Students

Chapter 2 Questions

1.  How can police agencies improve their response to cybercrime, especially in light of the continuous evolution of technology and communications applications?
2. If federal agencies have the greatest responsibility to investigate cybercrime but have difficulties arresting offenders due to limited extradition relationships, how can we improve their ability to deal with these offenses?
   
3. What issues can you see in having corporations play a more prominent role in combatting cybercrime through the use of civil lawsuits?
   
4. How do we balance security and privacy? Should Edward Snowden be viewed as a traitor who diminished national security or a hero protecting individual rights of privacy?

Chapter 3 Questions

1. Think about the various ways that you have seen hackers portrayed in popular media over the last few years? Are they heroic characters or dangerous criminals? Do the representations conform to any of the realities of the hacker subculture, or do they simply further stereotypes about hackers as a whole?
2. If hacking is a skill or ability, does it share any similarities to other real-world activities that can be applied in malicious or ethical ways?
3. Compare the ideas expressed in the Hacker Ethic against the comments made by the Mentor in the Hacker Manifesto. Do they make similar points, or are they very different documents? If there are common themes, what do they suggest about hacking and the complexities of the hacker subculture?
4. Given the range of actors evident in the hacker subculture, is it possible that ethical and unethical hackers may share similar motives? If so, what might those motives be, and is it possible to identify an individual’s ethical stance based solely on their motives?  
5. What were the weaknesses of using “traditional” legislation to prosecute hackers? How did newer legislation address those problems?

Chapter 4 Questions

1. Since malware writers tend to target popular software and resources, what do you think will be the likely targets for infection over the next five years? Please explain why you think a certain target may be selected over another.
2. If malware markets are making it easy to obtain malware and engage in sophisticated attacks, what impact will this have on the hacker subculture over time? How can we protect networks in light of these changes?
3. Why do you think nations have not criminalized the creation of malicious software generally? Should the legal code be amended to reflect this activity? Why?
4. If the antivirus software industry has grown since the 1990s, but malware continues to evolve and expand, is it reasonable to say that they are effective in reducing infections? If vendors are not technically stopping infections, then how can we assess their real value?

Chapter 5 Questions

1. What are your thoughts on digital piracy? Do you think there is a victim involved in intellectual property theft?
2. Consider how the evolution in technology has influenced how you watch movies and listen to music. Think about what it must have been like to listen to music on vinyl records or watch movies on tapes. Would holding a physical object, such as a record or cassette tape, affect your views on digital piracy?
3. How different is digital piracy from traditional theft? 
4. Considering that digital pirates are always one step ahead of the movie and music industries, how should private companies attempt to protect their intellectual property?

Chapter 6 Questions

1. As we continue to adopt new technologies to communicate, how will scammers utilize these spaces? For instance, how might a scammer use FaceTime or Skype to lure in prospective victims?
2. What demographic groups seem most susceptible to email-based fraud schemes, like 419 scams? Why do you think this might be the case?
   
3. What steps and techniques can individuals use to reduce their risk of victimization via carding or other non-interactive forms of fraud?
   
4. How can nations work together better to address Internet fraud and scamming? What is a nation supposed to do if its citizens are routinely victimized online by citizens of other nations and other nations refuse to do anything about it?

Chapter 7 Questions

1. How do you use your computer, tablet, and/or smart phone for dating and romantic assistance? Do you think that the use of technology makes it easier for people to meet others, or harder?
2. How could the development of the Internet and CMCs help reduce the risk of harm for individuals interested in the sex trade? In what ways does the ability to communicate about sex workers and review their services make it a less dangerous activity?
3. Do you think it is appropriate to punish individuals who engage in sexting? What about individuals who post sexual images which they receive from romantic partners online without the permission of the creator? Why or why not?  

Chapter 8 Questions

1. Since technology constantly evolves, what applications or devices do you think may be misused in the future as platforms for individuals to engage in the production or distribution of child pornography?
2. In what ways does the ability to communicate about sexual interests with children help make it possible for individuals to justify their actions and offend over time?
3. Why do you think we sanction individuals who possess or access child porn with more severity than we do hackers or data thieves? Why would there be such differential sanction use?

Chapter 9 Questions

1. Should we define youth who make harassing or disparaging comments about their teachers in online spaces as engaging in cyberbullying, or is it harassment? Simply put, why should we define an act differently on the basis of the ages of the victim and offender?
   
2. How do we communicate what is acceptable online behavior to youth in a way that is accepted and clear? Furthermore, how do we limit the effects of “peer pressure” on technology use and acceptance, where friends post sensitive information about themselves or personal pictures that could be abused by others?
   
