotle, Plato, Socrates, and early Greek philosophers.
Bloomsbury Publishing (Continuum International Publishing Group) produces volumes that include figures such as Plato, Aristotle, and Socrates.
Blackwell Publishers produces the Blackwell Companions to Philosophy series which includes volumes dedicated to Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and ancient philosophy.

Apeiron is a journal for scholarship in ancient science and philosophy. Though content seems suited to a professional audience, the information it provides for some topics (e.g., nature of soul in ancient philosophy) is relevant to history of psychology.

Bowman, M. L. (1989). Testing individual differences in ancient China. American Psychologist, 44(3), 576–578.
Cherniss, H. (1951). The characteristics and effects of presocratic philosophy. Journal of the History of Ideas, 12(3), 319–345.
Cooper, J. M. (1985). Plato’s theory of human motivation. History of Philosophy Quarterly, 1, 3–21.
Cornford, F. M. (1942). Was the Ionian philosophy scientific? Journal of Hellenic Studies, 62, 1–7.
Dumont, F., & Carson, A. D. (1995). Precursors of vocational psychology in ancient civilizations. Journal of Counseling and Development, 73, 371–378.
Higgins, L. T., & Zheng, M. (2002). An introduction to Chinese psychology: Its historical roots until the present day. Journal of Psychology, 136, 225–239.
Hussey, E. (1972). The Presocratics. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
Kirk, G. S., Raven, J. E., & Schofield, M. (1983). The Presocratic philosophers: A critical history with a selection of texts. (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Lam, C.-W., & Berrios, G. E. (1992). Psychological concepts and psychiatric symptomatology in some ancient Chinese medical texts. History of Psychiatry, 3(9), 117–128.
Laver, A. B. (1972). Precursors of psychology in ancient Egypt. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 8(2), 181–195.
Li, M. (1994). Psychology in China: A brief historical review. Journal of Psychology, 128(3), 281–287.
Oshodi, J. E. (1996). The place of spiritualism and ancient Africa in American psychology. Journal of Black Studies, 27(2), 172–182.
Parham, T. A. (2009). Foundations for an African American psychology. In H. A. Neville, B. M. Tynes, & S. O. Utsey (Eds.). Handbook of African American psychology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Simon, B. (1972). Models of mind and mental illness in ancient Greece: II. The Platonic Model. Section 1. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 8, 389–404.

Print Resources: Concepts Of Soul And Psyche

See resources below for further understanding of the nature of these important concepts in ancient thought.

Bett, R. (1986). Immortality and the nature of the soul in the ‘Phaedrus’. Phronesis, 31(1), 1–26.
Bremer, J. (1983). The early Greek concept of the soul. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Everson, S. (Ed.). (1991). Psychology: Companions to ancient thought (Vol. 2). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Gilman, R. C. (1949). The soul in early Greek philosophy. The Philosophical Forum, 7, 19–24.
Green, C. D., & Groff, P. R. (2003). Early psychological thought: Ancient accounts of mind and soul. Westport, CT: Praeger.
Katona, G. (2002). The evolution of the concept of psyche from Homer to Aristotle. Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology, 22(1), 28–44.
Robinson, T. M. (1971). The argument for immortality in Plato’s Phaedrus. In J. P. Anton & G. I. Kustas (Eds.). Essays in ancient Greek philosophy. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Seligman, P. (1978). The soul and cosmos in presocratic philosophy. Dionysius, 2, 5–17.
Sorabji, R. (1974). Body and soul in Aristotle. Philosophy, 49(187), 63–89.

Print Resources: Aristotle

Use this sample of resources to explore the aspects of Aristotle’s thinking most relevant to psychology.

Akrill, J. L. (1981). Aristotle the philosopher. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Allan, D. J. (1970). The philosophy of Aristotle. London: Oxford University Press.
Baumrin, J. M. (1975). Aristotle’s empirical nativism. American Psychologist, 30(4), 486–494.
Everson, S. (1997). Aristotle on perception. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Polansky, R. M. (2007). Aristotle’s De Anima. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Robinson, D. N. (1989). Aristotle’s psychology. New York: Columbia University Press.
Wedin, M. V. (1988). Mind and imagination in Aristotle. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Chapter 4 Review Questions

Review Questions From The Book

List and briefly define (in a word or two) Galen’s constitutional types.
Explain Galen’s pneuma concept of the soul.
Describe the basic teachings of Epicurus, Zeno, and Pyrrho. In what sense are their teachings comparable?
What did Plotinus mean when he argued that the “soul is not in the world, rather the world is in the soul”?
Describe four possible solutions to the tensions between revelation and reason.
What is the significance of Augustine’s Confessions for psychology? Explain Augustine’s thought on infant motivation, grief, dreams, and habit breaking.
Why, according to Rhazes, do people trust charlatans rather than legitimate healers?
List and describe major substantive contributions coming out of the works of Avicenna, Averroës, and Alhazen.
What is the essential message contained in Maimonides’s book Guide for the Perplexed?
Outline Abelard’s position with respect to the roles of faith and reason.
What did Héloise mean by indifferent love?
According to Roger Bacon, there are four causes for human ignorance and error. What are they?
Briefly outline the views of Thomas Aquinas on methodology.
Outline some of the general intellectual characteristics of the Middle Ages and the Roman Period.

Additional Review Questions

Explain why Galen is credited with developing an early personality theory.
Describe the role of spirits in Galen’s ideas.
Cite three examples which show that Roman philosophers were concerned with how human beings could live a good life.
Define the major theme of Stoic philosophy.
Explain the role of responsibility and self-knowledge in Epictetus’s writings.
Explain at least one way in which Lucretius’s writings exemplify Epicureanism.
Cite two examples that illustrate the influence of the supernatural in medieval thought or action.
Identify an example of Aristotle’s faculty psychology in medieval thought.
List and briefly describe the contributions to physiology and anatomy from the works of Islamic philosophers.
Identify and describe two examples of philosophers’ efforts to reconcile faith and reason during the Middle Ages.
Describe the extent to which Thomas Aquinas’s psychology is consistent with empiricism.
Define Ockham’s Razor.
Who wrote Opus Majus and what is its significance to epistemology?
Who wrote Confessions and what is its relevance to psychology?
Briefly state the three extended (nonmaterial) things that exist, according to Plotinus.

Practice Quizzes

Resources

Online Resources: Middle Ages

Use this sample of resources to locate scholarship on psychological topics in the Middle Ages.

http://moses.creighton.edu/JRS/toc/bibliographies.html

The Bibliographies for Theology on the website for the Journal of Religion and Society are organized chronologically. Relevant topics include St. Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, and Renaissance Humanism.

www.medievalacademy.org/

The Medieval Academy of America resources include primary sources, document archives and reference works.

https://cmrs.osu.edu/

The Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies at Ohio State University hosts a website that includes helpful resources for all aspects of these time periods. Of interest to history of psychology students are pages devoted to Associations and Societies, Bibliographies, and History of Science.

http://the-orb.arlima.net/

The On-line Reference Book for Medieval Studies is maintained at the College of Staten Island, City University of New York. Its Encyclopedia, Teaching, General and Links pages provide links to materials (e.g., maps, primary texts) that are helpful for individuals to become familiar with basic information about the Middle Ages.

http://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/Halsall/sbook.asp

The website for the Internet History Sourcebooks Project is maintained at Fordham University. Within these Sourcebooks is the Medieval Sourcebook—described as textual sources from the period. Of interest to history of psychology students would be Selected Sources Sections on Islam, Roman Church, Intellectual Life, and Medieval Church.

http://cmedst.umn.edu/links/

The website for the Center for Medieval Studies at the University of Minnesota includes pages for Resources and pages for Links that contain useful information for individuals interested in gaining basic knowledge about the Middle Ages.

Print Resources: Middle Ages

Use this sample of resources for scholarship on psychological topics in the Middle Ages.

Medieval Philosophy and Theology is a peer-reviewed, online journal for scholarship in medieval philosophy. While its audience is philosophy and theology scholars, some articles are helpful for individuals who seek a deeper understanding of topics relevant to history of psychology. Among these topics are Thomas Aquinas’s argument for the spiritual nature of human intellect, and the nature of will in the writings of St. Augustine.

The Journal of Early Christian Studies is the official journal of the North American Patristics Society. The society promotes study of late antiquity and early Christianity. Its focus is primarily theological, but scholarship on the soul and St. Augustine is relevant to the history of psychology.

Harvey, E. R. (1973). The inward wits: Psychological theory in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. London: Warburg Institute.

Surveys the development of “phantasia,” “cognitio,” and “memoria” forces that were thought to mediate between the soul and the body.

Henley, T. B. & Thorne, B. M. (2005). The lost millennium: Psychology during the Middle Ages. The Psychological Record, 55(1), 103–113.
Keimpe, A., et al. (Eds.). (1999). The Cambridge history of Hellenistic philosophy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Kemp, S. (1998). Medieval theories of mental representation. History of Psychology, 1(4), 275–288.
Kemp, S. (1996). Cognitive psychology in the Middle Ages. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

Kemp, S. (1990). Medieval psychology. New York: Greenwood Press.

Outlines psychological ideas in medieval Europe and the misconceptions surrounding the nature of psychology during this time period.

Kemp, S., & Fletcher, G. (1993). The medieval theory of the inner senses. American Journal of Psychology, 106(4), 559–576.

Describes a widely accepted theory of cognition and neuropsychology of the Middle Ages: the theory that sense information is processed in succession in ventricles of the brain.

Kenny, A. (2005). Medieval philosophy. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Knowles, D. (1962). The evolution of medieval thought. Baltimore, MD: Helicon Press.
Marenbon, J. (Ed.). (2003). Medieval philosophy: Routledge history of philosophy (Vol. 3). London: Routledge.
McGinnis, J. (2010). Avicenna. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Mora, G. (1978). Mind-body concepts in the Middle Ages: Part I. The classical background and its merging with the Judeo-Christian tradition in the early Middle Ages. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 14(4), 344–361.
Sharples, R. W. (1996). Stoics, Epicureans, and sceptics: An introduction to Hellenistic philosophy. London: Routledge.
Taylor, R. C., & López-Farjeat, L. X. (Eds.). (2016). The Routledge companion to Islamic philosophy. London: Routledge.

Print Resources: Galen • The Temperaments • Pneuma Theory

Altschule, M. D. (1965). The pneuma concept of the soul. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 1(4), 314–320.
Arikha, N. (2007). Passions and tempers: A history of the humours. New York: Ecco.
Clower, W. T. (1998). The transition from animal spirits to animal electricity: A neuroscience paradigm shift. Journal of the History of the Neurosciences, 7(3), 201–218.
Gross, C. G. (1998). Galen and the squealing pig. The Neuroscientist, 4(3), 216–221.
Irwin, J. R. (1947). Galen on the temperaments. Journal of General Psychology, 36(1), 45–64.
Jackson, S. W. (1969). Galen: On mental disorders. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 5(4), 365–384.
Quin, C. E. (1994). The soul and the pneuma in the function of the nervous system after Galen. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 87(7), 393–395.
Stelmack, R. M. & Stalikas, A. (1991). Galen and the humour theory of temperament. Personality and Individual Differences, 12(3), 255–263.

Smith, C. U. M., Frixione, E., Finger, S., & Clower, W. (2012). The animal spirit doctrine and the origins of neurophysiology. New York: Oxford University Press.

Explains the origins of the concept of pneuma and how physicians and physiologists incorporated pneuma into their ideas on anatomy and physiology. Traces the problems that emerge with the doctrine over time and the way in which experimental electrophysiology replaces the animal spirits doctrine.

Chapter 5 Review Questions

Review Questions From The Book

Describe five general characteristics of the Renaissance period.
How did the plague contribute to the changing climate of opinion in the Renaissance?
Contrast geocentric and heliocentric worldviews and their implications for a science of human nature.
Discuss Machiavelli’s importance to the history of the social and behavioral sciences.
Outline at least three of Vives’s contributions to psychological thought.
Discuss Leonardo da Vinci’s contributions to perception. What are some specific ways in which Leonardo contributed to the growth of empirical studies?
In what way does the thought of Paracelsus serve as a bridge from scholasticism to modern science?
Outline some of Montaigne’s skeptical arguments. Why was Montaigne’s skepticism important to the development of modern science?
Briefly describe Montaigne’s position on child rearing.
In what way does Juan Huarte serve as an important pioneer in the study of individual differences?

Additional Review Questions

Summarize the importance of the invention of the printing press (1440) to learning and communication.
Provide one example of the way in which people dealt with their anger following the Black Death.
How does the Copernican Revolution change the way humans view themselves within the larger universe?
Identify and describe three factors that contributed to Renaissance science in general.
Who wrote On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres and what is its significance to science?
Define Machiavellianism. Describe the extent to which this term accurately reflects Machiavelli’s works.
Explain the role of vision in Leonardo da Vinci’s intellectual activities.
Provide two examples of Renaissance thought that reflect new views of the relationship between humans and the rest of the universe.
Summarize Michel de Montaigne’s general position on the nature of human beings.
Briefly describe the role of humoral temperaments in Juan Huartes’s thought.
Cite an example of this trend: a shift in emphasis from the “will” as a factor in human behavior to larger influences (e.g., society, temperament).

Practice Quizzes

Resources

Online Resources

http://hssonline.org/

The History of Science Society is a forum for scholarship in science, technology and medicine and their relation to society throughout history. Its Teaching page offers very helpful bibliographic essays that provide a starting point for further understanding of the history of science in general (e.g., Reading the History of Science: A List of Good Places to Start) as well as links to many electronic resources on a variety of aspects of the history of science.

www.eshs.org/History-of-Science-Societies-in-Europe.html

The website for the European Society for the History of Science lists history of science societies based in Europe, as well as relevant journals, museums, and science centers located throughout Europe.

www.museogalileo.it/en/getinvolved/research.html

The History and Philosophy of Science, Technology, and Medicine website provides access to select history and philosophy of science research resources from many countries—links to bibliographies, manuscripts, museums, journals, and libraries. The site is courtesy of Thomas B. Settle, Museo Galileo in Florence, Italy, and the Polytechnic Institute of New York University.

http://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/Halsall/index.asp

The website for the Internet History Sourcebooks Project is maintained at Fordham University. One page of its collection is devoted to the history of science and provides links to texts beginning from the ancient Near East. Sections of interest to history of psychology students include ancient civilizations through classical science and sections on Darwin and Freud.

http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu

PhilSci-Archive is an online compilation of material relevant to the philosophy of science sponsored by the University of Pittsburgh. Browsing subjects yields a list of links to recent bibliographies on topics such as causality, determinism, and specific fields such as psychology, economics, and anthropology.

www.nature.com/nature/podcast/pastcast/

The Nature PastCast series contains archived podcasts from Nature magazine that describe important moments in the history of science.

www.scienceforthepeople.ca/

Science for the People is a syndicated radio show and podcast that explores the relationship of science to culture, history, and public policy in an interview format. Its episodes deal with all branches of science and some touch on topics of historical importance to general science and to psychology: for instance, the dynamics of deception and confidence games, the self from the perspective of genetics, artificial intelligence, and the importance of optics to the history of science.

www.openculture.com/freeonlinecourses

The website for Open Culture provides links to a large selection of free online courses delivered by instructors at universities such as Yale, Penn State, and Johns Hopkins. Among the lectures of interest to students of history of psychology are ones such as Philosophy of Mind, Evolution, and Positive Psychology.

The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) produces podcasts from its many radio broadcast programs, which cover a wide spectrum of contemporary and historical topics. Descriptions of podcasts most relevant to the history of psychology follow:

www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b04bwydw/episodes/player

Podcasts from A History of Ideas focus on topics relevant to the history of science and psychology, for instance contemporary commentary on George Berkeley’s idea that objects exist only in our minds and Freud’s ideas on the Greek god Eros.

www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/598SVYJ2smP8qJlpH29y7Vj/podcasts

Podcasts from two broadcasts—In Our Time: Philosophy and In Our Time: Science—cover subjects highly relevant to the histories of psychology, philosophy, and science.

www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b06vy2jd/episodes/downloads

Science Stories broadcasts explore events and individuals from the history of science.

www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0380wf8/episodes/downloads

Seven Ages of Science offers discussions of scientific events and individuals from Britain’s Restoration through the present.

www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b042q944/episodes/downloads

The podcast Intelligence: Born Smart, Born Equal, Born Different addresses issues relevant to the genetics of intelligence.

PRINT RESOURCES: JOURNALS

The Journal of the International Society for the History of Philosophy of Science is a peer-reviewed publication sponsored by the International Society for the History of Philosophy of Science. Its articles provide helpful explanations about connections among philosophy, science, and mathematics in the context of social, economic, and political factors. Though intended for a professional audience, some topics are helpful to readers who wish to appreciate the issues involved in the development of science in general.

Annals of Science publishes scholarship on the history of science, technology, and medicine from classical antiquity to the late twentieth century. Subjects relevant to the history of psychology include historical perspectives on mind, evolution, the animal psyche, and intelligence.

ISIS is a publication of the History of Science Society. It seems intended for historians of science, so its content explores broad issues in the development of the sciences (e.g., the relationships between science and religion, between Darwinian theory and religion). However, content also includes articles of interest to historians of psychology (e.g., the origins of the random group design).

Osiris is a publication of the History of Science Society that highlights important themes in the history of science, for instance, scientific instrumentation and how science becomes institutionalized in particular countries.

The British Journal for the History of Science is the official publication of the British Society for the History of Science. It seems intended for historians of science, so content explores individuals and issues important in the development of the sciences (e.g., Newton and scholastic thought). However, content also includes articles specific to psychology (e.g., human reaction time and its origins in astronomy).

The journal Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences publishes scholarship relevant to the history of psychology. Article topics include Wilhelm Wundt, introspection in America, psychophysics, and evolutionary theory and human nature.

Print Resources: General Background On The Scientific Revolution

The resources below should serve as good starting points to learn more about the major transformation of thought that begins with Copernicus’s heliocentric theory of the universe.

Boas, M. (1962). The scientific renaissance: 1450–1630. New York: Harper and Row.
Cohen, I. B. (1985). Revolution in science. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Daston, L., & Park, K. (Eds.). (2006). The Cambridge history of science: Early modern science (Vol. 3). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Dear, P. (2001). Revolutionizing the sciences: European knowledge and its ambitions, 1500–1700. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Debus, A. G. (1978). Man and nature in the Renaissance. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Goldstein, T. (1980). Dawn of modern science: From the ancient Greeks to the Renaissance. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Haag, J. W., Peterson, G. R., & Spezio, M. L. (Eds.). (2011). The Routledge companion to religion and science. New York: Routledge.
Hall, A. R. (1962). The scientific revolution 1500–1800: The formation of the modern scientific attitude. (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
Heilbron, J. L. (Ed.). (2003). The Oxford companion to the history of modern science. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Henry, J. (1997). The scientific revolution and the origins of modern science. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Lightman, B. (Ed.). (2016). A companion to the history of science. Malden, MA: John Wiley and Sons.
Mason, S. F. (1962). A history of the sciences. New York: Collier.
Olby, R. C. (Ed.). (1990). Companion to the history of modern science. London: Routledge.
Smith, A. G. R. (1972). Science and society in the 16th and 17th centuries. New York: Science History Publications.
Stump, J. B. & Padgett, A. G. (Eds.). (2012). The Blackwell companion to science and Christianity. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.

