Step 1: Analyzing the Situation

Learning Outcomes

After reading this chapter, the student should be able to:

• Analyze examples of public relations situations in current campaigns.
• Differentiate between opportunities and obstacles.
• Discuss the role of public relations managers in an organization’s dominant coalition.
• Explain the concept of issues management.
• List the various steps in an issues management program.
• Outline the various approaches to ethical decision making.
• Apply the strategic planning exercise to a selected organization.
• Discuss public relations lessons drawn from Exxon Valdez and BP Deepwater Horizon oil disasters.

Overview

Step 1: Analyzing the Situation introduces readers to the beginning of the planning process with a focus on the situation or issue to be addressed. It deals with the careful and accurate identification of the situation, assessing it as either an opportunity to be embraced or an obstacle to be overcome. This chapter identifies a public relations situation as a set of circumstances facing an organization, and links this to the process of issues management.

Step 1 introduces students to two hypothetical organizations used as running examples throughout the remainder of the text: Upstate College is the focus of a proactive campaign to facilitate program expansion for a nonprofit organization, while Tiny Tykes Toys is the focus of a reactive campaign addressing a company’s efforts to rebuild customer confidence following a product recall.

This step also introduces students to the first Strategic Planning Exercise. In this recurring exercise, students are asked to identify an organization of interest and, by way of developing a public relations campaign for it, to apply the principles, guidelines, and recommendations associated with this step.

Ethical Considerations

Step 1 introduces students to ethical decision making in organizations. It outlines three classic approaches to decision making: the deontological approach that is rooted in a standard or moral code, the teleological approach that is focused on the impact and consequences of actions, and the approach of ethical relativism, which suggests that actions are ethical to the extent they reflect particular social norms. The point is made that no single approach is necessarily best for all situations; rather, it is common to move back and forth among the styles based on which one is appropriate for a given situation.

The chapter also offers the example of the ethics committee of the Ruder-Finn agency, discussing some of the cases that committee has considered.

Theory and Research Base

The introduction to this section provides an overview of research methodologies, along with definitions of casual research, secondary research and primary research. Instructors might find it useful to direct students to Appendix A: Applied Research, which provides information, examples and step-by-step instruction on conducting various types of research.

In Step 1, information also is offered about the need for ongoing communication between researcher and client.

Step 2: Analyzing the Organization

Learning Outcomes

After reading this chapter, the student should be able to:

• Outline the elements of a public relations audit.
• List the various sources of information for a public relations audit.
• Explain the importance of quality performance to strategic planning.
• Use examples to illustrate the niches of various organizations.
• Discuss the importance of candor in making an internal analysis of the organization’s strengths and limitations.
• Differentiate between visibility and reputation.
• Distinguish the difference between competition and opposition.

Overview

Step 2: Analyzing the Organization is the internal phase of the situation analysis. It focuses on the organization itself, with the admonition that planners must be candid about both the strengths and limitations of their organizations.

This step is subdivided into three components:

• Internal environment, which includes an audit of the organization’s performance, its niche, and its structure and resources, as well as a consideration of any internal impediments that could limit the effectiveness of a public relations program.
• Public perception, which considers the visibility of an organization and its reputation.
• External environment, which identifies and examines the organization’s competition, any opposition that may exist, and any other external impediments to success.

Ethical Considerations

Discussion can focus on the relationship between an organization’s actual performance and its existing or desired reputation.

Theory and Research Base

This step continues the situation analysis begun in Step 1. It introduces students to the tool of a public relations audit and to the concept of reputation, clearly linking this to the organization’s actual performance.

Step 3: Analyzing the Publics

Learning Outcomes

After reading this chapter, the student should be able to:

• Discuss the nature of publics.
• Differentiate among publics, markets, audiences, and stakeholders.
• Discuss the ethical connotation of key publics versus target publics.
• Identify the characteristics of publics.
• Use examples to illustrate various types of publics.
• Trace the development of a public through its various stages and possibilities.
• Analyze publics.