3. How easy is it to find the reporting tools and links for harassing language on the social networking sites you use most often? Look on the sites and see how long it takes you to find them on YouTube, Instagram, Snapchat, and Twitter. Are they easy to find? Are they in obvious places?
   
4. Should schools be able to punish students for online activities that take place outside of the campus and after or before school hours if it directly affects the behavior of other students? Why? 

Chapter 10 Questions

1. How should we define or view the activities of Anonymous? They hack government targets, civilians, and industry. As such, should their actions be viewed as cybercrime, hacktivism, or cyberterror? Why? 
2. What real-world events, whether political, military, or social, could trigger a cyber-attack? For instance, why were there not more virtual sit-ins or DDoS attacks in response to the PRISM program?
3. Why do you think incidents like the Sony Pictures Hack or the Russian trolling operations do not lead to more substantial policy responses from the USA? Is it too difficult to find an appropriate response? What do you think would be acceptable? 
4. The threat of nuclear war and the proliferation of WMD is deterred in part by the idea of mutually assured destruction, not only for specific nations but for the larger world. Given that nearly every nation has economic and critical infrastructure dependent on technology, if a nation-state were to engage in cyberwar against a rival, it would demand a physical or cyber response. With that in mind, how can nation-states deter the use of cyber-attacks against one another? How do we respond to attacks committed by hackers or nation-states who are not influenced by traditional deterrence methods?

Chapter 11 Questions

1. Do you agree that cybercrime is “old wine in a new bottle?” 
   
2. Which theory made the most sense to you in explaining crimes in a virtual world? Why?
   
3. Think of a recent news event involving cybercrime. Which theory helps you understand better why that individual committed that crime?
   
4. Does the idea of a low self-control hacker make sense to you? Why or why not?
5. What risky activities do you partake in when you are online? How do those actions relate to routine activity theory?
   
6. Do we need cybercrime specific theories or are traditional criminological theories adequate?

Chapter 12 Questions

1. If technology is constantly evolving, will law enforcement and judicial legislation always be “one step behind” the criminal? Are there any crimes that do not leave behind digital evidence?
2. What are some of the problems law enforcement investigators face when collecting digital evidence from a crime scene?
3. Garfinkel (2010) argues that the Golden Age of digital forensics is nearing its end – what do you think is the next stage or era of digital forensics?
4. Maintaining evidence integrity is one of the most important steps in the digital forensic investigation. Provide some examples of how the integrity of evidence can be discredited during a digital forensic investigation. What are some ways that law enforcement can ensure that evidence integrity is maintained during a digital forensic investigation?

Chapter 13 Questions

1. The data preservation stage of the collection/acquisition phase of the digital forensic process involves careful planning on the part of the examiner. Identify five ways in which the digital evidence can be tainted during the data preservation process.
2. A fellow classmate is confused about the following terms: slack space, clusters, and sectors. The book provided the analogy of a two-car garage to assist readers with these different terms. Create a different analogy to explain these different terms to your fellow classmate. 
3. It is extremely important that digital forensic examiners are able to verify the authenticity of the digital evidence. Explain whether the courts should be concerned with the use of hash algorithms for verifying the authenticity of digital evidence.
4. Provide two examples of how confirmation bias could influence the integrity of a case. What are some ways we can limit the influence of forensic confirmation bias?

Chapter 14 Questions

1. There are a number of exceptions to the warrant requirement for a search and seizure. Identify five different expectations to this rule and create a different scenario for each that would involve the search and seizure of electronic evidence.  
2. Identify the four criteria for determining whether digital forensic expert testimony is admissible in court according to the Daubert standard. Assess each of these criteria and explain whether or not digital forensic evidence should be admissible in court. 
3. There are inconsistencies between national and international laws on a variety of legal issues associated with digital forensic investigations. Describe two of these inconsistencies and discuss whether or not a universal, international law or policy is possible regarding the treatment of digital forensic evidence in court. 
4. Create two different scenarios involving third-party consent to conduct a search and seizure. In the first scenario, the third-party member is not legally able to provide consent to law enforcement. In the second scenario, the third-party member is able to provide consent to law enforcement to conduct a search and seizure. Finally, do you agree with the current interpretation of the apparent authority principle? Explain. 