Print Resources: The Black Death

See these publications for general introductions to the Black Death.

Cantor, N. (2001). In the wake of the plague: The Black Death and the world it made. New York: The Free Press.
Kelly, J. (2005). The great mortality: An intimate history of the Black Death, the most devastating plague of all time. New York: HarperCollins.

Renaissance Humanism

www.rsa.org

The Renaissance Society of America promotes Renaissance studies. Its website includes a very helpful section of online resources, and teaching resources as well. It also provides a link to an online exhibit celebrating the 600-year history of Leipzig University (home of Wilhelm Wundt’s laboratory).

Refer to the sample of print resources below to better understand the nature of Renaissance humanism.

Kraye, J. (Ed.). (1996). The Cambridge companion to Renaissance humanism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Chapters address main themes of humanist scholarship including its effect on modern political thought, humanism and literature, humanism and science.

Kristeller, P. O. (1961). Renaissance thought: The classic, scholastic, and humanistic strains. New York: Harper Torchbooks.

Chapters are solid introductions to dominant strains of thought that characterized the Renaissance (e.g., humanism, paganism).

Nauert, C. G., Jr. (2006). Humanism and the culture of Renaissance Europe. (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

An in-depth look at humanism. Topics include its cultural origins in Italy, its spread to Germany, France, Spain, and England, its expression in the medieval universities, and its expression in Christianity and the Lutheran Reformation. Chapters also address the influence of humanism in European education and law, and literature and art.

Rabil, A., Jr. (Ed.). (1988). Renaissance humanism: Foundations, forms, and legacy (Vols. 1–3). Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.

A three-volume set that explores humanism in Italy, humanism outside Italy, and humanism and the disciplines.

Trinkaus, C. E. (1983). The scope of Renaissance humanism. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Includes chapters that should be of interest to history of psychology students (e.g., the Renaissance philosophy of man, the issue of free will in the Renaissance, and humanism as expressed in science).

Chapter 6 Review Questions

Review Questions From The Book

Briefly describe Bacon’s four Idols. What are some of the Idols in our day?
What is the Baconian approach to scientific methodology?
Distinguish between Locke’s primary qualities and secondary qualities. Give examples of each.
Discuss some of the implications of Locke’s contention that there is nothing in the intellect that was not previously in the senses.
What was Berkeley’s objection to primary qualities? Briefly argue in defense of Berkeley’s position.
Outline Hume’s general approach to the problem of causality.
Show how empiricism evolved from a method (epistemology) under Bacon’s treatment to a position on the nature of being (ontology) in the work of Berkeley and Hume.
Outline contributions to empiricism made by continental philosophers Condillac and Helvétius.
Briefly discuss the nature of the legal problems that contributed to the development of utilitarianism. What were the implications of utilitarianism for a science of human nature?
Review Hartley’s seven varieties of pleasure.
Briefly outline Hartley’s contributions to associationism.
Distinguish between the concepts of mental mechanics (James Mill) and mental chemistry (John Stuart Mill).
In what ways did John Stuart Mill contribute to the development of applied psychology?
Describe the early feminist thought of John Stuart Mill.
Outline some of the ways empiricism contributed to an intellectual climate friendly to the development of psychology as a discipline.

Additional Review Questions

What was Bacon’s position on the common sources of error that lead us astray in our quest for knowledge?
Explain what Locke means when he describes the mind as “white paper, void of all characters”?
Explain how Locke’s view on learning and education is consistent with empiricism.
How would Locke analyze both the shape of a pumpkin and its orange color?
Cite evidence that Berkeley rejected materialism.
Explain what Berkeley meant when he stated: “to be is to be perceived.”
List and briefly explain the pieces of Locke’s and Berkeley’s work that address sensation and perception.
Explain Hume’s concept of necessary connection.
Cite an example of empiricism in the writings of Condillac.
Explain the relationship between empiricism, essentialism, and educational opportunities, according to Wollstonecraft.
According to James Mill, what is the single principle that explains the acquisition of all mental processes—from beliefs to aesthestics.
Define vibratiuncles. What role do they play in Hartley’s thought?
Describe John Stuart Mill’s “mental chemistry.”
Identify and outline theories of emotion in the works of two empiricist philosophers.
Provide evidence that empiricism is an intellectual foundation of the liberation of women.

Practice Quizzes

Resources

Print Resources: Empiricism • Associationism

Bricke, J. (1974). Hume’s associationist psychology. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 10(4), 397–409.

Provides a detailed and clear account of David Hume’s laws of association and describes Hume’s thoughts on whether these laws could be applied to all types of mental phenomena.

Buckingham, H. W., & Finger, S. (1997). David Hartley’s psychobiological associationism and the legacy of Aristotle. Journal of the History of the Neurosciences, 6(1), pp. 21–37.

Provides an explanation of the significance of David Hartley’s theory of vibrations for psychology, philosophy, and physiology.

James, S. (1997). Passion and action: The emotions in 17th century philosophy. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Describes the role that emotion played in the positions that various philosophers (e.g., Aristotle, Descartes, Hobbes) held about mind–body relations, reason, and action.

Miller, E. F. (1971). Hume’s contribution to behavioral science. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 7(2), 154–168.

Describes David Hume’s ideas for an experimental science that would explain mental and behavioral processes and how Hume’s philosophical writings were meant to justify the principles for this science.

Warren, H. C. (1921). A history of the association psychology. New York: Scribner’s Sons.

An important but rather obscure publication that explains elements of associationism and associative learning in the writings of ancient Greek and English and French empirical philosophers. An especially valuable feature is the chapter that describes tests of the philosophical principles of association in very early psychological experiments.

Related Resources

Online Resources: Empiricist Philosophers

www.humesociety.org/

The Hume Society studies the works of David Hume and sponsors an official journal. Content includes links to original works and scholarship.

http://internationalberkeleysociety.org/

The International Berkeley Society sponsors a web-based journal for Berkeley scholarship.

Print Resources: Empiricist Philosophers

The Copleston texts provide readable yet thorough accounts of the ideas of eminent philosophers. See examples:

Copleston, F. C. (1964). A history of philosophy: The British philosophers, Part I, Hobbes to Paley (Vol. 5). New York: Image Books.

Garrett, D., & Barbanell, E. (Eds.). (1997). Encyclopedia of empiricism. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

A good starting point for understanding the scope of empiricism as a philosophical perspective and for finding basic information about particular concepts, events, and individuals that are relevant to the history of psychology.

Gaukroger, S. (2001). Francis Bacon and the transformation of early modern philosophy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Valuable reference on Francis Bacon that explores the role he had in helping science (rather than religion) to become the accepted means of attaining knowledge. The main focus of this book is Bacon’s goal of moving knowledge from the domain of elite academics to the public.

Mounce, H. O. (1999). Hume’s naturalism. London: Routledge.

Useful for helping general and scholarly audiences understand the importance of naturalism in David Hume’s philosophy.

Woolhouse, R. S. (1988). The empiricists. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Focuses on the ideas of familiar empiricists and includes an interesting chapter on the Royal Society of London and its influence on science and philosophy.

Some publishers produce a series of edited handbooks that explain the actual writings of prominent figures in philosophy. These handbooks often cover major themes and provide a good starting point for further research. See examples below:

Cambridge University Press produces The Cambridge companion series and includes figures like John Locke, Mary Wollstonecraft, David Hume, J. S. Mill, Thomas Hobbes, and Francis Bacon.
Bloomsbury Publishing (Continuum International Publishing Group) produces volumes that include figures such as Thomas Hobbes and John Locke.

Some chapters in philosophy reference publications provide in-depth information on individuals and ideas important in the history of psychology. As a whole, these books are useful in providing a big-picture perspective of the intellectual climate of a particular time period. See examples below:

Anstey, P. (Eds.). (2013). The Oxford handbook of British philosophy in the 17th century. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Clarke, D. M., & Wilson, C. (Eds.). (2011). The Oxford handbook of philosophy in early modern Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Garrett, A. (Ed.). (2014). The Routledge companion to 18th century philosophy. London: Routledge.
Harris, J. A. (Ed.). (2013). The Oxford handbook of British philosophy in the 18th century. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Chapter 7 Review Questions

Review Questions From The Book

Identify three ways in which rationalism differs from empiricism.
Briefly list four procedural rules for the intellect set forth by Descartes in his Discourse on Method.
Outline Spinoza’s contributions to the intellectual spadework necessary to the development of psychology.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of Leibniz’s approach to the mind–body problem?
Outline Kant’s distinction between analytic a priori and synthetic a priori knowledge. What is the significance of the distinction?
Briefly describe Kant’s theory of moral development.
Distinguish between the terms apperception and perception.
Explain what Thomas Reid meant by common sense and explain how Reid argued against Hume’s skepticism.

Additional Review Questions

Describe the nature of mind according to the rationalist philosophers.
Compare deduction with induction.
For Descartes, what is the (necessary) conclusion he must reach after he steps through his method of doubt?
Cite evidence of Descartes’s rationalism.
Identify the major similarity between Spinoza’s approach to soul and body and the writings of the ancient Greek philosophers Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes.
Explain the concept of a threshold and describe its role in the philosophies of Herbart and Leibniz.
Explain the significance of Kant’s categories of understanding for sensory experience.
Define a monad and describe its role in Leibniz’s approach to the mind and brain.
Compare Leibniz’s mind–body perspective with that of Spinoza.
Explain the role that innate principles play in Thomas Reid’s empiricism. Why does this seem to be a “commonsense” philosophy?
Explain the connection between rationalist writings about thresholds and the (later) concept of the unconscious.

Practice Quizzes

Resources

Print Resources

See the sample of resources below for historical scholarship on pieces of rationalist philosophy that are specific to psychological topics.

Bernard, W. (1972). Spinoza’s influence on the rise of scientific psychology: A neglected chapter in the history of psychology. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 8(2), 208–215.

The influence of Baruch Spinoza on the history of psychology goes beyond his thoughts on the relationship between mind and body, for instance, his connection to individuals such as Johannes Müller and Gustav Fechner.

Boudewijnse, G.-J. A., Murray, D. J., & Bandomir, C. A. (1999). Herbart’s mathematical psychology. History of Psychology, 2(3), 163–193.

Explains the historical and mathematical background of Johann Herbart’s theory that ideas compete in consciousness.

Boyle, D. A. (2009). Descartes on innate ideas. New York: Continuum.

Excellent resource for readers interested in achieving a deep understanding of what Descartes wrote and what he meant concerning innate ideas. The book seems suited to an audience already familiar with Descartes’s writings but the content is valuable to students of the history of psychology.

Clarke, D. M. (2005). Descartes’s theory of mind. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Offers an interpretation of Descartes’s theory of dualism that stresses that a full understanding of his view on the relationship between the mind and body depends on understanding Descartes as a scientist first. Content may be more suited to professional philosophers but the message is important for all readers.

Garland, B. P. (1976). The faculty psychology of Thomas Reid. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 12(1), 65–77.

Useful article to explore more deeply the topic of faculty psychology and the writings of one of its adherents, Thomas Reid.

Gouaux, C. (1972). Kant’s view on the nature of empirical psychology. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 8(2), 237–242.

Provides a valuable supplement to cursory coverage on the importance of Immanuel Kant to the history of psychology.

Huemer, W., & Landerer, C. (2010). Mathematics, experience, and laboratories: Herbart’s and Brentano’s role in the rise of scientific psychology. History of the Human Sciences, 23(7), 72–94.

Provides information for a deeper understanding of the importance of Johann Herbart and Franz Brentano to the history of psychology.

Rozemond, M. (2002). Descartes’s dualism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

The text may be more suited to philosophers familiar with Descartes’s mind–body dualism but this resource is helpful for all readers as a starting point for further study.

Related Resources

Print Resources: Rationalism

See resources below for explanations of key metaphysical and epistemological concepts in the works of significant rationalist philosophers.

Lloyd, G. (1996). Routledge philosophy guidebook to Spinoza and the Ethics. London: Routledge.
Savile, A. (2000). Routledge philosophy guidebook to Leibniz and the Monadology. London: Routledge.
Schacht, R. (1993). Classical modern philosophers: Descartés to Kant. London: Routledge.
Thomas, J. (2009). The minds of the moderns: Rationalism, empiricism, and philosophy of mind. Stocksfield, UK: Acumen.
Woolhouse, R. S. (1993). Descartés, Spinoza, Leibniz: The concept of substance in 17th century metaphysics. London: Routledge.

Some publishers produce a series of edited handbooks that explain the actual writings of prominent figures in philosophy. These handbooks often cover major themes in a philosopher’s writings and provide a good starting point for further research. See examples below:

Cambridge University Press produces The Cambridge companion series and includes figures like Immanuel Kant, Gottfried Leibniz, René Descartes, and Thomas Reid.
Bloomsbury Publishing (Continuum International Publishing Group) produces volumes that include figures such as Immanuel Kant, Gottfried Leibniz, and Baruch Spinoza.
Blackwell Publishing’s Companion to philosophy series offers titles for individuals such as Immanuel Kant and René Descartes.

The Copleston texts provide readable yet thorough accounts of the ideas of eminent philosophers. See examples:

Copleston, F. C. (1964). A history of philosophy: Descartes to Leibniz (Vol. 4). New York: Image Books.
Copleston, F. C. (1964). A history of philosophy: The French Enlightenment to Kant, Part I (Vol. 6). New York: Image Books.

Print Resources: René Descartes

Cottingham, J. (1999). Descartes. New York: Routledge.

Short, readable explanations of significant themes in Descartes’s writings.

Dicker, G. (2013) Descartes: An analytical and historical introduction. (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.

Readable introduction to Descartes’s ideas intended for an undergraduate audience.

For resources to assist in understanding Descartes’s Meditations on First Philosophy (1641) see these helpful publications:

Cunning, D. (Ed.). (2014). The Cambridge companion to Descartes’ Meditations. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Francks, R. (2008). Descartes’ Meditations: A reader’s guide. New York: Continuum.
Gaukroger, S. (Ed.). (2006). The Blackwell guide to Descartes’ Meditations. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Hatfield, G. C. (2014). The Routledge guidebook to Descartes’ Meditations. New York: Routledge.
Kenny, A. (1968). Descartes: A study of his philosophy. New York: Random House.

Print Resources: Immanuel Kant

Immanuel Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason (1781) is an important philosophical work and one of the most difficult to comprehend. Select resources below should provide a reader with a basic understanding of Kant’s ideas:

Gardner, S. (1999). Routledge philosophy guidebook to Kant and the Critique of Pure Reason. London: Routledge.
Guyer, P. (Ed.). (2010). The Cambridge companion to Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Chapter 8 Review Questions

Review Questions From The Book

Briefly discuss Hobbes’s position on epistemology.
In what way did Hobbes’s work encourage naturalistic and quantitative studies?
Briefly describe Hobbes’s beliefs about basic human nature.
Outline Descartes’s views on reflex activity.
List and describe four testable hypotheses found in Descartes’s views on the physical basis of movement.
Briefly describe why Swammerdam’s experiment on the nerve-muscle preparation was embarrassing to Descartes’s theory.
List three arguments advanced by Niels Stensen against Descartes’s views on the role of the pineal gland.
Briefly characterize Hales’s and Whytt’s contributions to reflex theory.
According to Unzer, the guillotine provided a painless death. What was Unzer’s rationale?
Why is the work of La Mettrie important to the development of scientific psychology?
Briefly describe the Bell–Magendie Law and how it was discovered.
What is the doctrine of specific energies and who was its chief advocate?
Briefly outline Helmholtz’s technique for measuring the speed of conduction of a nervous impulse. Approximately what was the speed?
Why is the work of Jacques Quételet so important in the history of psychology?
Briefly outline Francis Galton’s contributions to the development of quantitative techniques.

Additional Review Questions

Describe materialist elements in Hobbes’s epistemology.
How does Hobbes’s materialist metaphysics inform his views on the civil state?
In what way does the technology of Descartes’s time influence his ideas about the human body?
Explain the role of the pineal gland in Descartes’s writings.
Cite two examples in which experimentation damaged the credibility of the animal spirits doctrine.
State a major contribution to neurophysiology from each of three researchers: Hales, Whytt, and Unzer.
Identify the researcher who addressed the issue of consciousness and nervous activity and briefly outline why this issue is relevant to capital punishment.
List reasons for the importance of the reflex concept.
State the reason why La Mettrie’s work is similar to that of Hobbes.
Outline the positions of Descartes and La Mettrie on the nature of the relationship between animals and humans.
Identify the first experimental work on sensory and motor functions of the nervous system.
Cite three ways in which the doctrine of specific nerve energies shaped the direction of later physiological and psychological theories.
Define phrenology and cite two reasons for its initial credibility and popularity.
Cite two examples in which experimentation damaged the credibility of phrenology.
Identify the work that established the field of electrophysiology.
Identify the work often referred to as the “Principia of Physiology.” Why does it deserve this description?
Outline two accomplishments of Jacques Quételet that advanced the quantification of behavior.
Identify the individual considered the founder of educational and behavioral statistics and explain why he deserves this title.

Practice Quizzes

Resources

Reflex Action

Fearing, F. (1929). René Descartes: A study in the history of the theories of reflex action. Psychological Review, 36(5), 375–388.

Provides a readable and thorough explanation of the reflex action, including Descartes’s theory of bodily automatism and the nature of animal spirits.

Lowry, R. (1970). The reflex model in psychology: Origins and evolution. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 6(1), 64–69.

Good resource to fully understand the reflex model in its different versions throughout history, from medieval philosophy through the work of behaviorist Clark Hull.

Smith, C. U. M. (1998). Descartes’ pineal neuropsychology. Brain and Cognition, 36(1), 57–72.

Article provides much information about Descartes’s knowledge of the pineal gland (the physical site where he believed mind exerted its influence over the body) and the role it played in his philosophy.

Heritability

http://wellcomelibrary.org/collections/digital-collections/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/eugenics-society/

The website for the archive of the (British) Eugenics Society displays material (e.g., press cuttings, posters, and brochures) from the Society (currently the Galton Institute). The collection is held at the Wellcome Library in London and is important in that it provides a historical view of the Society’s early position regarding race and reproduction, as well as the practice of eugenics.

Francis Galton’s ideas regarding the heritability of traits have been the subject of attention in histories of psychology. Heritability is also an important concept in contemporary research in fields such as biology, psychiatry, and behavior genetics. Print resources below are a small sample of publications that readers can use as a starting point for further exploration about Galton’s ideas, contemporary heritability research, and the concept of heritability in larger contexts (e.g., political movements).