Overview

Step 3: Analyzing the Publics continues the situation analysis, this time with an external focus. It defines publics and compares a public to a market, an audience and a stakeholder. It also identifies five characteristics of a public: distinguishable, homogenous, important, large enough to matter, and reachable. It also discusses nonpublics and the stages of development of a public from latent, apathetic, aware, and active.

This step also identifies various types of publics: customers, producers, enablers and limiters. It also discusses intercessory publics and key publics.

Ethical Considerations

Step 3 lends itself to an ethical discussion about terminology, specifically on the difference between considering a public as key or strategic (indicating an important relationship with the organization, which would seek to interact with the public) and as a target (suggesting that the public would merely be acted upon by the organization).

A related ethical issue is whether the public has or should have any say in whether it is targeted by an organization.

Theory and Research Base

This step presents Dewey’s classic definition of a public as a group of people that shares a common interest vis-à-vis an organization, recognizes its significance and sets out to do something about it. It also presents the concept of linkages drawn from organizational sociology.

In this step, attention is given to the concept of opinion leaders. It presents information on the theory of two-step (later multi-step) flow of communication associated with Lazarsfeld, and Roger’s diffusion of innovations theory. It incorporates these theories as part of the process of identifying organizational publics. This chapter also presents some current research findings about opinion leaders.

Step 3 offers students a formal process and a Priorities Worksheet for establishing priorities among various alternatives, a process that can be useful not only in this step but also in subsequent steps.

As part of the analysis of strategic publics, this step also incorporates and expands upon Grunig and Hunt’s four stages in the development of a public.

Step 4: Establishing Goals and Objectives

Learning Outcomes

After reading this chapter, the student should be able to:

• Differentiate between goals and objectives.
• Analyze examples of goal statements and objectives in current public relations campaigns.
• Identify three different types of organizational goals.
• Explain the concept of positioning as it relates to public relations planning.
• Demonstrate an understanding of positioning by citing some current examples of repositioning campaigns.
• Write effective public relations objectives.

Overview

Step 4: Establishing Goals and Objectives deals with the organization’s motivation and expectations. It focuses first on general goals, identifying three different types: reputationmanagement goals, relationship management goals, and task management goals. It then focuses on the position or niche sought by the organization. This step finally deals with specific and measurable objectives involving awareness, acceptance, and action.

This step also includes an easy-to-follow formula for stating objectives in a manner that eventually will be useful in the Evaluative Research phase of the planning process. It also includes examples of both properly worded and poorly worded objectives, with a critique and restatement of the latter.

Ethical Considerations

In discussing goals and objectives, it is appropriate to ask students to consider ethical issues such as their potential impact on people who are part of the organization’s publics.

The planning worksheet explicitly poses the question: Are there any ethical problems with these goals?

Theory and Research Base

Step 4 begins with a discussion of the management-by-objectives concept as it applies to strategic communication. It also presents the concept of positioning, associated with Ries and Trout.

In the discussion of objectives, this step roots itself in research on cognitive, affective, and conative activity—concepts drawn from the field of social psychology.

Step 5: Formulating Action and Response Strategies

Learning Outcomes

After reading this chapter, the student should be able to:

• Analyze examples of action and response strategies in current public relations campaigns.
• Discuss the concept of transparent communication.
• Explain the importance of adaptation in public relations planning.
• Cite current examples of organizations adapting to their publics.
• Describe the difference between proactive and reactive strategies.
• Explain how news can become a strategy in public relations planning.
• Discuss ethical implications of strategic options.
• Outline theories relevant to developing public relations strategies (particularly agenda setting).
• Differentiate between offensive and defensive response strategies.

Overview

Step 5: Formulating Action and Response Strategies focuses attention on the activity of the organization. It presents a useful typology of both proactive and reactive strategies that organizations can consider.

An important consideration for this step is adaptation, the willingness and ability of an organization to make changes necessary to create harmony with its key publics.

Ethical Considerations

Step 5 includes information on media ethics and making ethical decisions, with a discussion based on five areas of duty rooted in the question: To whom is moral duty owed? The chapter also discusses examples of both ethical and unethical public relations strategies.

Theory and Research Base

This chapter presents typologies of both proactive and reactive public relations strategies, with many references to and citations for contemporary research findings.