Chapter 15 Questions

1. Can you think of any distinct technology that you use that could be exploited by hackers? In what way could it be harmed? What information could be gathered from its compromise?
2. How could innovations, like unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) or drones, be used by cybercriminals to effectively collect information or offend? How could law enforcement agencies around the world use these devices to disrupt cybercriminals generally?
3. Based on everything you read throughout this book, what do you think the future of cybercrime offending and offenders will look like?
4. What other solutions can you think of to better prepare law enforcement to investigate cybercrimes? How can we improve the overall response?

Chapter 2

The website for the LA County Sheriff's Department provides an overview of local law enforcement agencies' response to cybercrime.

The Michigan State Police Cyber Section has a range of services available for the investigation of cybercrime.

This article provides an overview of the challenges inherent in using private investigators as digital forensic examiners.

The GCHQ serves as a primary signals intelligence collection agency in the UK.

This report details the perceived needs of local and state law enforcement agencies across the US in the late 1990s and early 2000s, and is an excellent background reader on policing cybercrime.

Chapter 3

This link provides an overview of a "hack" of the Boston Mass Transit Authority (MTA) systems, identified by MIT students in 2008. The article demonstrates what hacking a piece of critical infrastructure can do to policy makers' perceptions of threats and the legal challenges that can emerge for the hackers.

This article provides an overview of the ways that hackers can use social engineering techniques to acquire information about a target. Specifically, this story involves a social engineering attempt against Wal-Mart, performed as part of a contest at the Defcon hacker convention in 2012.

This video provides examples of social engineering in action against various companies.

This article provides an overview of a series of coordinated attacks against the New York Times newspaper, which originated from China and appear to correspond to nation-state sponsored hackers.

This link provides information on the cybercrime investigative responsibilities of the US Federal Bureau of Investigation

The 2600 is the premiere hacker quarterly publication which has been in operation since 1984. This site will give you a wealth of information on the hacker community in the words of its members over time.

Hackthissite is a website that provides free training and information on how to develop your skills as a hacker. The resources provided here are essential to understanding the thought processes and techniques of hacking.

This site provides daily updates on news stories involving either cybersecurity, criminal hacks, or threats to Internet-connected critical infrastructure.

Chapter 4

The US-CERT is the primary Computer Emergency Response Team in the US.

The Malware Domain List is an open source reporting site where security researchers can identify malware they have found hosted online.

This video provides an overview of the practices of hackers in the market for malware.

This video by Symantec provides an overview of how the well known Zeus trojan works to acquire sensitive personal information.

>This video from the Defcon hacker conference archive shows the live release of BO2K by members of the Cult of the Dead Cow at the conference.

The CAIDA website provides a detailed technical analysis of the operation and spread of the Code Red worm.

The Forum of Incident Response and Security Teams (FIRST) is the international association for CERTs and related groups around the world. This page provides you with an alphabetical list of all groups that are a member of FIRST, and demonstrates the global distribution of response teams to malware and security incidents.

The National Vulnerability Database (NVD) site provides a catalogue of virtually all known vulnerabilities that have been identified, scored based on their potential threat capabilities.

Chapter 5

www.forbes.com/sites/emmawoollacott/2014/06/17/game-of-thrones-finale-sets-new-piracy-record/
www.cnet.com/news/game-of-thrones-finale-piracy-hits-2-petabytes-in-12-hours/
These stories describe the massive number of attempts to download the season finale of the HBO program Game of Thrones. These stories also demonstrate the substantial interest that people have in accessing media, and how far they are willing to violate laws in order to gain access.

In this interview with one of the three founders of The Pirate Bay, the premiere torrent site for pirated media and software, he discusses his opinions on piracy and politics.

This interview with Lars Ulrich, the drummer of the popular band Metallica, demonstrates his opinions on the band's lawsuit against Napster and piracy generally.

The US National Intellectual Property Rights Coordination Center is a key resource for intellectual property owners to report complaints of piracy. They also support the Immigration and Customs Enforcement commercial fraud program which seizes pirated material and counterfeit goods.

This news story provides a detailed overview of the attacks against the MPAA, RIAA, and other anti-piracy entities performed by the group Anonymous. These attacks demonstrate that piracy is perceived by some to be a right, rather than an illegal act.

The Recording Industry Association of America provides protection and lobbying efforts for recording artists and companies in the US.

This link contains the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works as it has been approved and drafted over time.

The World Intellectual Property Organization provides guidance and direction for intellectual propery holders worldwide.

This article provides an overview of one of the prominent FBI-led investigations of the piracy group "DrinkOrDie" in 2001. This case involved multiple law enforcement agencies and led to the arrest of several key individuals within the group.