Bashford, A., & Levine, P. (Eds.). (2010). The Oxford handbook of the history of eugenics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bulmer, M. (2003). Francis Galton: Pioneer of heredity and biometry. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Dikötter, F. (1998). Recent perspectives on the history of eugenics. The American Historical Review, 103(2), 467–478.
Fancher, R. E. (2004). The concept of race in the life and thought of Francis Galton. In A. S. Winston (Ed.), Defining difference: Race and racism in the history of psychology (pp. 49–75). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Fancher, R. E. (1983). Biographical origins of Francis Galton’s psychology. ISIS: Journal of the History of Science in Society, 74(2), 227–233.
Fancher, R. E. (1983). Francis Galton’s African ethnography and its role in the development of his psychology. British Journal for the History of Science, 16(1), 67–79.
Haller, M. H. (1963). Eugenics: Hereditarian attitudes in American thought. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Jensen, A. R. (2002). Galton’s legacy to research on intelligence. Journal of Biosocial Science, 34(2), 145–172.
Kühl, S. (1994). The Nazi connection: Eugenics, American racism, and German national socialism. New York: Oxford University Press.
Lombardo, P. A. (Ed.). (2011). A century of eugenics in America: From the Indiana experiment to the human genome era. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
Manuck, S. B., & McCaffery, J. M. (2014). Gene-environment interaction. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 41–70.
Rigby, J. (2015). The life and evolution of early intelligence theorists: Darwin, Galton, and Charcot. In S. Goldstein, D. Princiotta, & J. A. Naglieri (Eds.), Handbook of intelligence: Evolutionary theory, historical perspective and current concepts (pp. 93–104). New York: Springer.
Simonton, D. K. (2003). Francis Galton’s Hereditary Genius: Its place in the history and psychology of science. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), The anatomy of impact: What makes the great works of psychology great (pp. 3–18). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Sternberg, R. J., Grigorenko, E. L., & Kidd, K. K. (2005). Intelligence, race, and genetics. American Psychologist, 60(1), 46–59.
Vitzthum, V. J. (2003). A number no greater than the sum of its parts: The use and abuse of heritability. Human Biology, 75(4), 539–558.

Related Resources

Online Resources: The Brain

https://history.medsci.ox.ac.uk/

The History of Medical Sciences website (Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics at Oxford University) displays information about the impressive collection of the department’s historical material on the central nervous system, localization of brain function, and brain anatomy. The site includes images of scientific slides, instruments, documents, and letters. The site also provides access to collections of recorded seminars (several recordings from the History of Medical Sciences Seminar Series are relevant to the history of psychology, such as lectures on phrenology and contributions from individuals such as Donald Hebb and Raymond B. Cattell).

www.brainfacts.org

An educational site on the functioning of the brain and the nervous system meant for a general audience and individuals who are new to the science of the brain. Sponsored by the Kavli Foundation, the Gatsby Charitable Foundation, and the Society for Neuroscience.

Print Resources: Brain Anatomy • Neurophysiology

Journal of the History of the Neurosciences seems intended for a professional audience but articles on certain topics (e.g., brain localization of function and information on important individuals such as Johannes Müller) are very useful to the student of the history of psychology.

Some milestones in the history of knowledge of the brain and nervous system are relevant to the history of psychology, for instance the theory of animal spirits and the speed of a neural impulse. Readers interested in exploring historical theories, discoveries, and practices surrounding brain anatomy and function and the nervous system might start with the publications below:

Brazier, M. A. B. (1984). A history of neurophysiology in the 17th and 18th centuries: From concept to experiment. New York: Raven.
Brazier, M. A. B. (1988). A history of neurophysiology in the 19th century. New York: Raven.
Finger, S. (2000). Minds behind the brain: A history of the pioneers and their discoveries. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Finger, S. (1994). Origins of neuroscience: A history of explorations into brain function. New York: Oxford University Press.
Gross, C. G. (2009). A hole in the head: More tales in the history of neuroscience. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Jackson, T. (2015). The brain: An illustrated history of neuroscience. New York: Shelter Harbor Press.
Ochs, S. (2004). A history of nerve functions: From animal spirits to molecular mechanisms. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Singer, C. (1957). A short history of anatomy and physiology from the Greeks to Harvey. (2nd ed.). New York: Dover.
Whitaker, H. A., Smith, C. U. M., & Finger, S. (Eds.). (2007). Brain, mind, and medicine: Essays in 18th century science. New York: Springer.
Wickens, A. P. (2015). A history of the brain: From Stone Age surgery to modern neuroscience. London: Psychology Press.

Print Resources: Cerebral Localization Of Function • Phrenology

Bakan, D. (1966). The influence of phrenology on American psychology. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 2(3), 200–220.
Gallup, G. G., Frederick, M. J., & Pipitone, R. N. (2010). Morphology and behavior: Phrenology revisited. Review of General Psychology, 12(3), 297–304.
Gibson, W. C. (1962). Pioneers in localization of function in the brain. Journal of the American Medical Association, 180(11), 944–951.
Kaitaro, T. (2001). Biological and epistemological models of localization in the 19th century: From Gall to Charcot. Journal of the History of the Neurosciences, 10(3), 262–276.
Karenberg, A. (2009). Cerebral localization in the 18th century: An overview. Journal of the History of the Neurosciences, 18(3), 248–253.
Lilleleht, E. (2015). Assuming the privilege of bridging divides: Abigail Fowler-Chumos, practical phrenology, and America’s gilded age. History of Psychology, 18(4), 414–432.
Interesting article about the intersection of science and pseudoscience in the context of the professional development of a female practitioner of phrenology in the United States.
Steinberg, D. A. (2009). Cerebral localization in the 19th century: The birth of a science and its modern consequences. Journal of the History of the Neurosciences, 18(3), 254–261.
Young, R. M. (1970). Mind, brain and adaptation in the 19th century: Cerebral localization and its biological context from Gall to Ferrier. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Print Resources: Measurement • Quantification

Journal of the American Statistical Association is the official journal of the American Statistical Association. Its coverage is mainly contemporary topics but some articles can inform readers on ongoing statistical issues relevant to psychology (e.g., the significance of the null hypothesis).

See select references below for historical overviews of measurement and statistics in general and more specifically in the context of psychology, as well as works about important historical figures:

Cowles, M. (2001). Statistics in psychology: An historical perspective. (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Donnelly, K. (2015). Adolphe Quetelet, social physics, and the average men of science, 1796–1874. London: Pickering & Chatto.
Magnello, M. E. (2007). Karl Pearson and the establishment of mathematical statistics. International Statistics Review, 77(1), 3–29.
Michell, J. (1999). Measurement in psychology: Critical history of a methodological concept. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Porter, T. M. (2004). Karl Pearson: The scientific life in a statistical age. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Robinson, A. (2007). The story of measurement. London: Thames & Hudson.
Stigler, S. M. (1999). Statistics on the table: The history of statistical concepts and methods. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Stigler, S. M. (1986). The history of statistics: The measurement of uncertainty before 1900. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.
Woolf, H. (Ed.). (1961). Quantification: A history of the meaning of measurement in the natural and social sciences. Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill.

Chapter 9 Review Questions

Review Questions From The Book

Outline the development of evolutionary thought regarding the solar system and geology.
Trace key developments in the theory of organic evolution prior to Darwin.
List and describe four technical features of Darwin’s theory of evolution.
Discuss the significance of evolutionary theory to psychology and show specific influences of evolutionary theory on the development of psychology.
List at least six major social reform movements that took place in the nineteenth century.
Briefly describe the three major subdivisions of the Malleus Maleficarum.
How did Spinoza and Descartes challenge beliefs in witchcraft?
Outline the contributions of Benjamin Rush and Philippe Pinel to reforms in the understanding of mental illness.
Dorothea Dix was a great social reformer but also had substantive views on mental illness. What were her views on the origin and treatment of people with psychological disorders?
Briefly, how did Jean Itard and Édouard Séguin advance our understanding of people with cognitive disabilities?

Additional Review Questions

Define naturalism and explain why evolutionary theory is evidence for this perspective.
Explain what it means to see emotional disorders from a naturalistic perspective.
Outline evolutionary thought in one of the physical sciences.
Define organic evolution and list two theories of organic evolution prior to Charles Darwin.
Explain why organic evolution would pose a problem for Christianity. Cite at least one specific example.
Explain the importance of the concept of inheritance of acquired characteristics. Identify the individual who first developed this concept.
Summarize the biological evidence that Charles Darwin provided for organic evolution.
State four features of Darwin’s theoretical model of evolution.
Describe two ways in which Darwin’s theory of evolution impacted developmental psychology.
Describe the nature of early comparative psychology and cite one example of later research that improved upon this early work.
Explain how the evolutionary emphasis on adaptation influenced psychology.
Explain the way in which evolutionary theory might inform us about the differences we observe between individuals.
Among the major social reform movements of the nineteenth century, cite two that were relevant to women.
Cite two examples that show that people held deeply entrenched beliefs about demonology.
Explain how rationalist philosophers damaged the credibility of witchcraft.
Explain how Mesmer’s magnetic theory is consistent with a naturalistic view of mental disorders.
Contrast Philippe Pinel’s approach to mental disorders with that of Benjamin Rush.

Practice Quizzes

Resources

Influence Of Evolutionary Theory On Psychology

www.apa.org/science/about/psa/2009/05/sci-brief.aspx

The May 2009 Psychological Science Agenda resource on the website of the American Psychological Association is a collection of personal commentary from scientists and philosophers on the influence of evolutionary theory on psychology.

Angell, J. R. (1909). The influence of Darwin on psychology. Psychological Review, 16(3), 152–169.

An early commentary on Darwin’s influence.

Boakes, R. A. (1984). From Darwin to behaviourism: Psychology and the minds of animals. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Outlines attempts to understand connections between animal and human behavior in psychological research programs from the late 1800s through the mid-1900s.

Dewsbury, D. A. (2000). Issues in comparative psychology at the dawn of the 20th century. American Psychologist, 55(7), 750–753.

Identifies conceptual and experimental issues in the comparative psychology of the early 1900s that shaped the direction of the field throughout the twentieth century.

Glickman, S. E. (1992). Some thoughts on the evolution of comparative psychology. In S. Koch & D. E. Leary (Eds.), A century of psychology as a science (pp. 738–782). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Describes the experimental study of animal behavior at the turn of the twentieth century in the context of intellectual differences that existed between Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace (who independently conceived the theory of evolution through natural selection).

Johnston, T. D. (2003). Three pioneers of comparative psychology in America, 1843–1890: Lewis H. Morgan, John Bascom, and Joseph LeConte. History of Psychology, 6(2), 14–51.

Enlightening article that provides a more in-depth picture of the origins of comparative psychology in the United States than typically offered in introductory history textbooks.

Plotkin, H. (2004). Evolutionary thought in psychology: A brief history. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

Outlines the history of evolutionary thinking in psychology from Lamarck and Darwin through the present.

Warden, C. J. (1927). The historical development of comparative psychology. Psychological Review 34(2), 135–168.

Thorough description of the philosophical and scientific events, theories, and individuals influential in the development of comparative psychology from the sixteenth century through psychological experimentation in the late 1800s and early 1900s.

Wilm, E. C. (1925). The theories of instinct: A study in the history of psychology. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Extracts ideas about instinct from the writings of Western philosophers from the Pre-Socratics through Charles Darwin.

Contemporary Scholarship On Evolutionary Perspectives On Behavior

Contemporary research in the area of evolutionary psychology has been increasing rapidly. The titles below are a sample of journal publications and handbooks relevant to this blossoming area.

Journal of Evolutionary Psychology
Evolution and Cognition
Behavioral Ecology
Brain Behavior and Evolution
Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences
Evolutionary Psychology
Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology
Journal of Cultural and Evolutionary Psychology
Frontiers in Evolutionary Neuroscience

Buss, D. M. (Ed.). (2016). The handbook of evolutionary psychology, Volume 1: Foundations. (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Introduces the reader to theory and methods that form the framework for contemporary scientific inquiry concerning the relationships between evolution and human behavior. Topical chapters address psychological processes that have been the subject of study through an evolutionary lens (e.g., human mating).

Buss, D. M. (Ed.). (2016). The handbook of evolutionary psychology, Volume 2: Integrations. (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Outlines contemporary research programs in evolutionary psychology (e.g., interpersonal aspects of behavior).

Crawford, C., & Krebs, D. L. (1998). Handbook of evolutionary psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Chapters survey topics of interest in evolutionary psychology, such as sex differences, prosocial behavior, and psychopathology.

Dunbar, R. I. M., & Barrett, L. (Eds.). (2007). The Oxford handbook of evolutionary psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

A survey of theory and research that characterizes evolutionary psychology in a style that seems suited to both advanced and novice students of the field.

Geher, G. (2014). Evolutionary psychology 101. New York: Springer.

Surveys evolutionary psychology for an undergraduate audience new to the area, including research topics within the field and controversies that this perspective has raised.

Humanitarian Reform

Use the resources below to further study the shifting views on the nature of incarceration and the treatment of women, children, and people with mental illness or impairment.

Deutsch, A. (1937). The mentally ill in America: A history of their care and treatment. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Doran, & Company.

Considered a classic survey of the humanitarian movement in the United States, with chapters covering an array of topics: colonial treatment of the mentally ill, the influence of Benjamin Rush, moral treatment, Dorothea Dix, and the mental hygiene movement.

Harris, J. C. (2003). Pinel orders the chains removed from the insane at Bicêtre. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60(5), 442.

Interesting article about Charles Louis-Muller’s famous 1849 painting, Pinel Orders the Chains Removed from the Insane at Bicêtre, and its connection to Pinel’s humanitarian work.

Harris, J. C. (2003). Pinel orders the chains removed from the insane at Bicêtre. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60(5), 442.

Interesting article about Charles Louis-Muller’s famous 1849 painting, Pinel Orders the Chains Removed from the Insane at Bicêtre, and its connection to Pinel’s humanitarian work.

Rothman, D. J. (1971). The discovery of the asylum: Social order and disorder in the new republic. Glenville, IL: Scott, Foresman & Company.

Explores the Jacksonian era in American history as a time when people first began to look to social institutions (rather than families) to care for the indigent, individuals who perpetrated crimes, and individuals with mental illness.

American Public Health Association. (2006). “I tell what I have seen”: The reports of asylum reformer Dorothea Dix, 1843. American Journal of Public Health, 94(4), 622–625.
Bockoven, J. S. (1956). Moral treatment in American psychiatry. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 124(2), 167–194.
Ginzberg, L. D. (1990). Women and the work of benevolence: Morality, politics, and class in the nineteenth-century United States. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Grob, G. N. (1994). The mad among us: A history of the care of America’s mentally ill. New York: Maxwell Macmillan International.
Grob, G. N. (1983). Mental illness and American society, 1875–1940. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Morrissey, J. P., & Goldman, H. H. (1986). Care and treatment of the mentally ill in the United States: Historical developments and reforms. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 484, 12–27.
Ness, I. (2004). Encyclopedia of American social movements. Armonk, NY: Sharpe Reference.
Noll, S., & Trent, J. W., Jr. (2004). Mental retardation in America: A historical reader. New York: New York University Press.
Weber, L. (1971). The contributions of Benjamin Rush to the mental health movement in the early 19th century. Psychiatric Forum, 2(2), 14–21.

Related Resources

Evolutionary Theory

The resources below provide starting points to obtain basic knowledge or to pursue more advanced information on Charles Darwin and evolutionary theory.

Online Resources: Evolutionary Theory • Charles Darwin

http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/home.php

Understanding Evolution is a website created by the University of California Museum of Paleontology with support provided by the National Science Foundation and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. Its audience is students (all grade and university levels) and instructors who have little to some knowledge about all things evolution (or those who need a refresher from high school or college courses). Its sections titled Evolution 101, Teaching Materials, and Resource Library offer introductory material on all things evolution: genetics, the mechanisms of evolution, misconceptions about evolution, and a sampling of relevant news items.

https://dbms.queensu.ca/faculty/forsdyke_donald_r/online_education_resources/videolectures_and_evolution_academy

The Department of Biomedical Molecular Sciences in the School of Medicine at Queen’s University (Ontario, Canada) produces the Forsdyke Evolution Academy—a series of lectures and videos hosted on YouTube and Vimeo. Among the topics relevant to history of psychology are George Romanes and Francis Galton.

www.darwinproject.ac.uk/

The Darwin Correspondence Project is a product of researchers in the United Kingdom (Cambridge University Library) and the United States. One of its major benefits is to provide access to Darwin’s private thoughts about his life and works—through photographic images, an interactive timeline of key events, recorded interviews with evolutionary scholars, and the roughly 9,000 letters that Darwin exchanged with others. Also of interest are two learning modules that use his correspondence to illustrate the many facets of science that interested Darwin (including one on Instinct and the Evolution of Mind) and to illustrate his private thoughts on human nature.

http://darwin-online.org.uk/

The Darwin Online website provides access to a large, searchable collection of images, Darwin’s private papers and manuscripts, all of Darwin’s publications, and a bibliography of his works. The site is the work of scholars and contributions from several institutions (e.g., University of Cambridge, American Philosophical Society, and Charles Darwin Trust).

www.evolutionsociety.org/

The Society for the Study of Evolution promotes scholarship in organic evolution and includes links to resources for instructors and students.

http://eseb.org/

The website for the European Society for Evolutionary Biology promotes interaction among evolutionary biologists and others interested in evolution. Includes helpful links to the debate concerning creationism and evolution and to other relevant societies across the globe.

www.hbes.com/

The website for the Human Behavior and Evolution Society provides many links to societies, journals, and institutes relevant to human behavior and evolution.

Print Resources: Evolution

The journal Evolution: International Journal of Organic Evolution is the official journal of the Society for the Study of Evolution. Its coverage includes biology, genetics and ecology but articles are also highly relevant to evolutionary perspectives on human behavior.

The Journal of Evolutionary Biology, the official journal of the European Society for Evolutionary Biology, is a forum for scholarship in the evolutionary process, including evolutionary perspectives on human behavior.

Evolution and Human Behavior reports scholarship in human behavior, cognition, and culture from an evolutionary perspective. It is the official journal of the Human Behavior and Evolution Society.

Chapter 10 Review Questions

Review Questions From The Book

Psychophysics explores the relationships between the properties of stimuli as measured by a physical scale and the psychological or subjective impressions of those stimuli. List and describe two extreme positions about the nature of the relationship of experience to objects in the world.
How did early psychophysics challenge the two extremes referred to in the previous question?
Define the term threshold.
List some of the findings that came out of Weber’s work on difference thresholds.
Write both the Weber formula and the Fechner formula and explain their meanings.
Briefly describe three of Fechner’s psychophysical methods.
Briefly explain Helmholtz’s approach to the understanding of color vision and his approach to audition.
Outline four general characteristics of Wundt’s thought.
Give two examples of representative research coming out of Wundt’s laboratory.
How did Wundt define psychology?
How did Wundt distinguish between perception and apperception?
Briefly explain Wundt’s tridimensional theory of feeling.
What did Wundt mean by creative synthesis?
What role did Emil Kraepelin play in the study of psychiatric disorders?
Briefly outline Lightner Witmer’s contributions to the formal development of clinical psychology.

Additional Review Questions

Describe the concept of a just noticeable difference.
Scientists require methods in order to answer questions. Define psychophysics and explain to what extent it provides the science of psychology with methods.
Explain why Weber’s work disproves Immanuel Kant’s belief that psychological processes cannot be quantified.
To what extent did Fechner’s work contribute to our understanding of the mind–body problem?
List the set of experimental methods that derive from Fechner’s work.
Identify and briefly explain three significant advances in the study of perceptual processes during the 1800s.
Explain why the psychology that Helmholtz envisioned was grounded in physiology.
Briefly describe the Young–Helmholtz trichromatic theory of color vision.
How does the existence of Wundt’s laboratory impact the credibility of psychology?
Explain Völkerpsychologie.
Define voluntarism (voluntaristic psychology) and describe how it differs from the notion of free will.
Describe two key concepts in Wundt’s system of thought.
Identify two individuals, along with their major achievements, who trained under Wundt.
Define an element in terms of Wundt’s view of mind and body.