In the discussion of proactive strategy, students are reminded that public relations involves concepts such as adaptation and transparent communication. It also reminds students of the practical implications of the agenda setting, framing, and priming theories.

The discussion of reactive strategy draws on theory and research surrounding the concept of apologia and theories of accounts and image restoration, as well as theories related to cognitive dissonance, consistency, cultivation, and several theoretical insights into the practice of public relations.

Step 6: Developing the Message Strategy

Learning Outcomes

After reading this chapter, the student should be able to:

• Analyze examples of communication strategy in current public relations campaigns.
• Explain the relationship among information, persuasion and dialogue.
• Discuss the three major characteristics of an effective message source.
• Use examples to illustrate the strategic use of humor, guilt appeal, fear appeal, sex appeal, and appeals to love and virtue.
• Identify the elements of both verbal and nonverbal communication.
• Outline theories relevant to developing public relations strategies (particularly balance, congruity, cognitive dissonance, inoculation, social judgment and psychological type).

Overview

Step 6: Developing the Message Strategy turns the planner’s attention to presentation of the message through both verbal and nonverbal means. It outlines three different approaches to public relations communication: information, persuasion, and dialogue. Among the practical elements of this step are the identification of organizational spokespersons, development of logical arguments, application of effective emotional appeals, and framing of the message in effective language.

Ethical Considerations

This step addresses ethical issues associated with the use of persuasive communication, the selection of organizational spokespersons, and the framing of messages using both verbal and nonverbal techniques. It also includes a section on ethical language.

Theory and Research Base

Step 6 reminds students of the process of communication, including models associated with Shannon and Weaver, Weiner, Berlo, and Schramm. The chapter presents a three-fold approach to public relations communication including information, persuasion and dialogue, and it links these to the Grunig and Hunt models. It also introduces concepts of consensus building and conflict resolution as these relate to public relations.

The step traces the development of communication from its ancient origins in classical Greece and Rome, drawing on Aristotle’s three-fold articulation of ethos, logos, and pathos.

It also provides background on research into persuasive communication, including a synopsis of theories based in social psychology. Additionally, the chapter deals with the public relations implications of theories associated with psychological type and temperament.

Step 7: Selecting Communication Tactics

Learning Outcomes

After reading this chapter, the student should be able to:

• Analyze examples of communication tactics in current public relations campaigns.
• Differentiate among traditional media categories (controlled and uncontrolled, internal and external, mass and targeted, popular and trade, public and nonpublic, print and electronic).
• Describe a menu of communication tactics based on interpersonal, organizational, news, and advertising/promotional media.
• Explain the strategy for selecting particular communication tactics.

Overview

Step 7: Selecting Communication Tactics begins with a reminder of the traditional categories of media: internal/external, controlled/uncontrolled, and so on. The chapter then offers another approach, categorizing communication tactics into four areas: interpersonal communication channels, organizational media, news media, and advertising and promotional media. Within these categories, students are presented with a lengthy menu of tactics, with examples of each approach. Additionally, each section includes a discussion of the strategy for selecting particular tactics.

Planners also are reminded that tactics should be chosen because they further campaign goals and objectives.

Ethical Considerations

Step 7 includes a discussion of the ethics of fundraising, along with a reprint of the Donor Bill of Rights. It also discusses the ethics of news and news-generating activities, and it presents a case study of blurred boundaries between television news, advertising, and promotion.

Theory and Research Base

This step presents research findings about the use of various communication tactics, from traditional techniques such as news releases and brochures to new tactics associated with the Internet. It also presents research on current media use, as well as on trends in fundraising and strategic philanthropy.

Step 8: Implementing the Strategic Plan

Learning Outcomes

After reading this chapter, the student should be able to:

• Develop a comprehensive package of communication tactics to achieve organizational goals and program objectives.
• Prepare a campaign book for a public relations campaign.
• Develop an effective schedule for implementing a program of tactics.
• Assess the pros and cons of various approaches to budgeting.
• Develop an appropriate budget for implementing a program of tactics.

Overview

Step 8: Implementing the Strategic Plan begins with a discussion of how to package the various tactics into a cohesive program or campaign.