Chapter 6

The Federal Trade Commission acts as a clearinghouse for information on identity theft and fraud within the US. It also acts as a repository for information on consumer protection in various contexts.

This article provides an overview of one of the first law enforcement operations against carding markets. The investigation, titled "Operation Firewall" took down members of the carding group the ShadowCrew who trafficked in over 1.4 million credit card numbers.

419eater is a website designed for individuals to report on their experiences with advance fee fraud emails, and in some cases discuss how they baited the scammer into wasting time and resources dealing with them. In essence, this group acts as a vigilante organization to reduce the number of successful fraud incidents that take place.

The International AntiCounterfeiting Coalition is a not-for-profit group that operates to provide training and resources for law enforcement and intellectual property holders. They also provide estimates on the rate of counterfeiting and costs associated with this crime.

The Anti-Phishing Working Group is a cross-industry group designed to help combat phishing by law enforcement, academia, and private industry.

Action Fraud is the key resource within the UK to report fraud and internet-based crimes to the national police. They take complaints from victims and attempt to coordinate the response with local and national police agencies when appropriate.

The US Secret Service plays a primary role in the investigation of financial cybercrimes.

The Ponemon Institute publishes a yearly report on the scope of data breaches not only in the US, but in various countries around the globe each year.

Chapter 7

This story provides an overview of the prosecution of the pornographer, Max Hardcore, under federal charges of the production and distrubtion of obscene content. This is an excellent example of the challenges that emerge when defining obscene content and why these cases are often difficult to prosecute.

This story discusses the ways that technology is increasingly enhancing human sexuality, whether through available resources like pornography, or changing the process by which individuals connect with one another for the purposes of sexual encounters.

The application Tinder is designed to run on mobile phones and links individuals together online so that they can then connect in the real world. This app is intended to enable people to meet up, though it has also become useful for casual sexual encounters.

This story provides a discussion of the role of the free classified advertisement website Craigslist in the facilitation of prostitution in the US. Though the site operated an erotic services section, it was eventually removed after a lawsuit. The elimination of this section did not, however, stop sex workers from advertising via the site.

This article provides an overview of the role of third-party websites like Craigslist and backpages in the trafficking of prostitutes and human beings.

Chapter 8

The Internet Crimes Against Children Task Force program operates to provide enhanced investigative responses for local, state, and federal agencies across the US. There are now ICACs across the country, with multiple ICACs in some states depending on size and population density.

The National Center for Missing and Exploited Children operates as the key resource for reporting incidents of abuse, exploitation and runaways/kidnappings in the US. They operate multiple tip-lines and coordinate responses with local, state, and federal law enforcement agencies.

The National Conference on State Legislatures provides a summary overview of the states with legal requirements for reporting child pornography for individuals working in IT in the US. This document demonstrates the range of requirements in place and the basic justifications for reporting.

This article provides an overview of the use of child sexual exploitation materials and the process of offending.

The International Center for Missing and Exploited Children provides support for investigators dealing with child sexual exploitation cases and takes reports of potential abuse.

UNICEF provides annual reports on child sexual exploitation and abuse internationally.

Chapter 9

This article by the Washington Times discusses the debate within the Rhode Island state legislature on the need to develop laws against revenge porn websites. The hotbutton issue of revenge porn has developed as a result of the ability for individuals to create and send nude or sexual images voluntarily through email and text. The sender, however, has minimial control over what the recipient does with that content creating a legal dillema.

The website Cyberbullying.us provides a summary of research conducted by two scholars, Hinduja and Patchin. These researchers have conducted a number of studies on the issue of cyberbullying, from the perspective of both victims and offenders and provide substantive information on the scope of this activity in the US.

The US National Crime Prevention Council provides a detailed overview of cyberbullying, what parents can do if they think their kids are being bullied, and how youth can help to deal with cyberbullying.

The volunteer-run group Working to Halt Online Abuse takes reports of cyberbullying, harassment, and cyberstalking and offers victim assistance around the world.

This article details a recent case of cyberstalking where the offender lived in Michigan and was able to stalk and harass multiple underage girls living across New York state. He is alleged to have hacked their webcams and threatened to send images to their friends and families.

This archival report published by the Department of Justice details the initial perspectives of attorneys toward the problem of cyberstalking in the US.

This article by the UK Mirror details the death of Hannah Smith who committed suicide after being cyberbullied on the website Ask.fm.

This article provides an overview of victims of revenge porn based on Australian researchers' findings.

Chapter 10

This article discusses a mass website hacking tool and the dangers of Google dorks.

This article discusses a mass website hacking tool to demonstrate how easy it is to compromise websites.