Practice Quizzes

Resources

See select resources below for further study of topics relevant to the nature of psychology in nineteenth-century Europe: (1) philosophical influences on individuals who contributed to the founding of experimental psychology; (2) connections between the physical sciences and the study of mental phenomena; and (3) the nature of German universities.

De Kock, L. (2014). Voluntarism in early psychology: The case of Hermann von Helmholtz. History of Psychology, 17(2), 105–128.
Dobson, V., & Bruce, D. (1972). The German university and the development of experimental psychology. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences. 8(2), 204–207.
Green, C., Shore, M., & Teo, T. (2001). The transformation of psychology: Influences of 19th century philosophy, technology, and natural science. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Leary, D. E. (1980). German idealism and the development of psychology in the 19th century. Journal of the History of Philosophy, 18(3), 299–317.
Leary, D. E. (1978). The philosophical development of the conception of psychology in Germany, 1780–1850. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 14(2), 113–121.
Woodward, W. R., & Ash, M. G. (Eds.). (1982). The problematic science: Psychology in 19th century thought. New York: Praeger.

Physiology • Hermann Von Helmholtz

See the select resources below for further study on the importance of physiological research to psychology and the importance of Hermann von Helmholtz’s work to many fields of science:

Cahan, D. (Eds.). (1993). Hermann von Helmholtz and the foundations of 19th century science. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Canales, J. (2001). Exit the frog, enter the human: Physiology and experimental psychology in 19th century astronomy. British Journal for the History of Science, 34(2), 173–198.
Turner, R. S. (1977). Hermann von Helmholtz and the empiricist vision. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 13(1), 48–58.

Gustav Fechner • Psychophysics

Gescheider, G. A. (1997). Psychophysics: The fundamentals. (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Clear, readable explanation of psychophysical methods that is useful for readers whose knowledge of this area is limited.

Heidelberger, M. (2004). Nature from within: Gustav Theodor Fechner and his psychophysical worldview. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.

Describes Fechner’s writings in their context beyond the field of psychology: their importance to the history and philosophy of science. It is a very valuable book in that it helps readers to appreciate the significance of Fechner beyond psychophysical methods described in introductory psychology courses (e.g., the impact of his work on the consciousness debate among philosophers in the 1900s).

Meischner-Metge, A. (2010). Gustav Theodor Fechner: Life and work in the mirror of his diary. History of Psychology, 13(4), 411–423.

Provides an interesting view of Fechner’s goals for work on psychophysics and his worldview garnered from a very personal source: a collection of his diary entries.

Michell, J. (2009). The psychometricians’ fallacy: Too clever by half? British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 62(1), 41–55.

Enlightening article that challenges the assumptions that underlie psychometrics. Suited to an audience familiar with the nature of quantification in science but very useful in reminding readers that important philosophical and mathematical issues underlie the measurement of psychological phenomena.

Murray, D. J. (1993). A perspective for viewing the history of psychophysics. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 16(1), 115–137.

Describes two ways in which Fechner conceptualized psychophysics: inner and outer psychophysics. Three distinct research programs (e.g., signal detection theory) that emerged in later psychology from these two types of psychophysics are outlined.

Savage, C. W. (1970). The measurement of sensation: A critique of perceptual psychophysics. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Provides explanations of Fechner’s work from a philosophical perspective.

Solomon, J. A. (Ed.). (2011). Fechner’s legacy in psychology: 150 years of elementary psychophysics. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill.

Commentary on select aspects of Gustav Fechner’s work that is well suited to readers who are familiar with the nature of Fechner’s contributions and the basics of psychophysics.

Woodward, W. R. (1972). Fechner’s panpsychism: A scientific solution to the mind-body problem. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 8(4), 367–386.

Considers an important part of Fechner’s thinking less popular than his contributions to experimental psychology and research methods (psychophysical methods): his panpsychism (doctrine that everything material has individual consciousness).

S. S. Stevens (1906–1973) is an American psychologist who, among his other accomplishments, wrote several publications on the nature of measurement, and the theory and method of psychophysics. These publications and the literature that they generated are important to understanding Fechner’s impact on psychology. See select resources below:

Stevens, S. S. (1975). Psychophysics: Introduction to its perceptual, neural, and social prospects. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons.
Stevens, S. S. (1961). To honor Fechner and repeal his law. Science, 133(3446), 80–86.
Stevens S. S. (1958). Problems and methods of psychophysics. Psychological Bulletin, 55(4), 177–196.

Wilhelm Wundt

Scholarship about Wilhelm Wundt has blossomed since the 1980s and his ideas, experimental work, and influence have been the subject of much interpretation—and re-interpretation—from both within psychology and areas external to psychology. Resources below represent a small sample from this literature.

Araujo, S. F. (2016). Wundt and the philosophical foundations of psychology. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International.
Blumenthal, A. L. (1975). A reappraisal of Wilhelm Wundt. American Psychologist, 30(1), 1081–1088.
Boring, E. G. (1953). A history of introspection. Psychological Bulletin, 50(3), 169–189.
Costall, A. (2006). ‘Introspectionism’ and the mythical origins of scientific psychology. Consciousness and Cognition, 15(4), 634–654.
Danziger, K. (1983). Origins and basic principles of Wundt’s Völkerpsychologie. British Journal of Social Psychology, 22(4), 303–313.
Farr, R. M. (1983). Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) and the origins of psychology as an experimental and social science. British Journal of Social Psychology, 22(4), 289–301.
Greenwood, J. D. (2003). Wundt, Völkerpsychologie, and experimental social psychology. History of Psychology, 6(1), 70–88.
Hatfield, G. (1997). Wundt and psychology as science: Disciplinary transformations. Perspectives on Science, 5(3), 349–382.
Kroker, K. (2002). The progress of introspection in America, 1896–1938. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, 34(1), 77–108.
Lyons, W. (1983). The transformation of introspection. British Journal of Social Psychology, 22(4), 327–342.
Nicolas, S., & Ferrand, L. (1999). Wundt’s laboratory at Leipzig in 1891. History of Psychology, 2(3), 194–203.
Rieber, R. W., & Robinson, D. K. (Eds.). (2001). Wilhelm Wundt in history: The making of a scientific psychology. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
Wong, W. (2009). Retracing the footsteps of Wilhelm Wundt: Explorations in the disciplinary frontiers of psychology and in Völkerpsychologie. History of Psychology, 12(4), 229–265.

Chapter 11 Review Questions

Review Questions From The Book

Contrast Titchener and Brentano with respect to methodology.
Give a typical example of a type of laboratory problem that might have been explored in Titchener’s laboratory.
Outline Titchener’s distinction between primary and secondary attention. Do you regard the distinction as useful?
Briefly review Titchener’s theory of meaning.
What were some of Titchener’s criticisms of the James–Lange theory of emotion?
What was Washburn’s “motor theory of consciousness” and how did her ideas about consciousness differ from Titchener’s theory?
How did Brentano distinguish between inner perception and inner observation?
Briefly describe Stumpf’s contributions to the psychology of music. How did his work on tone psychology differ from Wundt’s ideas?
Outline two of Georg Elias Müller’s contributions to psychology.
Define mental set and show how it plays a role in problem solving.
Why was the work at the Würzburg school on imageless thought so crucial to the psychologies of Wundt and Titchener?
List five ways that Ebbinghaus influenced the field of psychology.
Briefly describe two important experimental findings coming out of Ebbinghaus’s work on memory.

Additional Review Questions

List the pieces of psychological science that rapidly take shape in a few years after the establishment of Wundt’s laboratory.
Identify the individual who is most responsible for transplanting Wundt’s experimental psychology to the United States from Germany. Cite two specific ways he accomplishes this.
Describe Titchener’s thoughts on the proper subject matter for psychology.
Identify and describe Titchener’s beliefs on the proper methods for psychology.
Describe the connection between chemistry and the basic elements of experience in Titchener’s psychology.
Identify three psychological processes that Titchener explored in his research laboratory.
Why did Titchener consider primary attention to be involuntary and secondary attention to be voluntary?
How would Titchener have responded to the task of classifying emotions?
Cite examples of Washburn’s interest in consciousness, in either humans or animals.
Summarize Brentano’s definition of “empirical” as it related to his act psychology.
Explain Brentano’s distinction between introspection and retrospection.
Describe the similarity in the approach to psychology that both Stumpf and Brentano advocated.
Summarize Stumpf’s interest in musicology.
Summarize Müller’s work in memory and association.
Cite two examples that illustrate how Külpe applied experimental psychology to higher thought processes.
Describe two important ways that Ebbinghaus contributed to psychology.
Identify Ebbinghaus’s contribution to mental testing.
Name and describe Ebbinghaus’s famous graphic depiction of memory.

Practice Quizzes

Resources

Psychological Instrumentation And Laboratories

See select resources below for material on an interesting piece of history of psychology: the creation of laboratories and instruments to study mental processes. Psychologists needed these new tools to study their subjects—and, equally important, to solidify the identity of this new scientific discipline.

Cattell, J. M. (1928). Early psychological laboratories. Science, 67, 543–548.

Enjoyable piece by an eminent American psychologist who writes about early laboratories from a unique perspective—his employment in one of them. His descriptions of his colleagues, e.g., Wilhelm Wundt, give the reader an intimate view of this period in psychology’s history.

Benjamin, L. T., Jr. (2000). The psychology laboratory at the turn of the 20th century. American Psychologist, 55(3), 318–321.
Evans, R. B. (2000). Psychological instruments at the turn of the century. American Psychologist, 55(3), 322–325.
Murray, F. S., & Rowe, F. B. (1979). Psychological laboratories in the United States prior to 1900. Teaching of Psychology, 6(1), 19–21.
Sokal, M. M., Davis, A. B., & Merzbach, U. C. (1976). Laboratory instruments in the history of psychology. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 12(1), 59–64.

Resources For Other Aspects Of Early Psychology

www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/

The National Academy of Sciences website displays Biographical Memoirs that have been published since 1877. See the biography for Margaret Floy Washburn here.

Davis, R. C. (1936). American psychology, 1800–1885. Psychological Review, 43(6), 471–493.
Evans, R. B. (1972). E. B. Titchener and his lost system. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 8(2), 168–180.
Fuchs, A. H. (2000). Contributions of American mental philosophers to psychology in the United States. History of Psychology, 3(1), 3–19.
Goodwin, C. J. (1985). On the origins of Titchener’s experimentalists. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 21(4), 383–389.
Huemer, W., & Landerer, C. (2010). Mathematics, experience and laboratories: Herbart’s and Brentano’s role in the rise of scientific psychology. History of the Human Sciences, 23(3), 72–94.

Jacquette, D. (Ed.). (2004). The Cambridge companion to Brentano. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Comprehensive overview of Franz Brentano’s philosophy. Chapters on the mind, his concept of intentionality, and epistemology are helpful for readers in understanding his complex philosophy in the context of the history of psychology.

Jastrow, J. (1943). American psychology in the ‘80s and ‘90s. Psychology Review, 50(1), 65–67.

Short, enjoyable piece that provides readers with a view of the activities important in early American psychology from the perspective of a psychologist reflecting upon his role in these activities.

Morrison, J. C. (1970). Husserl and Brentano on intentionality. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 31(1), 27–46.

An in-depth exploration of intentionality—a central concept in the writings of both Franz Brentano (act psychology) and Edmund Husserl (philosophical phenomenology).

Lindenfeld, D. (1978). Oswald Külpe and the Würzburg school. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 14(2), 132–141.
McAllister, L. L. (1970). Franz Brentano and intentional existence. Journal of the History of Philosophy, 8(4), 423–430.
Mijuskovic, B. (1978). Brentano’s theory of consciousness. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 38(3), 315–324.
Proctor, R. W., & Evans, R. (2014). E. B. Titchener, women psychologists, and the experimentalists. The American Journal of Psychology, 127(4), 501–526.

Rice, C. E. (2000). Uncertain genesis: The academic institutionalization of American psychology in 1900. American Psychology, 55(5), 488–491.

Detailed picture of how psychology—new to the U.S. at the turn of the century—slowly became established as a distinct academic field of study in American universities. Very valuable in helping readers to understand that before American universities offered courses in scientific psychology, they offered programs of study in moral or mental philosophy.

Rancurello, A. C. (1968). A study of Franz Brentano: His psychological standpoint and his significance in the history of psychology. New York: Academic Press.
Spilka, R. (1987). Religion and science in early American psychology. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 15(1), 3–9.
Sprung, L. (2010). History of modern psychology in Germany in 19th- and 20th-century thought and society. International Journal of Psychology, 36, 364–376.

Viney, W., & Burlingame-Lee, L. (2003). Margaret Floy Washburn: A quest for the harmonies in the context of a rigorous scientific framework. In G. A. Kimble & M. Wertheimer (Eds.), Portraits of pioneers in psychology (Vol. 5, pp. 73–88). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum; Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Two resources below provide readers with a good starting point for deeper information about experimentation in the discipline’s infancy:

Danziger, K. (1990). Constructing the subject: Historical origins of psychological research. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Morawski, J. G. (Ed.). (1988). The rise of experimentation in American psychology. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Chapter 12 Review Questions

Review Questions From The Book

List and briefly describe six general characteristics of William James’s philosophy.
What advice might James give to someone who wishes to get rid of an undesirable habit?
List five characteristics that James found with respect to the so-called stream of thought.
What were the constituents of the self, according to William James?
Briefly explain James’s concept of self-esteem and how self-esteem might be improved.
Explain and criticize the James–Lange theory of emotion.
What did James mean by the transiency of instincts? Give an example.
Distinguish between primary and secondary memory in James’s psychology.
List five of G. Stanley Hall’s major achievements.
How did Hall’s book Senescence anticipate contemporary developments in the psychology and sociology of aging?
Outline the essential features of John Dewey’s arguments in his classic article “The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology.”
List three characteristics of functionalism according to James R. Angell.
In what way did James McKeen Cattell contribute to the scientific stature and visibility of psychology?
Outline three major contributions to psychology made by Robert Sessions Woodworth.
What was the variability hypothesis and how did Leta Stetter Hollingworth study it?
According to Mary Calkins, how might structuralism and functionalism be reconciled?
Discuss three major criticisms of functionalism and explain how a functionalist might respond to each criticism.

Additional Review Questions

Provide a succinct statement of the fundamental difference between structuralism and functionalism.
How did The Varieties of Religious Experience inform James’s psychology?
Identify the implications of James’s pluralism for his psychology.
Among the several themes that run through James’s writing, a few of them are clearly grounded in philosophy. Identify and briefly describe them.
To what extent can James’s medical training be seen in the themes that run through James’s writing?
Explain why James preferred the term “radical empiricism” for his philosophy.
State James’s definition of psychology.
List and briefly describe James’s work in six areas of psychological phenomena.
Identify and describe two of Münsterberg’s major contributions to psychology.
Briefly cite two of G. Stanley Hall’s achievements that impacted the practice and profession of psychology.
Identify and describe two lines of functionalist research that significantly impacted our understanding of children.
Describe the influence of (evolutionary) adaptation in the work of John Dewey.
Evaluate Angell’s three tenets of functionalism against the structuralist school of psychology.
Describe the brand of functionalism practiced at Columbia University.
Explain how Cattell’s Psychological Corporation exemplifies functionalist thought.
Describe functional autonomy as it applies to Woodworth’s work.
Define Mary Calkins’s concept of personalism and its relevance to early American psychology.
Explain the way in which Leta Stetter Hollingworth experimentally tested the popular belief that males are physically and psychologically more variable than females at birth.
Briefly trace the development of the first usable intelligence test.

Practice Quizzes

Resources

William James

The information available on William James is extensive—both within and external to psychology. Select resources below represent a starting point for further research.

http://society.wjsociety.org/

The site for the William James Society is a good place to stay abreast of scholarship on the life and works of this important figure in psychology. An extensive list of links to online resources, other societies, and journals is helpful.

William James Studies is an online publication of the William James Society. An extensive bibliography of material on James is useful, as is an impressive online exhibition of a collection of physical items (e.g., photos, documents) held at the Houghton Library at Harvard University, titled Life is in the Transitions, William James, 1842–1910.

Cooper, W. E. (1990). William James’ theory of mind. Journal of the History of Philosophy, 28(4), 571–593.
Croce, P. J. (2010). Reaching beyond Uncle William: A century of William James in theory and in life. History of Psychology, 13(4), 351–377.
Evans, R. B. (1990). William James, “The Principles of Psychology,” and experimental psychology. The American Journal of Psychology, 103(4), 433–447.

Hall, R. A. S. (2009). The polytheism of William James. The Pluralist, 4(1), 18–32.

Seems suited to readers trained in philosophy but helpful in seeing James’s philosophical and religious sides.

Mandler, G. (1990) William James and the construction of emotion. Psychological Science, 1(3), 179–180.
Palencik, J. T. (2007). William James and the psychology of emotion: From 1884 to the present. Transactions of the Charles S. Peirce Society, 43(4), 769–786.

Putman, R. A. (Ed.). (1997). The Cambridge companion to William James. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Chapters seem suited for an audience who are familiar with James’s writings.

Richardson, R. D. (2006). William James: In the maelstrom of American modernism. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Biography suited to an audience new to James and his works.

Viney, W. (2001). The radical empiricism of William James and philosophy of history. History of Psychology, 4(3), 211–227.

American Functionalism

www.yorku.ca/christo/

Dr. Christopher Green maintains a website with links to two informative videos he produced on the functionalist school of psychology, titled Toward a School of Their Own and A School of Their Own. The videos provide a clear narrative of the antecedents to American functionalism, its development, and the impact this school had on psychology’s growth.

Angell, J. R. (1907). The province of functional psychology. Psychological Review, 14(2), 61–91.

Statement of shared goals among American psychologists whose practices and beliefs defined a school of thought termed functionalism.

Backe, A. (2001). John Dewey and early Chicago functionalism. History of Psychology, 4(4), 323–340.

Bredo, E. (1998). Evolution, psychology, and John Dewey’s critique of the reflex arc concept. Elementary School Journal, 98(5), 447–465.

A clear explanation of Dewey’s analysis of the reflex arc concept.

Cochran, M. (Ed.). (2010). The Cambridge companion to Dewey. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Overview of Dewey’s philosophy, including ideas relevant to psychology.

Green, C. D. (2009). Darwinian theory, functionalism, and the first American psychological revolution. American Psychologist, 64(2), 75–83.

The author describes (1) functionalism’s intellectual connections to evolutionary theory, (2) the role functionalism played in launching fields of applied psychology (e.g., clinical, child and developmental psychology, and (3) how functionalism helped to shape the later school of thought known as behaviorism.

Greenwood, J. D. (2008). Mechanism, purpose and progress: Darwin and early American psychology. History of the Human Sciences, 21(1), 103–126.

Examines specific implications of evolutionary theory for the practice of functionalism and behaviorism.

Manicas, P. C. (2002). John Dewey and American psychology. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 32(3), 267–294.

Menand, L. (2001). The metaphysical club: A story of ideas in America. New York: Farrar, Straus, & Giroux.

Nonfictional work about a group of influential Americans who lived during the time period between the Civil War and the end of World War I. The story of the connections among Chauncey Wright, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., William James, Charles Sanders Peirce, and John Dewey provides rich background material for understanding the intellectual climate in the United States at the time that American functionalism developed.

Pragmatism

A twentieth-century American philosophical movement that is relevant to history of psychology as an epistemology that heavily influenced individuals such as William James and John Dewey.

www.iupui.edu/~peirce/index.html

The website for the Peirce Edition Project at Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis is a good starting point for information about the founder of American pragmatism.