It then presents an overview of a typical public relations campaign book or proposal. This chapter discusses elements related to scheduling, reminding students of standard scheduling tools such as Gantt and PERT charts, and presenting public relations applications to techniques such as message frequency and flighting drawn from advertising and marketing.

The chapter also deals with budgeting, providing students with a synopsis of several different approaches.

Ethical Considerations

Implicit in the discussion of budgeting is the need for accurate and honest presentation of information, including the presentation of full costs and the revelation of any hidden costs.

Theory and Research Base

Step 8 outlines a variety of approaches to budgeting drawn from research and current practice not only in public relations management but in general business management.

Step 9: Evaluating the Strategic Plan

Learning Outcomes

After reading this chapter, the student should be able to:

• Explain the importance of effective research design.
• Identify appropriate criteria for evaluative research.
• Differentiate among the various stages of evaluation.
• Differentiate among the various structures for final research.
• Explain the five different levels of evaluation.
• Identify the format and structure for an evaluative report.

Overview

Step 9: Evaluating the Strategic Plan focuses on the role of evaluative research in the planning process. It deals with various aspects of research design, timing, and evaluation criteria. The step also deals with implementation and progress reports as well as final evaluation reports.

Ethical Considerations

Among the criteria for evaluation proposed in this chapter is the need for research to be ethical and socially responsible.

Theory and Research Base

Step 9 includes current data from both academic and professional sources about the type and prevalence of evaluative research used by public relations practitioners.

The chapter links public relations evaluation with Wiener’s cybernetic model of communication. It also draws on concepts of communication outputs identified with Bissland and Lindenmann.

Appendices A, B, C & D: Applied Research

Learning Outcomes

After reading these appendices, the student should be able to:

• Explain the difference between academic and applied research.
• Discuss various ethical issues involved in research.
• Draw appropriate samples using a variety of sampling techniques.
• Differentiate between primary and secondary research.
• Identify appropriate sources for secondary research.
• Prepare for and conduct effective interviews.
• Prepare a focus group.
• Prepare a survey questionnaire.

Overview

Appendix A: Applied Research first distinguishes applied research from academic research. It then features sections dealing with research ethics, sampling (both probability and nonprobability), secondary research, and interviewing.
Appendix B deals with the methodology of focus groups.
Appendix C focuses on survey research, designing and conducting surveys, developing questionnaires, and evaluating responses.
Appendix D deals with content analysis, designing and conducting this research, and preparing reports.

Ethical Considerations

This appendix begins with a discussion of ethical issues involving research, both the way research affects people being studied and the way research data is used. Ethical issues are addressed in the various methodology-focused appendices.

Theory and Research Base

Appendix A includes up-to-date Internet sources for data and other information about conducting applied research.

Appendices E & F: Media Engagement & Crisis Communication

Learning Outcomes

After reading these appendices, the student should be able to:

• Explain the function of transparency in media engagements.
• Explain the role of reputation and credibility as part of a media engagement strategy.
• Distinguish between sudden and smoldering crises, and discuss examples of each.
• Evaluate the significance of each of the six principles for crisis communication in a given crisis scenario.
• Distinguish among the various options available to an organization during a crisis situation.
• Discuss the flow of information during a crisis.

Overview

Appendix E presents an overview of the principles for media engagements, also called media training or interview training. The appendix is rooted in two complementary concepts: reputation and credibility. The presentation includes strategic and tactical suggestions for both organizational leadership and spokespersons, with a focus on the role that organization action and spokesperson performance plays in effective media engagement.

Appendix F features a section on crisis communication dealing with principles, strategy, and tactics for this advanced area of media engagement.

Ethical Considerations

These appendices call for a discussion of the role of accuracy and honesty in dealing with the news matter, especially in crisis situations. It should be made clear that expediency and the pressures of scrutiny cannot lessen the need for the organization to be as forthcoming a possible with information that is accurate and transparent.

Theory and Research Base

These appendices address the issue of honesty and transparency as the basis for effective media engagement. Appendix F draws on current research in crisis communication, observing that most organizational crises are predictable and thus preventable.