James, W. (1995). Pragmatism: A new name for some old ways of thinking. New York: Dover Publications.

First published in 1907, this is William James’s work on a method of ascertaining truth and reality, of arriving at certainty, known as pragmatism. James describes the relationship between this epistemology and metaphysics, common sense, humanism, and religion.

Shook, J. R., & Margolis, J. (Eds.). (2006). A companion to pragmatism. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

Suited for an audience familiar with both early and contemporary pragmatism. However, chapters on Charles Sanders Peirce and pragmatic themes in the writings of William James, John Dewey, George H. Mead, and Jane Addams are useful for history of psychology students.

Applied Fields Of Psychology

Use resources below as starting points to learn more about the subfields of psychology that emerged from individuals who accepted and practiced the tenets of American functionalism.

Bradbury, D. E. (1937). The contribution of the child study movement to child psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 34(1), 21–38.
Brooks-Gunn, J., & Johnson, A. D. (2006). G. Stanley Hall’s contribution to science, practice and policy: The child study, parent education, and child welfare movements. History of Psychology, 9(3), 247–258.
Bunn, G. C. (1997). The lie detector, Wonder Woman, and liberty: The life and work of William Moulton Marston. History of the Human Sciences, 10(1), 91–119.
Dewsbury, D. A. (2013). Comparative psychology in historical perspective. In D. K. Freedheim & I. B. Weiner (Eds.), Handbook of psychology: History of psychology (Vol. 1, 2nd ed., pp. 79–99). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons.
Dewsbury, D. A. (2000). Issues in comparative psychology at the dawn of the 20th century. American Psychologist, 55(7), 750–753.

Fuchs, A. H. (1998). Psychology and ‘The Babe’. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 34(2), 153–165.

Entertaining article that details what may be the epitome of applied psychology: the attempt to quantify, in a psychological laboratory, the athletic prowess of one of history’s greatest baseball players, George Herman “Babe” Ruth.

Johnston, T. D. (2003). Three pioneers of comparative psychology in America, 1843–1890: Lewis H. Morgan, John Bascom, and Joseph LeConte. History of Psychology, 6(1), 14–51.
Klein, A. G. (2000). Fitting the school to the child: The mission of Leta Stetter Hollingworth, founder of gifted education. Roeper Review: A Journal on Gifted Education, 23(2), 97–103.
McReynolds, P. (1987). Lightner Witmer: Little-known founder of clinical psychology. American Psychologist, 42(9), 849–858.

Risse, G. B. (1976). Vocational guidance during the Depression: Phrenology versus applied psychology. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 12 (2), 10–140.

Enlightening article that paints a picture of the widespread movement to use scientific principles—even questionable ones such as phrenology—to solve practical social problems in the early part of the twentieth century.

Routh, D. K. (1996). Lightner Witmer and the first 100 years of clinical psychology. American Psychologist, 51(3), 244–247.
Strunk, O. (1972). The self-psychology of Mary Whiton Calkins. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 8(2), 196–203.
Thompson, D., Hogan, J. D., & Clark, P. M. (2012). Developmental psychology in historical perspective. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.

Testing Movement

The literature on the history of psychological testing in the United States in the early twentieth century is voluminous. This movement is a unique example of the extent to which powerful external factors combine—in this case, politics, the economy, and society—and affect psychological theory, research, and practice. Resources below should be useful to readers who wish to explore this topic in greater detail.

Boake, C. (2002). From the Binet-Simon to the Wechsler-Bellevue: Tracing the history of intelligence testing. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 24(3), 383–405.
Carson, J. (2014). Mental testing in the early twentieth century: Internationalizing the mental testing story. History of Psychology, 17(3), 249–255.

Cianciolo, A. T., & Sternberg, R. J. (2004). Intelligence: A brief history. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

Overview of the nature and measurement of intelligence, and research on genetic and environmental foundations, and group differences.

Cravens, H. (1992). A scientific project locked in time: The Terman Genetic Studies of Genius, 1920s–1950s. American Psychologist, 47(2), 183–189.

Fancher, R. E. (1985). The intelligence men: Makers of the IQ controversy. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.

Historical survey of the concept of intelligence that includes chapters on the nature–nurture controversy, and the development and growth of intelligence testing.

Gibby, R. E., & Zickar, M. J. (2008). A history of the early days of personality testing in American industry: An obsession with adjustment. History of Psychology, 11(3), 164–184.

Details the first use of personality tests to assess the overall emotional well-being of job applicants.

Herrnstein, R. J., & Murray, C. (1994). The Bell curve: Intelligence and class structure in American life. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Impactful work that addresses differences in intellectual capacity among individuals and groups and the meaning of these differences in the larger contexts of politics and society.

Mayrhauser, R. T. (1989). Making intelligence functional: Walter Dill Scott and applied psychological testing in World War I. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 25(1), 60–72.
Mülberger, A. (2014). The need for contextual approaches to the history of mental testing. History of Psychology, 17(3), 177–186.

Murdoch, S. (2007). IQ: A smart history of a failed idea. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons.

Helpful survey of the influence that the intelligence quotient has in our lives and the history behind this powerful concept.

Samelson, F. (1977). World War I intelligence testing and the development of psychology. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 13(3), 274–282.
Snyderman, M., & Herrnstein, R. J. (1983). Intelligence tests and the Immigration Act of 1924. American Psychologist, 38(9), 986–995.
Sokal, M. (Ed.). (1987). Psychological testing and American society 1890–1930. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

Emerging Psychological Contributions From Women And People Of Color

www.feministvoices.com/

Benjamin, L. T., Jr. (1980). Women in psychology: Biography and autobiography. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 5(1), 140–144.

Lists approximately one hundred sources of biographical and autobiographical material on eminent women in psychology.

O’Connell, A. N., & Russo, N. F. (Eds.). (1990). Women in psychology: A bio-bibliographic sourcebook. New York: Greenwood Press.

Each chapter summarizes one individual’s biography and contributions to psychology.

Scarborough, E., & Furumoto, L. (1987). Untold lives: The first generation of American women psychologists. New York: Columbia University Press.

Guthrie, R. V. (2004). Even the rat was white: A historical view of psychology. (2nd ed.). New York: Pearson.

Williams, R. L. (2008). History of the Association of Black Psychologists: Profiles of outstanding black psychologists. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse.

Autobiographical and biographical material on over forty distinguished individuals (some of whom participated in the founding of the Association of Black Psychologists) and their professional achievements.

Chapter 13 Review Questions

Review Questions From The Book

Briefly outline some of the important intellectual antecedents of behaviorism.
Why was the concept of action at a distance, or psychical reflex, troublesome to Pavlov?
What are the four temperament types included in Pavlov’s system?
Discuss Pavlov’s approach to experimental neurosis and specify the meaning of terms such as ultramaximal inhibition, equivalence phase, paradoxical phase, and ultraparadoxical phase.
In what sense can Thorndike be considered a functionalist and in what sense can he be considered a behaviorist?
Distinguish between Thorndike’s early law of effect and his later law of effect. Do you think he was correct in modifying the law of effect?
How did John B. Watson define psychology and what methods did he advocate?
Outline Watson and Rayner’s classic work on fear conditioning.
Describe Watson’s treatment of thinking. What criticisms can you offer of his approach?
Contrast Hull, Guthrie, Tolman, and Skinner with respect to their views on the subject of reinforcement.
Briefly explain the significance of the latent learning experiments.
What did Tolman mean by the expression intervening variable?
Contrast Skinner and Hull with respect to their views on the role of theory in science.
Discuss three applications of Skinner’s research.
Outline some of the contributions of behaviorism to applied psychology.

Additional Review Questions

Identify and briefly outline the Russian and American research programs that are antecedents of behaviorism.
Explain the importance of the reflex in Russian physiological research.
Trace the development of Pavlov’s unique insight that his psychical reflex was really two kinds of reflexes.
Describe Pavlov’s version of Galen’s humoral theory.
Describe two conditions Pavlov observed in his dogs that resulted when their nervous systems were severely stressed.
Describe the significance of the puzzle box in the history of psychology.
Explain Thorndike’s theory of learning known as connectionism.
What was the impetus for Watson’s 1913 behaviorist “manifesto”?
What did Watson believe the object of psychology should be?
What role does the environment play in Watson’s psychology?
Explain Watson’s position on the use of introspection in psychology.
Explain why Watson and Rayner considered the “Little Albert” study experimental proof of behaviorism.
Who is Percy W. Bridgman and what role does he play in the history of psychology?
List and define three characteristics of neobehaviorist thinking.
What does the “O” represent in S-O-R psychology?
Identify the neobehaviorist for whom reinforcement is most important. Cite an example to support your answer.
To what extent is the law of contiguity important in neobehaviorist thought?
Explain Tolman’s concept of molar behavior.
List three examples of an intervening variable according to Tolman.
Distinguish between Pavlovian (classical) conditioning and operant conditioning.
Explain why Skinner’s research parallels that of Thorndike.
To what extent was Skinner successful in generalizing his ideas from the laboratory to the real world? Cite two examples that support your position.

Practice Quizzes

Resources

B. F. Skinner

B. F. Skinner’s works are arguably among the most influential in psychology. His writings have provoked intense reactions from professionals in other academic fields and from individuals outside academics, as well. The resources below should provide a foundation for further study about Skinner and his impact.

www.bfskinner.org

The B. F. Skinner Foundation website is a resource for information about Skinner and his work. The site features Skinner’s Quote of the Day and digital archival collections that include publications, as well as audio, video and photographic material.

Chomsky, N. (1972). Psychology and ideology. Cognition, 1(1), 11–46.

In-depth critique of Skinner’s perspectives on human behavior and human freedom and dignity and the relationship between these issues and science and technology.

Dinsmoor, J. A. (1992). Setting the record straight: The social views of B. F. Skinner. American Psychologist, 47(11), 1454–1463.

Freedman, D. H. (2012). The perfected self. The Atlantic Monthly, 309(5), 42–48, 50–52.

Machlan, T. R. (1974). The pseudo-science of B. F. Skinner. New Rochelle, NY: Arlington House.

Criticism of Skinner’s use of science to promote political and social philosophies that have their roots in totalitarian thought of the twentieth century.

Morris, E. K., Smith, N. G., & Altus, D. E. (2005). B. F. Skinner’s contributions to applied behavior analysis. The Behavior Analyst, 28(2), 99–131.

Rutherford, A. (2015). A ‘visible scientist’: B. F. Skinner’s writings for the popular press. European Journal of Behavior Analysis, 5(2), 109–120.

Surveys material that Skinner published in newspapers and popular magazines from the 1930s through his death in 1990.

Rutherford, A. (2009). Beyond the box: B. F. Skinner’s technology of behavior from laboratory to life, 1950s–1970s. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Smith, L. D. (1992). On prediction and control: B. F. Skinner and the technological ideal of science. American Psychologist, 47(2), 216–223.
Smith, L. D., & Woodward, W. R. (Eds.). (1996). B. F. Skinner and behaviorism in American culture. Bethlehem, PA: Lehigh University Press.

Behaviorism • Neobehaviorism

www.behavior.org

The Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies is a forum for behavioral scientists to address problems in home, school, community and employment settings from a behavioral perspective (i.e., compatible with tenets of behaviorism). Several Help Centers offer links to resources (e.g., articles, journals, videos, and podcasts) relevant to understanding phenomena such as gambling, autism, parenting, and verbal behavior and language. A Help Center for Philosophy/History is especially helpful for history of psychology students.

Behavior and Philosophy is the official journal of the Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies. It is “devoted to the philosophical, metaphysical, and methodological foundations of the study of behavior, brain, and mind.” Articles seem suited to an audience familiar with the overlap among philosophy of psychology, philosophy of science, and behaviorism. However, the topics addressed (e.g., Skinner’s account of determinism) are relevant to the history of psychology.

The Behavior Analyst is a journal produced by the Association for Behavior Analysis International. Coverage is more contemporary than historical but students of history of psychology would benefit from theoretical articles on behavior analysis as well as articles on behaviorism as a philosophical perspective on human functioning.

The Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior is an official publication of the Society for the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. Its content is experimental research into behavioral principles but coverage does include publications concerning the history of behavioral topics (e.g., history of stimulus generalization research, retrospectives on John B. Watson).

Buckley, K. W. (1982). The selling of a psychologist: John Broadus Watson and the application of behavioral techniques to advertising. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 18(3), 207–221.
Chance, P. (1999). Thorndike’s puzzle boxes and the origins of the experimental analysis of behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 72(3), 433–440.

Greenwood, J. D. (2016). All the way up or all the way down? Some historical reflections on theories of psychological continuity. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 130(3), 205–214.

Surveys the history of theories concerning (1) whether cognitive (“higher order” thought) and associative (“lower order” thought) processes are continuous, and (2) human and animal psychology.

Mills, J. A. (1998). Control: A history of behavioral psychology. New York: New York University Press.
O’Donnell, J. M. (1985). The origins of behaviorism: American psychology, 1870–1920. New York: New York University Press.
Skinner, B. F. (1987). Whatever happened to psychology as the science of behavior? American Psychologist, 42(8), 780–786.

Skinner, B. F. (1963). Operant behavior. American Psychologist, 18(8), 503–515.

Clear explanation of operant learning from Skinner himself.

Skinner, B. F. (1966). What is the experimental analysis of behavior? Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 9(3), 213–218.

Clear statement of the features of a set of practices that Skinner developed. These practices are the foundation of what is now known as “behavior modification” and “behavior analysis.”

Russian Objective Psychology

www.infran.ru/index_eng.htm

The website for the Pavlov Institute of Physiology at the Russian Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, Russia. The institute continues the physiological studies that Pavlov conducted in areas of higher nervous system activity and sensory and visceral systems functioning. The site features text and images of Pavlov’s apartment (now a museum), and a laboratory in which Pavlov worked in Koltushi.

Clark, R. E. (2004). The classical origins of Pavlov’s conditioning. Integrative Physiological & Behavioral Science, 39(4), 279–294.

Outlines the history of the process of classical conditioning and its terminology in Russia and the United States.

Todes, D. P. (2014). Ivan Pavlov: A Russian life in science. New York: Oxford University Press.

Ushakova, T. N. (1997). Pavlov’s theory and Russian psychology. European Psychologist, 2(2), 97–101.

Short summary of Pavlov’s work concerning higher nervous system activity and the connections between physiology and psychology.

Windholz, G. (1992). Pavlov’s conceptualization of learning. The American Journal of Psychology, 105(3), 459–469.

Valuable article that provides information about Pavlov’s ideas and research to correct the misconception that only his work on classical conditioning is important to the history of psychology.

Logical Positivism

Resources below should assist readers in understanding logical positivism. It is an important philosophical position that influenced the philosophy of science beginning in the early twentieth century and eventually became a concern within psychology as well. Its application to science is often termed “operationism” or “operationalism.”

Feest, U. (2005). Operationism in psychology: What the debate is about, what the debate should be about. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 41(2), 131–149.
Grace, R. C. (2001). On the failure of operationism. Theory and Psychology, 11(1), 5–33.

Hanfling, O. (1981). Logical positivism. New York: Columbia University Press.

Introduction to main themes of positivism.

Kitchener, R. F. (2004). Logical positivism, naturalistic epistemology, and the foundations of psychology. Behavior and Philosophy, 32(1), 37–54.

Describes contemporary scholarship which suggests that the traditional view that logical positivism strongly influenced the neobehaviorist school of psychology may not be completely accurate.

McGill, V. J. (1936). An evaluation of logical positivism. Science and Society, 1(1), 45–80.

A thorough description of the earlier philosophies that gave rise to logical positivism and a critique of the movement (written at the time of its popularity). The article may be better suited to an audience familiar with Western philosophy but seems helpful for history of psychology students in gaining an appreciation of the movement’s impact on science in general.

Rogers, T. B. (1989). Operationism in psychology: A discussion of contextual antecedents and an historical interpretation of longevity. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 25(2), 139–153.
Smith, L. D. (1986). Behaviorism and logical positivism: A reassessment of the alliance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Chapter 14 Review Questions

Review Questions From The Book

Trace some of the key influences on Gestalt theory coming out of science, philosophy, and psychology.
Why was the phi phenomenon so important to Wertheimer?
Distinguish between productive thinking and mere reproductive thinking.
What is the law of Prägnanz and how can it be illustrated?
Briefly review the evidence that learning is not based on strict point-for-point mechanical connections.
Outline three types of learning discussed in the work of Koffka.
Discuss the Gestalt approach to the scientific method. Contrast this approach to the behavioristic approach.
Explain the Gestalt approach to the mind– brain problem. Why is the concept of “pictures in the head” a misrepresentation of isomorphism?
Explain Lewin’s concept of the life space and why it was important to his overall conceptual approach to psychology.
What is the Zeigarnik effect and what are some of its practical implications?
Discuss Lewin’s concept of motivation and its relationship to his approach to conflict.
Outline four common misunderstandings of Gestalt psychology.

Additional Review Questions

Briefly summarize the impact of philosophy on Gestalt theory.
Briefly summarize the extent to which physics influenced Wolfgang Köhler and Max Wertheimer.
Describe how the Gestalt concept has origins in the Austrian school of act psychology.
Explain how Gestalt psychology originated in a visual perception experiment.
Describe two of the important Gestalt principles that Wertheimer extracted from the areas of cognition and sensation.
To what extent did Wertheimer believe that perception is largely influenced by what is given in experience (beyond the influences of processing like learning)?
Identify the type of thinking associated with everyday problems humans encounter in life. Contrast this with thinking that formal education requires.
Outline findings from Köhler’s insight learning studies that damaged the validity of traditional behavioral studies of learning.
Outline the elements of Koffka’s thought that reflect a developmental view of learning.
Identify and outline two methodological criticisms the Gestalt psychologists leveled at behaviorism and structuralism.
Define isomorphism as it applies to Gestalt psychology.
Explain at least two ways in which Lewin’s field theory emphasizes the interdependence of the person and the environment.
Summarize the research study that tested Lewin’s belief that the satisfaction of a need is associated with the dissipation of a tension.
Identify the Gestalt perspective, commonly misunderstood, on scientific analysis.
To what extent is Gestalt psychology a nativist psychology?
List and briefly outline two areas, beyond experimental psychology, to which Gestalt psychology has been applied.

Practice Quizzes

Resources

Online Resources: Gestalt Psychology

www.gestalttheory.net/cms/

The International Society for Gestalt Theory and its Applications promotes research and practice from the perspective of Gestalt theory. The website displays very helpful features for students of the history of psychology. Gestalt Infospace includes a timeline of important Gestalt events as well as an archive of important Gestalt theoretical articles that date from 1910. The section on Gestalt People provides links to biographical information about people (deceased and living) whose work in a variety of disciplines (e.g., art, economics) is influenced by Gestalt theory. And the Fields of Application section describes how Gestalt theory influences scholarship in the arts, language, mathematics, music, and psychotherapy.

Print Resources: Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt Theory is the official publication of the International Society for Gestalt Theory and its Applications. Its articles reflect Gestalt perspectives of processes in areas such as general psychology, philosophy, economics, art, and psychotherapy. Articles on perceptual processes will seem familiar to psychology students.

Ash, M. G. (1995). Gestalt psychology in German culture, 1890–1967: Holism and the quest for objectivity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Ellis, W. D. (Ed.). (1938). A source book of Gestalt psychology. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company.

Gibson, J. J. (1971). The legacy of Koffka’s Principles. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 7(1), 3–9

Evaluation of the importance of Kurt Koffka’s text, Principles of Gestalt Psychology. Gibson argues that the legacies of the book actually lie in its novel questions and concepts (e.g., proximal stimuli and the distal stimulus, the critique of reflex theory, and the notion of a geographical and behavioral environment).

Heider, F. (1970). Gestalt theory: Early history and reminiscences. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 6(2), 131–139.

Detailed chronology of the development of Gestalt theory from von Ehrenfels, the Graz school of thought, and the Berlin school (Wertheimer, Köhler, and Koffka).

Henle, M. (1977). The influence of Gestalt psychology in America. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 291, 3–12.

Martin, J. L. (2003). What is field theory? American Journal of Sociology, 109(1), 1–49.

Helpful description of a major part of Lewin’s work.

Murray, D. J., Kilgour, A. R., & Wasylkiw, L. (2000). Conflicts and mixed signals in psychoanalysis, behaviorism, and Gestalt. American Psychologist, 55(4), 422–426.

Evaluates three schools of psychological thought—psychoanalytic theory, behaviorism, Gestalt theory—with respect to two features: (1) how each school defined the concept “unconscious”; and (2) a discussion of whether books written from these perspectives were accepted at the time of their publication relative to their standing in psychology today.

Seaman, J. D. (1984). On phi-phenomena. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 20(1), 3–8.

Helpful article in its clarification of the definition of the phi phenomenon and clarification of misunderstandings regarding the historical significance of Max Wertheimer’s 1912 article on seen movement.

Smith, B. (Ed.). (1988). Foundations of Gestalt theory. Munich: Philosophia Verlag.

Chapters include key publications from Christian von Ehrenfels (form qualities) and discussions of Mach’s influence on von Ehrenfels.

Steinman, R. M., Pizlo, Z., & Pizlo, F. J. (2000). Phi is not beta and why Wertheimer’s discovery launched the Gestalt revolution. Vision Research, 40(17), 2257–2264.

Valuable article that explains the exact nature of the phi phenomenon, the history of Wertheimer’s observation of apparent motion, and why this discovery is significant in the history of psychology.

Wertheimer, M. (2014). Music, thinking, perceived motion: The emergence of Gestalt theory. History of Psychology, 17(2), 131–133.

Contemporary scholarship suggests that Gestalt theory may have roots in traditions (musicology and the psychology of thought) that pre-date Max Wertheimer’s discovery of the phi phenomenon.

Wertheimer, M. (Ed.). (1982). Productive thinking. [Reprinted from the original 1945 edition.] Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Westheimer, G. (1999). Gestalt theory reconfigured: Max Wertheimer’s anticipation of recent developments in visual neuroscience. Perception, 28(1), 5–15.

Explains the importance of Gestalt constructs (e.g., contour salience) in the context of contemporary studies of neural mechanisms in cognition.

See resources below for information on the migration of European intellectuals to the United States during the 1930s as a consequence of pre-war conditions in their native countries. Useful for history of psychology students to appreciate the migration and relocation experiences of Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Lewin.

Coser, L. A. (1984). Refugee scholars in America: Their impact and their experiences. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Fermi, L. (1968). Illustrious immigrants: The intellectual migration from Europe, 1930–1941. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Lamberti, M. (2006). The reception of refugee scholars from Nazi Germany in America: Philanthropy and social change in higher education. Jewish Social Studies, 12(3), 157–192.

Chapter 15 Review Questions

Review Questions From The Book

The text outlined six general characteristics of Freud’s thought. What kind of evidence might Freud have advanced for each characteristic?
Compare and contrast Freud and Jung with respect to their views on the structure of personality. Which view seems more adequate? Why?
Briefly review the posthypnotic phenomena that impressed Freud and that contributed to his view on the importance of unconscious processes.
Contrast Freud and Jung with respect to their positions on the unconscious.
Outline the four basic components of instincts according to Freud.
Distinguish between the three varieties of anxiety proposed by Freud.
Define repression projection, reaction formation, and sublimation. Why did Freud consider repression to be the most basic?
Critically evaluate Freud’s stages of psychosexual development.
Distinguish between the manifest and latent content of dreams. Also briefly describe Freud’s approach to psychotherapy, making sure you cover topics such as transference, free association, and countertransference.
Contrast Freud and Einstein with respect to their approaches to the causes of war.
Outline some of the new materials you encounter in the work of Freud that are not included in other systems of psychology.
Outline major criticisms of Freud’s system of thought.
Contrast Jung and Freud with respect to their approaches to therapy.
What role did the ancient practice of alchemy play in shaping Jung’s psychology?
Jung believed that the shadow can be a doorway to reality. What did he mean by this? He also believed that encounters with the materials in the shadow can lead to wisdom and wholeness. Do you agree with him? Why?
What did Jung mean by the term archetype? Give some examples. Briefly argue the pros and cons of the concept of archetypes.
Outline the four functions and two attitudes in Jung’s psychology.
Discuss Jung’s general approach to the problem of causality, including his position on teleology and a brief statement regarding his concept of synchronicity.
Outline some of the strengths and weaknesses encountered in Jung’s system of thought.
Contrast Adler and Freud with respect to their approaches to motivation.
Contrast compensation and overcompensation in Adler’s theory.
Briefly outline Adler’s approach to the question of causation. Argue the pros and cons of Adler’s teleological approach in contrast with an approach that places stronger emphasis on material and efficient causation.
Distinguish between the real self and the idealized self. What role does basic anxiety play in isolating the real self?
Briefly review Horney’s ideas about the compliant, hostile, and detached neurotic types.
Compare and contrast Freud and Horney with respect to their position on feminine development.

Additional Review Questions

Cite one piece of Freud’s work that is evidence of his belief that there are natural causes for all mental events.
How might Freud’s formal education and training shape his ideas about human nature?
Cite one piece of Freud’s work that is evidence of his belief that humans are not qualitatively different from animals.
Describe the relative importance of conscious and unconscious forces in Freud’s thinking.
Summarize Freud’s contribution to a developmental approach to psychology.
Cite one piece of Freud’s work that illustrates his emphasis on motivation.
Identify two ways in which Freud’s personality structure and Jung’s personality structure differ.
Explain the significance of Freud’s observation that Bernheim’s patients could not consciously recall what had transpired during a hypnotic trance.
Describe the components of Trieb.
Identify and briefly describe the type of anxiety that arises from real, external threats.
Distinguish between moral and neurotic anxiety.
Describe Freud’s concept of defense mechanisms of the ego.
Describe the relationship between biology and Freud’s psychosexual stages of development.
Briefly describe the connection between the unconscious and the content of dreams in Freud’s system.
To what extent is Freud’s analysis of the problem of war a pessimistic solution?
Outline the major strengths of Freud’s system.
Describe the criticisms of Freud’s system that are specifically relevant to experimentation.
Critics have dismissed Freud’s thought for its emphasis on sexual drives and its perspective on women. Explain whether these criticisms are valid.
Identify the piece of Jung’s thought that echoes William James’s thought.
Explain the role of psychic energy in Jung’s thought. Why is it important?
Define Horney’s three unconscious movements that neurotic individuals rely on to deal with basic anxiety.
Fully explain how Horney responds to Freud’s belief that “anatomy is destiny.”
Cite one piece of Adler’s psychology that seems grounded in altruism.
Explain how, according to Adler, feelings of inadequacy shape our personalities.

Practice Quizzes

Resources

Collections: Psychoanalytic Theory • Freud

www.freud-museum.at/en/

The Sigmund Freud Museum maintains a website that provides images and descriptions of this popular tourist spot in Vienna, Austria. Its permanent exhibition of Freud’s life and work is housed in his former living quarters and office (before he left Austria for England in exile from the National Socialist German Workers’ Party). The website has an online catalog of the museum’s library, as well as links to other resources (e.g., an online database of historic Freud photographs and a database honoring women’s contributions to the history of psychoanalysis).

www.freud.org.uk/

The Freud Museum in London was the home of Sigmund Freud and his family after he left Austria in 1938. The heart of the museum is Freud’s study—including his infamous couch. The museum website provides a wealth of information, for instance, a bibliography of Freud’s works, a biographical timeline, and images from the Freud Museum Photo Library. A set of topical learning modules covers various aspects of psychoanalytic theory and Freud’s life—some of which receive little attention in introductory psychology textbooks (e.g., Freud and the War Neuroses, Freud and Religion).

www.loc.gov/exhibits/freud/

The Library of Congress hosted an exhibition in 1999 (with the Sigmund Freud Museum, Vienna and the Sigmund Freud Museum, London) titled Sigmund Freud: Conflict and Culture. The exhibition website displays images of physical items (photographs, letters, documents) that accompany clear descriptions of several topics, among them Freud’s youth, the impact of psychoanalysis, and his later writings on war and death.

www.freudarchives.org/

The Sigmund Freud archives contains approximately 45,000 items (e.g., correspondence, patient case files, photographs, notebooks) and are located at the United States Library of Congress in the Freud Collection. Visitors to the website can search the archives catalog.

Collections (libraries): Psychoanalysis • Freud

Several professional societies devoted to scholarship on classic and contemporary psychoanalytic theories maintain a physical library and permit users to search an online catalog of the library. Full-text materials are typically not available to visitors to the website, but these catalogs are a useful place to begin compiling a list of book and journal titles. Links to a very short list of these society libraries are given below.

http://npap.org/

The website for the National Psychological Association for Psychoanalysis offers a searchable database of the books that comprise its Douglas Maxwell Library in New York City. Students interested in psychological topics written from a psychoanalytic perspective might begin to search for titles here.

http://bpsi.org/

The website for the Boston Psychoanalytic Society and Institute includes a helpful section that permits users to search the catalog of its Hanns Sachs Library and Archives in Newton Center, Massachusetts. The library holds historic and contemporary psychoanalytic literature and permits users to search current issues of over a dozen psychoanalytically-oriented electronic journals.

http://mcleanlibrary.chicagoanalysis.org/

The website for the Helen McLean Library at the Chicago Institute for Psychoanalysis includes a searchable online catalog of its holdings, billed as “one of the largest collections of psychoanalytic literature in the world …”

www.nypsi.org

The website for the New York Psychoanalytic Society and Institute includes a searchable catalog of its holdings in the Abraham A. Brill Library. The collection of books, periodicals, and reprints devoted to psychoanalysis and related fields is “perhaps the largest psychoanalytic library in the world.”

Societies: Psychoanalysis • Freud

http://psychoanalysis.org.uk/

The Institute of Psychoanalysis includes a searchable catalog of its library and links to a small collection of videos and British radio and television broadcasts.

www.apsa.org/

The American Psychoanalytic Association website contains several informative pages. Among the sections that will be useful to history of psychology students and instructors: a lengthy bibliography of research reviews and studies applicable to psychoanalysis (developed by its Committee on Research Education), links to psychoanalytic libraries and professional societies, and pages that explain terminology.

www.apadivisions.org/division-39/index.aspx

Psychoanalysis is Division 39 of the American Psychological Association. Its website maintains links to Empirical References for Psychodynamic Therapy, a useful resource for history of psychology students and instructors.

https://npsa-association.org/

View resources from the website of the Neuropsychoanalysis Association to understand the connections that exist between the neurosciences and psychoanalysis. Of interest to history of psychology are links to video resources and a suggested reading list of books.

Print Resources: Psychoanalysis • Freud

Psychoanalysis and History includes coverage of the history of psychoanalysis (as well as the application of psychoanalytic theory to the writing of history).

Psychoanalytic Psychology, an official publication of Division 39 of the American Psychological Association, encourages study of psychoanalytic issues from a psychological perspective and issues in psychology from a psychoanalytic perspective.

The Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association (official journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association) publishes articles and research highly relevant to both historical and contemporary issues that concern psychoanalytic theory and the therapeutic process in psychoanalysis.

Auchincloss, E. L., & Samberg, E. (Eds.). (2012). Psychoanalytic terms and concepts. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Provides readers with an alphabetized listing of important contemporary concepts from a variety of approaches within North American, English-language psychoanalytic theory and practice. This work was commissioned by the American Psychoanalytic Association.

Baumeister, R. F., Dale, K., & Sommer, K. L. (1998). Freudian defense mechanisms and empirical findings in modern social psychology: Reaction formation, projection, displacement, undoing, isolation, sublimation, and denial. Journal of Personality, 66(6), 1081–1124.

Reviews select studies in social psychology for evidence of Freudian defense mechanisms. The authors conclude that these modern studies support the existence of several of the defense mechanisms.

Burnham, J. (Ed.). (2012). After Freud left: A century of psychoanalysis in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Excellent starting point for individuals interested in the topic of Freud’s (only) visit to the United States in 1909 and the history of how well (or not) his ideas were absorbed in this country following his visit. Chapters provide material on events before and during his visit (an invited lecture at Clark University) and the impact of Freud’s ideas in the United States decades later.

Esman, A. H. (2011). Charcot, Freud, and the treatment of ‘nervous disorders’. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 199(11), 828–829.

Concise, clear narrative of the nature of Charcot’s influence on Freud’s approach to the neuroses.

Furst, L. R. (2008). Before Freud: Hysteria and hypnosis in later 19th century psychiatric cases. Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press.

Valuable work for readers interested in understanding the medical and scientific climate that existed before Freud began his clinical work.

Gay, P. (1988). Freud: A life for our time. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.

Bestselling biography.

Goggin, J. E., & Goggin, E. B. (2001). Death of a “Jewish Science”: Psychoanalysis in the Third Reich. West Layafette, IN: Purdue University Press.

Analysis of the impact of the National Socialist German Workers’ Party on the psychoanalytic movement during the years 1933 through the end of the 1940s. Relevant to history of psychology as an example of the ways in which larger situational factors (in this case a national political movement) can shape intellectual schools of thought.

Nathan G. Hale, Jr. has written two books that together provide an excellent starting point for understanding the history of psychoanalysis in America, specifically how psychoanalysis became established within American psychiatry and how it spread as a larger cultural movement.

Hale, N. G., Jr. (1995). The rise and crisis of psychoanalysis in the United States: Freud and the Americans, 1917–1985. New York: Oxford University Press.
Hale, N. G., Jr. (1971). Freud and the Americans: The beginnings of psychoanalysis in the United States, 1876–1917. New York: Oxford University Press.

Hornstein, G. (1992). The return of the repressed: Psychology’s problematic relations with psychoanalysis, 1909–1960. American Psychologist, 47(2), 254–263.

Discusses the generally negative reaction among American experimental psychologists of the early 1900s to Freud’s ideas and the attempt in the 1950s to test the validity of psychoanalytic concepts (and the ironic situation that resulted). Article is useful for history of psychology students to understand the nature of the relationship between two theoretical systems (i.e., behaviorism and psychoanalytic theory) that were in play during a specific time in American psychology.

MacDonald, K. (1986). “Civilization and Its Discontents” revisited: Freud as an evolutionary biologist. Journal of Social and Biological Structures, 9(4), 307–318.

Compares Freud’s interest in biological foundations of human behavior (e.g., drives, instincts) with modern attempts to understand behavior from an evolutionary framework.

Neu, J. (Ed). (1991). The Cambridge companion to Freud. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Chapters are suited for readers who are new to Freud’s theory (e.g., the unconscious) and those who are familiar with his writings (e.g., a chapter describing the impact of his theory on women).

Quinodoz, J. M. (2005). Reading Freud: A chronological exploration of Freud’s writings. Hove, UK: Routledge.

Material in this book is organized in a common-sense fashion: it introduces readers to excerpts from Freud’s major works in their proper chronology. Readers can view the development of Freud’s thought and get a sense of the entirety of his body of work. Readers new to Freud will benefit from the biographical material that the author weaves into his explanations of the meaning of Freud’s thoughts.

Stafford-Clark, D. (1965). What Freud really said. New York: Schocken Books.

This book is intended for undergraduates, but helps all readers to understand the essence of Freud’s ideas on select topics (e.g., hysteria, dreams, sexuality, neuroses) in a refreshing, clear manner.

Strenger, C. (2006). Freud’s forgotten evolutionary project. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 23(2), 420–429.

Explores Freud’s belief that psychopathology could be best explained in biological and evolutionary terms (Lamarckian, not Darwinian)—a feature of his thinking that is consistent with his evaluation of his own work as scientific.

Sulloway, F. J. (1979). Freud, biologist of the mind: Beyond the psychoanalytic legend. New York: Basic Books.

The author introduces two new lines of material about Freud: the key roles that Breuer and Fliess played in his thought, and foundations of psychoanalysis that had existed in late nineteenth-century biology.

Zanuso, B. (1986). The young Freud: The origins of psychoanalysis in late 19th century Viennese culture. Oxford: Blackwell.

Concise description of the cultural, political, and economic climate that existed during the time Freud developed his psychoanalytic theory. Useful as an introduction to this complex topic for history of psychology students and instructors.

Critical evaluations of Freud, psychoanalytic theory, and psychoanalysis are abundant. Among the subjects that have received attention: the difficulty in testing hypotheses derived from his theory, Freud’s contentious relationships with colleagues, his authoritarian personality, his clinical methods, and his struggles with addiction. The titles below are a small sample of publications that should help readers become familiar with this body of scholarship.

Crews, F. C. (1988). Unauthorized Freud: Doubters confront a legend. London: Viking.
Grunbaum, A. (1984). The foundations of psychoanalysis: A philosophical critique. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Roazen, P. (1974). Freud and his followers. New York: Knopf.

Psychoanalytic Theory And Women • Feminist Critiques Of Psychoanalytic Theory

The psychoanalytic interpretation of women has been the source of a considerable amount of scholarship. See the resources below to begin research on this topic.

Bernheimer, C., & Kahane, C. (Eds.). (1985). In Dora’s case: Freud–hysteria–feminism. New York: Columbia University Press.
Chodorow, N. (1989). Feminism and psychoanalytic theory. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Mitchell, J. (1974). Psychoanalysis and feminism. New York: Pantheon Books.

Paris, B. J. (1994). Karen Horney: A psychoanalyst’s search for self-understanding. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

The author draws on updated material concerning Horney’s personal life to examine the relationship between her own history and the development of her ideas. Useful for students as an example of historical writing that seeks to interpret biographical material in order to better understand an individual’s professional intellectual achievements.

Richards, A. K. (1999). Freud and feminism: A critical appraisal. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 47(4), 1213–1237.

Sayers, J. (1991). Mothers of psychoanalysis: Helene Deutsch, Karen Horney, Anna Freud, Melanie Klein. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.

Presents biographies of women who offered modified perspectives on classical (Freudian) psychoanalysis that contributed to the neoanalytic movement.

Slipp, S. (1993). The Freudian mystique: Freud, women, and feminism. New York: New York University Press.

Westkott, M. (1986). The feminist legacy of Karen Horney. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Useful for readers who wish to understand Horney and her work at a deeper level than is possible in introductory textbooks.

Online Resources: Carl Jung

www.cgjungpage.org

The Jung Page is an informative website with several pages relevant to history of psychology: an extensive online lexicon of Jungian terminology, topical links to additional online information (e.g,, dreams, Jungian themes), and a handful of audio downloads. (Also has a helpful section on how to read Jung’s Red Book, the record of his imaginative experiences from the years 1913 through 1916 that had been a source of great interest among Jung scholars and was only recently published in 2009.)

http://junglibrary.org/

The Kristine Mann Library website provides a searchable catalog of its holdings on C. G. Jung, Jungian psychology, and related fields (e.g., alchemy, mythology, symbolism). It is the “oldest Jungian library in North America …”

Print Resources: Carl Jung

The Journal of Analytical Psychology publishes scholarship on analytical psychology in relation to psychoanalysis as well as Jung’s thought as applied to philosophy, science, religions, and the arts.

Bennet, E. A. (1967). What Jung really said. New York: Schocken Books.

Concise introduction to the core concepts in Jung’s thought. Suited for readers who are unfamiliar with Jung and analytic psychology.

Fordham, F. (1953). An introduction to Jung’s psychology. Melbourne: Penguin Books.

Clear explanations of Jung’s terminology.

Mattoon, M. A. (1981). Jungian psychology in perspective. New York: Free Press.

Introduction to key elements of Jung’s psychology (e.g., structure of psyche and individuation), and its connection to other areas (e.g., relationships).

Sharp, D. (1987). Personality types: Jung’s model of typology. Toronto: Inner City Books.

Introduction to Jung’s typology written by a Jungian analyst.

Storr, A. (1983). The essential Jung. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Explains excerpts from Jung’s writings in a way that shows the development of Jung’s thought on concepts such as the archetypes and the collective unconscious.

Young-Eisendrath, P., & Dawson, T. (Eds.). (2008). The Cambridge companion to Jung. (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

An overview of Jung’s work and its impact. Some chapters will be of interest to readers who are familiar with Jung’s analytic psychology, but other chapters (e.g., historical context of his ideas, his relationship with Freud) will be helpful to all readers.

Alfred Adler

www.alfredadler.org/

The North American Society of Adlerian Psychology maintains a website with several pages that may be of interest to students of history of psychology, for instance Adler’s biography and links to other Adlerian online resources. The Films on Adlerian Psychology link provides access to professional training videos, some of which explain key concepts in Adlerian psychology: the lectures on psychological birth order and the concept of social interest will be helpful to history of psychology students. AdlerPedia is a page with useful information about concepts, influences, and people relevant to Adler’s theories.

Ansbacher, H., & Ansbacher, R. (Eds.). (1964). The individual psychology of Alfred Adler: A systematic presentation in selections from his writings. New York: Basic Books.

Mosak, H., & Maniacci, M. (1999). A primer of Adlerian psychology: The analytic-behavioral-cognitive psychology of Alfred Adler. Philadelphia, PA: Bruner/Mazel.

Comprehensive, organized introduction to Adlerian psychology.

Chapter 16 Review Questions

Review Questions From The Book

Why was humanistic psychology referred to as a third force? What are some of the distinguishing features of third-force psychology?
Describe at least three features in the thought of William James that identify him as an intellectual forerunner of humanistic psychology.
What affinities can you find between third-force psychologies and the philosophy of Unamuno?
Identify Kierkegaard’s three modes of existence and the specific ways that each one can collapse into an undesirable state.
Discuss the meaning of Heidegger’s term Dasein and the significance of that term for psychology.
Define Heidegger’s terms throwness, Mitwelt, and Umwelt.
Discuss the implications of Husserl’s phenomenology for psychology.
Why is Franz Brentano included in the intellectual background of third-force psychologies?
Outline Maslow’s hierarchical theory of motivation and discuss criticisms of the theory that you consider valid.
Discuss some of the defining characteristics of a self-actualizing person according to Maslow.
Define the concept of functional autonomy as employed by Allport. How might a behaviorist explain functional autonomy?
Some of Carl Rogers’s major contributions to psychology were challenges to standard practices. Discuss two such contributions.
What did Rogers mean by unconditional positive regard?
Describe the major focus of Frankl’s logotherapy and show how his concept of paradoxical intention might play a role in the treatment of a fear.
Advance arguments for or against Rychlak’s contention that humanistic psychology can be rigorous.
Outline five major criticisms of humanistic psychologies.

Additional Review Questions

Describe the intellectual climate in psychology in 1960s America and its connection to humanistic psychology.
Outline the relevance of existentialism and phenomenology to humanistic psychology.
To what extent does William James’s work contain elements of humanistic psychology?
To what extent did Kierkegaard believe the modes of existence operate in our lives?
Explain how factuality, existentiality, and fallenness define Heidegger’s concept of being there.
The extent to which the world imposes restrictions on our quest for authenticity occupies an important place in Heidegger’s thought. Explain.
Explain why introspection is not a phenomenological method.
Summarize the way in which Husserl’s phenomenology encourages us to view human beings.
To what extent is Maslow’s hierarchical theory of motivation grounded in biology?
Is there value in Maslow’s findings about the self-actualizing person?
Briefly state Allport’s view of motivation, relative to Freud’s views.
Define nomothetic and idiographic orientations to psychology. Where does Allport stand on this issue?
Briefly explain why Rogers’s approach to psychotherapy was considered novel.
Describe the role of self in Rogers’s psychology.
Explain the unique perspective that Viktor Frankl brings to psychological theory.
Does logotherapy seem optimistic or pessimistic in its outlook? Why?
Does Rychlak succeed in arguing for a psychology that is both rigorous and humanistic? Why or why not?
Identify elements of humanistic psychology that, in general, celebrate human beings.
To what extent does humanistic psychology seem scientific to you?

Practice Quizzes

Resources

Resources: Humanistic Psychology

www.ahpweb.org/

The Association for Humanistic Psychology was founded by three individuals essential to the formation of this school of thought: Carl Rogers, Virginia Satir, and Abraham Maslow. Its website displays pages useful for history of psychology students and instructors: a Library page that includes a searchable research portal, and a suggested reading list of humanistic psychology titles.

www.centerfortheperson.org/

The Center for Studies of the Person is a community that continues the person-centered approach developed by Carl Rogers through its formal projects (e.g., psychotherapy training) and conference. The website displays links to resources and information about Rogers and his work, for instance, archival collections held at the University of California-Santa Barbara and the Library of Congress.

The Humanistic Psychologist is an official publication of the Society for Humanistic Psychology (Division 32 of the American Psychological Association) that regularly offers scholarship on historical topics.

The Journal of Humanistic Psychology is produced by the Association of Humanistic Psychology. Coverage includes topics highly relevant to the history of psychology: historical accounts of individuals, theories, events, and concepts central to humanistic psychology.

Bugental, J. F. T. (1964). The third force in psychology. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 4(1), 19–26.

Humanistic psychology saw itself as an alternative way to view human functioning, distinct from two earlier schools of thought, behaviorism and psychoanalytic theory. Bugental was a major proponent of this movement and his reflections on the value of this school of thought, written at the height of its popularity, are useful.

DeCarvalho, R. J. (1990). A history of the “third force” in psychology. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 30, 22–44.

Outlines the way in which humanistic psychology became an institution within American psychology.

DeCarvalho, R. J. (1991). The founders of humanistic psychology. New York: Praeger.

Describes contributions to humanistic psychology from Gordon Allport, Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Rollo May, and James Bugental.

Davidson, L. (1992). Philosophical foundations of humanistic psychology. The Humanistic Psychologist, 20(3), 136–157.

Author describes the extent to which humanistic psychology is part of the tradition of Western humanism, a philosophical school of thought on the nature of human beings that dates to the early fourteenth century.

Elkins, D. N. (2013). Why humanistic psychology lost its power and influence in American psychology. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 49(3), 267–291.

Article that provides a more complete picture of humanistic psychology than is possible to present in an introductory textbook. The author details the factors—specifically mainstream American psychology and the conservative climate of the post-1970s—that fostered the decline of humanistic psychology.

Geller, L. (1982). The failure of self-actualization theory: A critique of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 22(2), 1982, 56–73.

Critical appraisal, from the perspective of a philosopher, of a major part of Rogers’s and Maslow’s thought.

Moss, D. (Ed.). (1999). Humanistic and transpersonal psychology: A historical and biographical sourcebook. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

Chapters provide a good starting point for further research into the background of humanistic psychology and the theorists who founded the movement, as well as theorists who have applied its tenets to areas such as psychoanalysis, Gestalt therapy, and feminist psychology.

Rowan, J. (2004). Some history of humanistic psychology. The Humanistic Psychologist, 32(3), 221–238.

Useful in describing activities in Europe in the 1970s that established humanistic psychology there. May be of more interest to practicing psychologists but useful for students of history of psychology to appreciate that humanistic psychology is an approach that spread beyond the United States.

Smith, M. B. (1990). Humanistic psychology. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 30(4), 6–21.

In-depth description of the several aspects of humanistic psychology. Among the topics covered: antecedents and advocates of humanistic psychology, the encounter group movement of the 1960s and 1970s, transpersonal psychology, and secular humanism.

Taylor, E. (1991). William James and the humanistic tradition. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 31(1), 56–74.

Describes four lines of thought that link James’s work to humanistic psychology.

Wertz, F. J. (1998). The role of the humanistic movement in the history of psychology. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 38(1), 42–70.

Addresses the status of humanistic psychology within the recorded history of psychology and its impact on areas beyond the field. The author describes the strengths of humanistic psychology and notes that individuals who evaluate this school of thought within the context of the history of the discipline often fail to address their criticisms to these strengths.

Resources: Existentialism • Existentialist Psychology

www.spep.org/

The Society for Phenomenology and Existential Philosophy website maintains a helpful list of resources for further study about continental philosophy (nineteenth- and twentieth-century European philosophy), phenomenology, and major philosophical figures (e.g., Husserl, Foucault, Heidegger, Nietzsche).

Crowell, S. G. (Ed.). (2012). The Cambridge companion to existentialism. New York: Cambridge University Press.

An overview of this philosophy. Chapters most relevant to the history of psychology are ones concerning Kierkegaard, Heidegger, and Sartre.

Dreyfus, H. L., & Wrathall, M. A. (Eds.). (2006). A companion to phenomenology and existentialism. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

Chapters on Husserl’s brand of phenomenology, constructs from phenomenology (e.g., intentionality), and constructs from existentialism (authenticity, freedom, and responsibility) are helpful in understanding the relevance of these philosophies to psychology.

Earnshaw, S. (2006). Existentialism: A guide for the perplexed. London: Continuum.

Introduction to the major existentialist philosophers (Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Heidegger, Sartre, and Camus) and concepts that constitute this philosophy, for example, being and self, and freedom. Suited to readers with little exposure to existentialism.

Hopkins, B. (2011). The philosophy of Husserl. Montréal: McGill-Queen’s University Press.

Of interest to readers who seek a deeper understanding Husserl’s phenomenology than is possible to present in an introductory psychology text. The book seems suited for an audience familiar with philosophy but sections on the ancient origins of concepts that constitute Husserl’s phenomenology (e.g., the theory of eidē, or “form”) and explanations of Husserl’s descriptive psychology are useful for the history of psychology.

Inwood, M. J. (2000). Heidegger: A very short introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Suited for an audience who may not be familiar with philosophy. Clear explanations of Heidegger’s philosophy as expressed in Being and Time: existence, authenticity, and the nature of time.

Kaufmann, W. A. (Ed.). (1956). Existentialism: From Dostoevsky to Sartre. New York: Meridian Books.

Explanations of existentialism in the writings of several important philosophers (e.g., Kafka, Kierkegaard, and Camus) are suited for an audience unfamiliar with philosophy.

Kendler, H. H. (2005). Psychology and phenomenology: A clarification. American Psychologist, 60(4), 318–324.

Helpful article in that it neatly summarizes the place that humanistic psychology and philosophical phenomenology jointly occupy within the larger discipline of psychology today. The distinction between two methods of explaining behavior is also useful: a human science approach versus a natural science approach. The way in which earlier theorists—Wundt, Husserl, Heidegger, Maslow—contributed to each method is outlined.

Moran, D. (2000). Introduction to phenomenology. London: Routledge.

Thorough and clear explanations of phenomenology as practiced by various philosophers. Chapters dedicated to Franz Brentano, Edmund Husserl, and Martin Heidegger are most helpful to understand this philosophy and its role in humanistic psychology.

Spiegelberg, H. (Ed.). (1994). The phenomenological movement: A historical introduction. (3rd ed., rev.). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Chapters on Franz Brentano, Carl Stumpf, Edmund Husserl, Martin Heidegger, and Jean-Paul Sartre and their connections to phenomenology are relevant to understanding the importance of phenomenology to humanistic psychology.

Wisnewski, J. (2012). Heidegger: An introduction. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

Thorough explanations of Heidegger’s philosophy as expressed in his work, Being and Time. Most helpful in the context of history of psychology are chapters that focus on the nature of Dasein.

Other

www.ehinstitute.org/index.html

The Existential-Humanistic Institute website displays an extensive reading list of historically important and contemporary works about theories, events, individuals, and therapies related to existentialism and phenomenology, and humanistic psychology. Of special interest are references to works written by lesser-known individuals who helped to foster humanistic psychology (e.g., J. Bugental, R. May, and M. Buber).

Chapter 17 Review Questions

Review Questions From The Book

Outline some of the developments of psychoanalysis in the United States following World War II.
Identify major events in the institutionalization of humanistic psychology. What attempts have been made to increase the international and scientific appeal of humanistic psychology?
What were the main contributions of Harry Harlow’s research? How is his work incongruent with the neobehaviorism of B. F. Skinner?
Describe specific developments that contributed to the advance of cognitive psychology.
Briefly discuss three major themes in cognitive psychology.
What are the main arguments for and against the computer metaphor?
In your opinion, does cognitive psychology represent a paradigm shift or revolution? What evidence would you employ in defending your position?
Why would you endorse a unified psychology? Why would you support a pluralistic one?
Describe criticisms of cognitive psychology. Are these criticisms valid?
What are the historical roots of clinical psychology? What historical thinkers considered clinical questions before the advent of psychology as a formal discipline?
What were critical events in the emergence of clinical psychology as a subfield of psychology and a formal profession?
Describe the components of the Boulder model. Why do you think these factors were chosen?
Name three cognitive or cognitive-behavioral therapists. How are their views similar? How are their perspectives different?
Name two reductionistic biological psychologists. Name two biological psychologists who emphasize systems or holistic approaches. What methodological and topical differences are there between these perspectives?
Describe three productive topics of study in biological psychology.
Is the use of fMRI and PET scan information to locate areas of the brain that correlate with specific cognitive functions the “new phrenology,” or do these approaches provide valid methods to evaluate the relationship between cognition and neurology?
In what ways has biological psychology benefited from infusions of ideas and researchers from other disciplines?
What possible social and cultural problems can arise from the study of genes and behavior, specifically intelligence and genetics?
Describe similarities and differences in the methodologies and research topics of Muzafer Sherif, Solomon Asch, and Stanley Milgram.
Which early applied psychologist, in your opinion, provided the strongest foundation for early industrial and organizational psychology? How would you defend your choice?

Additional Review Questions

List the systems of psychology with which psychologists still identified following World War II.
Cite evidence that psychoanalysis was well established in American psychology after World War II.
Explain why some scholars are still skeptical about the future of psychoanalysis.
Explain the extent to which humanistic psychology is an American movement.
Explain the “social” element in Bandura’s social learning theory.
Summarize how early memory research provided a foundation for the emergence of cognitive psychology.
Describe the connection between Gestalt psychology and cognitive psychology.
Explain why the founder of cognitive psychology changed his appraisal of the field in the 1970s.
Cite evidence of the popularity of clinical psychology within the larger discipline.
How did World War II serve as a catalyst for clinical psychology?
Briefly define the common theme in the therapies of Joseph Wolpe, Aaron T. Beck, and Albert Ellis.
Define dialectical behavior therapy and its applications.
Briefly state the overall outlook for the value of enriched environment studies.
Identify noteworthy personal achievements that emerged from split-brain and synaptic transmission research.
Describe two intellectual roots of the contemporary field of behavioral genetics.
Cite one research program that exemplifies each of the following topics of social psychological study: within- and between-group processes, attitudes and beliefs, and social- and self-perception.

Practice Quizzes

Resources

Clinical Psychology

www.nimh.nih.gov/index.shtml

The National Institute of Mental Health, part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, is a good starting point for information about mental health and illness.

www.acadpsychclinicalscience.org/

The Academy of Psychological Clinical Science strives to promote “a psychological science directed at the promotion of adaptive functioning; at the assessment, understanding, amelioration, and prevention of human problems in behavior, affect, cognition or health …” Its website has links to educational resources for students, faculty members, and the public.

See the small sample of resources below for historical scholarship on clinical psychology and emerging trends in this subfield.

Benjamin, L. T., Jr. (2005). A history of clinical psychology as a profession in America (and a glimpse at its future). Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1(1), 1–30.
Donn, J. E., Routh, D. K., & Lunt, I. (2000). From Leipzig to Luxembourg (via Boulder and Vail): A history of clinical psychology training in Europe and the United States. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 31(4), 423–428.
Marecek, J., Hare-Mustin, R. T. (1991). A short history of the future: Feminism and clinical psychology. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 15(4), 521–536.
Shakow, D. (1978). Clinical psychology seen some 50 years later. American Psychologist, 33(2), 148–156.
Siegert, R. J., & Ward, T. (2002). Clinical psychology and evolutionary psychology: Toward a dialogue. Review of General Psychology, 6(3), 235–259.
Taylor, E. (2000). Psychotherapeutics and the problematic origins of clinical psychology in America. American Psychologist, 55(9), 1029–1033.
Wilson, G. T. (1981). Relationships between experimental and clinical psychology: The case of behavior therapy. International Journal of Psychology, 16(4), 323–341.
Wood, A. M., & Tarrier, N. (2010). Positive clinical psychology: A new vision and strategy for integrated research and practice. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(7), 819–829.

Biopsychology

Use these overviews as a starting point for further study about biological psychology (also behavioral neuroscience).

Breedlove, M. S., & Watson, N. V. (2013). Biological psychology: An introduction to behavioral, cognitive, and clinical neuroscience. (7th ed.). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.
De Jong, H. L. (2002). Levels of explanation in biological psychology. Philosophical Psychology, 15(4), 441–462.
Getz, G. E. (2014). Applied biological psychology. New York: Springer Publishing.
Greenberg, G. (2011). The failure of biogenetic analysis in psychology: Why psychology is not a biological science. Research in Human Development, 8(3–4), 173–191.
Magoun, H. W. (2003). American neuroscience in the 20th century: Confluence of the neural, behavioral, and communicative streams. [Ed. L. H. Marshall]. Lisse, Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger.
Nelson, R. J., & Mizumori, S. J. Y. (2013). Behavioral neuroscience. In I. B. Weiner (Ed.), Handbook of Psychology (Vol. 3.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Winn, P. (Ed). (2001). Dictionary of biological psychology. London: Routledge.

The titles below are a small sample of the numerous professional journals in this area.

Behavioral and Brain Sciences

Behavioural Brain Research

Behavioral Neuroscience

Biological Psychiatry

Journal of Neuroscience

Journal of Psychopharmacology

Physiology and Behavior

Social Neuroscience

Cognitive Psychology

Topics in cognitive science have received much attention. The titles below are a sample of research journals relevant to this blossoming area.

Behavioral and Brain Sciences

Brain and Cognition

Cognition

Cognitive Psychology

Journal of Consciousness Studies

Trends in Cognitive Science

Boden, M. A. (2006). Mind as machine: A history of cognitive science (Vols. 1–2). New York: Oxford University Press.

A very readable publication (two volumes) that concerns the ways in which scientists have attempted to answer questions about mind from both computational and information-processing perspectives.

Gardner, H. (1985). The mind’s new science: A history of the cognitive revolution. New York: Basic Books.

Glenberg, A. M., Witt, J. K., & Metcalfe, J. (2013). From revolution to embodiment: 25 years of cognitive psychology. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(5), 573–585.

Useful article to better understand theories and research programs that comprised the cognitive movement of the mid-twentieth century. The authors also suggest that a recent conceptualization, embodied cognition, has important implications for solving the difficult problem of unifying psychology.

Reisberg, D. (Ed.). (2013). The Oxford handbook of cognitive psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Edited chapters are organized into thirteen topics that address processes (e.g., attention) and perspectives (e.g., developmental, cultural).

Simon, H. A. (1992). What is an ‘explanation’ of behavior? Psychological Science, 3(3), 150–161.

An assessment of the possibilities that cognitive psychology offers for explaining human functioning at various levels—for instance at the neurological/physiological level and at the social level. Of interest for history of psychology students to appreciate this strength of cognitive psychology.

Wilson, R. A., & Keil, F. C. (Eds.). (1999). The MIT encyclopedia of the cognitive sciences. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Source for brief explanations of concepts, theories, events, and people from disciplines relevant to cognitive science (e.g., neuroscience, cognitive psychology, linguistics).

Contemporary scholarship on the history of cognition demonstrates that there have been pockets of research and theory on cognitive processes (e.g., Ebbinghaus’s memory work, Bartlett’s concept of schemas) that existed well before Neisser’s (1967) Cognitive Psychology. Two resources below are examples:

ter Hark, M. (2010). The psychology of thinking before the cognitive revolution: Otto Selz on problems, schemas, and creativity. History of Psychology, 13(1), 2–24.
ter Hark, M. (2010). The psychology of thinking before the cognitive revolution: Otto Selz on problems, schemas, and creativity. History of Psychology, 13(1), 2–24.

Information Theory

Information theory, a field of applied mathematics developed by Claude E. Shannon, was an important influence in the development of cognitive psychology. Though some resources below are technical (e.g., Shannon’s original 1948 theoretical formulation of information theory), they represent a good foundation for readers who wish to understand the nature of information theory.

Attneave, F. (1959). Applications of information theory to psychology: A summary of basic concepts, methods, and results. New York: Holt.

Introduction to the concept of information as a variable that can be quantified. Includes a review of studies that apply information theory and ideas for further research.

Cover, T. M., & Thomas, J. A. (1991). Elements of information theory. New York: Wiley.

Comprehensive and highly technical.

Goldstine, H. H. (1961). Information theory. Science, 133(3462), 1395–1399.

doi:10.1126/science.133.3462.1395

Luce, R. D. (2003). Whatever happened to information theory in psychology? Review of General Psychology, 7(2), 183–188.

Author describes the initial interest in information theory among psychologists of the mid-twentieth century and reasons why the theory has fallen out of favor as a means to explain psychological processes.

Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. The Psychological Review, 63(2), 81–97.

Important article in the history of psychology: it represents one of the earliest attempts to apply information theory to psychology.

Pierce, J. R. (1980). An introduction to information theory: Symbols, signals, and noise. (2nd ed. rev.). New York: Dover.

An undergraduate textbook written in informal style. Strikes a balance between linguistic and mathematical explanations.

Shannon, C. E. (1948). A mathematical theory of communication. Bell System Technical Journal, 27(3), 379–423.
Shannon, C. E. (1948). A mathematical theory of communication. Bell System Technical Journal, 27(4), 623–666.
Shannon, C. E., & Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical theory of communication. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.

Computers And Cognition

The question of whether the computer model helps us understand human cognition is a second important influence in the emergence of cognitive psychology. The small sample of resources below concern connectionism of the mid-twentieth century—a school of thought that inspired cognitive psychology. Today the literature on computers and cognition is enormous and represents several disciplines other than psychology (e.g., computer science, mathematics, philosophy of science, philosophy of psychology, neuroscience).

Bechtel, W., & Abrahansen, A. (1991). Connectionism and the mind: An introduction to parallel processing in networks. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Donahoe, J. W. (1999). Edward L. Thorndike: The selectionist connectionist. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 72(3), 451–454.
The connectionism that fostered the cognitive psychology in the 1970s had existed earlier in psychology’s history: in the animal learning research of E. L. Thorndike.
Dreyfus, H. L. (1979). What computers can’t do: The limits of artificial intelligence. (Rev. ed.). New York: Harper & Row.

Feigenbaum, E. A., & Feldman, J. (Eds.). (1963). Computers and thought. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Somewhat dated, this collection of important ideas in artificial intelligence is useful for readers with little to no prior knowledge of computer models of mind.

Heims, S. (1975). Encounter of behavioral sciences with new machine-organism analogies of the 1940s. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 5(2), 368–373.

Describes how scientists apply a model from the physical sciences (machines) to understand human functioning (cognition).

Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1988). The computer and the mind: An introduction to cognitive science. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Introduction to research on phenomena (e.g., communication and different forms of thinking) from within the framework of computation.

McCorduck, P. (1979). Machines who think: A personal inquiry into the history and prospect of artificial intelligence. San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman.

Still considered to be a successful text for its conversational style of explaining the nature and history of artificial intelligence to a non-academic audience.

Medler, D. A. (1998). A brief history of connectionism. Neural Computing Surveys, 1, 61–101.

Rumelhart, D. (1989). The architecture of mind: A connectionist approach. In M. Posner (Ed.), Foundations of cognitive science (pp. 133–159). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

This chapter is a streamlined version of two very important volumes Rumelhart, James McClelland and colleagues of the Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Group authored in 1986 concerning an approach to cognitive psychology (alternative to the information theory approach) termed connectionism.

Turing, A. M. (1950). Computing machinery and intelligence. Mind, 59, 433–460.

Landmark article about a foundational question concerning whether cognition and computers are analogous: Can machines think? Written from the perspective of a computer scientist and mathematician and the individual considered the founder of theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence and today’s machine learning.

Industrial/organizational Psychology

Resources below provide starting points for further study of the history of industrial/organizational psychology (also “vocational psychology”), a subfield that emerged as a product of American functionalism.

Benjamin, L. T., Jr. (2006). Hugo Münsterberg’s attack on the application of scientific psychology. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(2), 414–425.

A useful article in that it paints a vivid picture of the intellectual climate in academic psychology in the U.S. in the early part of the twentieth century. It also details how Hugo Münsterberg reversed his initial position on the validity of applying laboratory findings to real-world problems to become one of the strongest proponents of applied psychology during this time period.

Cascio, W. F., & Aguinis, H. (2008). Research in industrial and organizational psychology from 1963 to 2007: Changes, choices, and trends. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(5), 1062–1081.
Koppes, L. L. (Ed.). (2007). Historical perspectives in industrial and organizational psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Savackias, M. L., & Baker, D. B. (2005). The history of vocational psychology: Antecedents, origin, and early development. In W. B. Walsh & M. L. Savickas (Eds.), Handbook of vocational psychology: Theory, research, and practice. (3rd ed., pp. 15–50). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Stagner, R. (1982). Past and future of industrial/organizational psychology. Professional Psychology, 13(6), 892–903.
Tharenou, P. (2001). The relevance of industrial and organizational psychology to contemporary organisations: How far have we come and what needs to be done post-2000? Australian Psychologist, 36(3), 200–210.

Social Psychology

Blass, T. (2004). The man who shocked the world: The life and legacy of Stanley Milgram. New York: Basic Books.

Kruglanski, A. W., & Stroebe, W. (Eds.). (2012). Handbook of the history of social psychology. New York: Psychology Press.

Chapters are grouped into topics concerning the development of social psychology in general, histories of different approaches to social psychology and several phenomena (e.g., social judgment, relationships).

Kruglanski, A. W., & Stroebe, W. (Eds.). (2012). Handbook of the history of social psychology. New York: Psychology Press.

Levine, J. M. (1999). Solomon Asch’s legacy for group research. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3(4), 358–364.

Examines four of Solomon Asch’s ideas that have had a lasting effect on later research into the effects of social influence in groups.

Mastroianni, G. R. (2002). Milgram and the Holocaust: A reexamination. Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology, 22(2), 158–173.

Challenges the literature that has traditionally held that Stanley Milgram’s obedience studies are key in understanding the behavior of Holocaust perpetrators.

Rozin, P. (2001). Social psychology and science: Some lessons from Solomon Asch. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5(1), 2–14.

Important article regarding the status of research in social psychology and whether this subfield has been hampered by the research paradigms that have been popular among researchers. The author points to Solomon Asch’s work as a better model to follow.

Phillip Zimbardo’s well-known Stanford Prison Experiment has enjoyed a resurgence in popularity recently. Use the resources below as starting points to learn more about (1) contemporary scholarship on the impact of Zimbardo’s work and (2) analysis of how this piece of psychological history is presented in introductory psychology courses.

www.prisonexp.org/

Dr. Phillip Zimbardo maintains the Stanford Prison Experiment website, a collection of resources (e.g., links to videos, books, and scholarly associations) for information on this noteworthy experiment and its impact on psychology and society.

Bartels, J. M., Milovich, M. M., & Moussier, S. (2016). Coverage of the Stanford prison experiment in introductory psychology courses: A survey of introductory psychology instructors. Teaching of Psychology, 43(2), 136–141.
Drury, S., Hutchens, S. A., Shuttlesworth, D. E., & White, C. L. (2012). Phillip G. Zimbardo on his career and the Stanford Prison Experiment’s 40th anniversary. History of Psychology, 15(2), 161–170.
Griggs, R. A., & Whitehead, G. I., III. (2014). Coverage of the Stanford prison experiment in introductory social psychology textbooks. Teaching of Psychology, 41(4), 318–324.
Haslam, S. A., Reicher, S. D., & McDermott, M. R. (2015). Studying harm without doing harm: The case of the BBC prison study, the Stanford prison experiment, and the role-conformity model of tyranny. In R. J. Sternberg & S. T. Fiske (Eds.), Ethical challenges in the behavioral and brain sciences: Case studies and commentaries (pp. 134–139). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Zimbardo, P. G. (1973). On the ethics of intervention in human psychological research: With special reference to the Stanford prison experiment. Cognition, 2(2), 243–256.

Valuable article for individuals interested in the issues that the Stanford Prison Experiment raised for psychological research. Zimbardo (who conducted the experiment) summarizes the study and then summarizes one set of criticisms against the experiment, and offers a reply to those criticisms.

Resources below provide histories of experimental social psychology:

Baumgardener, S. R. (1977). Critical studies in the history of social psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 3(4), 681–687.
Rodrigues, A., & Levine, R. (Eds.). (1999). Reflections on 100 years of experimental social psychology. New York: Basic Books.

Systems In Retrospect

See resources below to complement textbook information regarding neobehaviorism, psychoanalysis, and humanistic psychology.

Amsel, A. (1992). Confessions of a neobehaviorist. Integrative Physiological and Behavioral Science, 27(4), 336–346.

Provides a chronology of the evolution of neobehaviorist research programs. Discussion includes early attempts to study constructs such as habit, need, and drive in the context of learning (e.g., Tolman and Hull), and later research programs that attempted to apply learning models to phenomena such as psychopathology (e.g., Harry Harlow and Kenneth W. Spence). The author provides a nice explanation of the role of cognition in neobehaviorist theories (1930s through 1960s) compared to the role of cognition in cognitive theories that emerged in the 1960s.

Dudley, R. T. (1999). Behaviorism and cognitivism in learning theory. Whatever happened to neobehaviorism? North American Journal of Psychology, 1(1), 83–86.

Distinguishes neobehaviorist theories of learning from purely behaviorist ones.

Eagle, M. N. (2011). From classical to contemporary psychoanalysis: A critique and integration. New York: Routledge.

Provides contemporary analysis of topics that form the foundation of psychoanalysis.

Elkins, D. N. (2013). Why humanistic psychology lost its power and influence in American psychology. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 49(3), 267–291.

Rowan, J. (2004). Some history of humanistic psychology. The Humanistic Psychologist, 32(3), 221–238.

Useful in its description of activities in Europe in the 1970s that established humanistic psychology there. May be of more interest to practicing psychologists but useful for students of history of psychology to appreciate that humanistic psychology is an approach that spread beyond the United States.

Chapter 18 Review Questions

Review Questions From The Book

What questions do critical psychologists ask, and why do they raise these questions?
What are the consequences when psychologists study a narrow slice of humanity, particularly those who live in countries that are W.E.I.R.D.?
How have psychologists and others confounded sex and gender?
How do sex and gender differ?
How have our views of gender changed in recent history?
What are potential benefits of studying intersectionality?
How has health psychology expanded into traditional health fields?
Describe the roots of positive psychology.
What are the primary concerns and hopes of ecopsychologists?
What famous legal cases led to the direct involvement of psychologists in the legal system, and how did psychologists contribute to each case?
What are some critical social and contextual differences that affected the successes and failures of Hugo Münsterberg and Elizabeth Loftus?
What factors have led to a resurgence of motivation studies?
How did qualitative research methods emerge in psychology?
How do faith and religion affect the lives and experiences of believers and nonbelievers?
What are the most important consequences of the Hoffman Report?

Additional Review Questions

Cite two pieces of evidence that globalization and multiculturalism will impact the practice of psychology in the twenty-first century.
Explain the importance of clarifying definitions of sex and gender for future psychological research.
Define intersectionality and cite one example.
Cite evidence of the growth of the psychology of health and health maintenance.
Cite two pieces of behavioral research that have informed the field of positive psychology.
Discuss how ecopsychology may be considered a product of the technological world we inhabit.
Summarize the role of eyewitness testimony in the early history of forensic psychology.
Explain how the cognitive approach to psychology hindered research interest in motivation.
How has a renewed emphasis on the concept of the “future” benefited motivation research?
Identify two quantitative methods that have improved psychological research.
Explain how qualitative methods in psychology gained wider acceptance in the 1990s.
Cite recent evidence that psychology, as a discipline, recognizes the role of religion in human life.
Explain why the Hoffman Report may be seen as an instance of the uneasy relationship that can exist between science and politics.
Cite evidence of the pluralism and diversity of contemporary psychology.
To what extent are psychologists concerned with unity? Are these valid concerns?

Practice Quizzes

Resources

Present Status And Future Directions

See resources below for perspectives on current conditions and future directions in psychology as a whole.

Perspectives on Psychological Science, a journal for the Association for Psychological Science, provides a big-picture view of theory and research in contemporary psychology. Its article format includes reviews, overviews of research programs, autobiographies, and opinion pieces.

Current Directions in Psychological Science, a journal for the Association for Psychological Science, features review articles on all aspects of psychological science, written by experts. It provides a contemporary snapshot (e.g., new theoretical directions, emerging methodologies) of a variety of research topics.

Annual Review of Psychology includes coverage of significant developments in nearly all subfields of psychology (e.g., biological psychology, cognitive processes, animal learning and behavior, community psychology, environmental psychology).

Davis, S. F., & Buskist, W. (Eds.). (2008). 21st century psychology: A reference handbook (Vols. 1–2). Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications.

This two-volume publication is a snapshot of contemporary psychology in its coverage of the science and practice of psychology. There are approximately 100 entries that cover well-known (e.g., Biological Psychology, Testing and Assessment) and lesser-known areas of the field (e.g., Community Psychology, Sport Psychology) as well as emerging perspectives (e.g., Gender and Sexual Orientation, Cross-Cultural Psychology and Research).

www.apa.org/independent-review/index.aspx

The American Psychological Association website maintains documentation relevant to the review of allegations of a relationship between the Association and Bush Administration and the use of abusive interrogation techniques during the War on Terror. The site also provides a link to the actual report (Hoffman Report).

Globalization Of Psychology

See the print resources below to begin further study of psychology’s shift from a discipline bound entirely by physical geography to a discipline that better reflects its subject matter: beings who live, essentially, with few spatial boundaries and constraints.

Bandura, A. (2001). The changing face of psychology at the dawning of a globalization era. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne, 42(1) 12–24.
Chiu, C.-Y., & Kwan, L. Y.-Y. (2016). Globalization and psychology. Current Opinion in Psychology, 8, 44–48.
Marsella, A. (2012). Psychology and globalization: Understanding a complex relationship. Journal of Social Issues, 68(3), 454–472.
Melluish, S. (2014). Globalization, culture, and psychology. International Review of Psychiatry, 26(5), 538–543.
Silbereisen, R. K., Ritchie, P. L.-J., & Pandey, J. (Eds.). (2014). Psychology education and training: A global perspective. New York: Psychology Press.

Reflections On Psychology

In the resources below, authors offer commentary on whether the emergence of different schools of thought throughout psychology’s history is similar to models of scientific revolution proposed by philosophers of science such as Thomas Kuhn and I. B. Cohen.

For ease of understanding, these articles are organized chronologically, rather than alphabetically by author surname.

Leahey, T. H. (1992). The mythical revolutions of American psychology. American Psychologist, 47(2), 308–318.
Buss, A. R. (1978). The structure of psychological revolutions. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 14(1), 57–64.
Warren, N. (1971). Is a scientific revolution taking place in psychology? Doubts and reservations. Science Studies, 1, 407–413.

The small sample of resources below reflects commentary from psychologists and psychologist-historians on the question of whether psychology can be unified and, if so, how?

Catania, A. C. (2013). A natural science of behavior. Review of General Psychology, 17(2), 133–139.
Chemero, A. (2013). Radical embodied cognitive science. Review of General Psychology, 17(2), 145–150.
Goertzen, J. R. (2008). On the possibility of unification: The reality and nature of the crisis in psychology. Theory and Psychology, 18(6), 829–852.
Green, C. D. (2015). Why psychology isn’t unified, and probably never will be. Review of General Psychology, 19(3), 207–214.
Henriques, G. R. (2013). Evolving from methodology to conceptual unification. Review of General Psychology, 17(2), 168–173.
Kimble, G. A. (1999). Functional behaviorism: A plan for unity in psychology. American Psychologist, 54(11), 981–988.
Kimble, G.A. (1994). A frame of reference for psychology. American Psychologist, 49(6), 510–519.
Staats, A. W. (1999). Unifying psychology requires a new infrastructure, theory, method, and a research agenda. Review of General Psychology, 3(1), 3–13.
Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.). (2005). Unity in psychology: Possibility or pipedream? Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Viney, W. (1989). The cyclops and the twelve-eyed toad: William James and the unity–disunity problem in psychology. American Psychologist, 44(10), 1261–1265.

Future Directions: Positive Psychology • Health Psychology • Forensic Psychology

See resources below as starting points for observations on past achievements and future concerns in these areas: positive, health, and forensic psychology.

Becker, D., & Maracek, J. (2008). Positive psychology: History in the making? Theory and Psychology, 18(5), 591–604.
Friedman, H. S. (Ed.). (2011). The Oxford handbook of health psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Friedman, H. S., & Silver, R. C. (Eds.). (2008). Foundations of health psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ogloff, J. R. P. (2011). A century of psychology and law: Successes, challenges, and future opportunities. In P. R. Martin, F. M. Cheung, M. C. Knowles, M. Kyrols, J. B. Overmier, & J. M. Prieto (Eds.), IAAP handbook of applied psychology (pp. 362–385). Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
Sheldon, K. M., Kashdan, T. B., & Steger, M. F. (Eds.). (2011). Designing positive psychology: Taking stock and moving forward. Oxford: Oxford University Press.