This video provides an overview of the ways that the Stuxnet malware works in an actual computing environment.

Zone-H maintains an archive of web defacements reported by hackers to promote their actions in real-time. At the same time, this data provides a basis for researchers to understand the range of defacements that are motivated by political or ideological reasons.

This website provides access to translated versions of the Al-Qaeda produced lifestyle magazine Inspire. This is an excellent example of the ways that technology enables extremist movements direct access to the public with complete control over the way their message is communicated.

This report from the Southern Poverty Law Center in the US provides an overview of the white nationalist website Stormfront and its creator Don Black.

The US Cyber Command is the command responsible for coordination, integration, and operations to defend US military cyberspace and protect its interests at home and abroad.

This story provides a comprehensive overview of the Sony Pictures hack performed by the Guardians of Peace.

Chapter 11

The International Journal of Cyber Criminology is an open-source criminological journal that provides a number of empirical tests of key theories using various forms of cybercrime offenses and victimization with distinct populations.

Chapter 12

Computer Forensics Training provides a brief, but valuable historical overview of the evolution of computer forensics, as well as details on the qualifications and certifications needed by forensic analysts to succeed in the workforce.

The Scientific Working Group on Digital Evidence provides direction and commentary on the practices of forensic analysis and oversight to the field to ensure quality tools and techniques are employed.

The US National Institute of Justice maintains detailed information for law enforcement on what constitutes digital evidence and the best practices for search and seizure through their Electronic Crime Program.

The Electronic Crime Scene Investigation Guide provides a detailed, yet simple to understand breakdown of the various forms of digital evidence that exist and how they should be stored and seized.

This article from PC World provides a comprehensive overview of the evolution of removable storage media for computers over the last 60 years. This history provides excellent detail on the dramatic transformation of technology.

This blog post from the SANS Institute Digital Forensics and Incident Response Group provides a detailed overview of the process of digital evidence collection and the best techniques that can be applied to different devices.

This video provides a brief and local example of the process of evidence collection.

Chapter 13

The US National Institute for Standards and Technology Law Enforcement Standards Office provides information on the tools and resources available to law enforcement to ensure high quality analysis of digital evidence. They also maintain the Computer Forensics Tool Testing Project website and the National Software Reference Library for analysts to identify and assess the quality of resources available in the open market.

This publication from NIST details the best practices for the seizure and analysis of evidence from mobile phones and devices. It is a must read for anyone interested in this topic.

This article explains what write blockers are, how they are used, and differences in software and hardware write blocking devices based on NIST standards.

The Digital Intelligence website provides a catalogue of all the tools needed for digital forensic analysis, from write blockers to analysis software.

The company Guidance Software produces the software suite EnCase, and provides a comprehensive overview of their product line and its utilities.

The company Access Data produces the Forensic Tool Kit (FTK) and provides a comprehensive overview of their product line.

This article posted at HowStuffWorks provides an overview of encryption and the way that it works in simple terms.

The company Quickcrypto offers a free steganography program that provides individuals with an easy to use tool and simple information on how and why people use steganography software.

This article from ArsTechnica provides a detailed overview of steganography in real life through a case study of a digital file of porn that contained Al Qaeda documents and information. This information was seized by German police during the arrest of a suspected Al Qaeda member.

This article provides an overview of the presentation of digital evidence in court in a UK context. The article, written by a forensic analyst for the Kent Police, describes the process in England and Wales.

This article, published by the State Bar of Wisconsin, provides a best practices guide to the presentation of digital evidence during trials, including how not to confuse judges and juries.

This issue of the US Attorneys' Bulletin provides multiple articles on the effective presentation of evidence and introduction of evidence during trials, as well as information on new and emerging trends. This work is invaluable to understanding how the process takes place in the field.

This brief video by the State Bar of Wisconsin provides an overview of the issues of digital evidence presentation in court.

Chapter 14

This blog post by the Heritage Foundation provides an overview of issues related to the Fourth Amendment and digital evidence.

This document, published by the US Department of Justice provides a comprehensive overview of the legal process of searching and seizing computers and digital evidence, and the challenges that may be used to keep this evidence from being legally admissible at trial.

This blog post by the SANS Institute provides an overview of the ways that the Fourth Amendment affects the legal search and seizure of digital evidence and materials.

This blog post published by the website Federal Evidence Review provides an overview of key cases regarding legal challenges to the presentation of evidence in 2013. This article is valuable to understand how evidentiary rules may be challenged and changed over time.

This article from ZDNet provides an overview of the legal challenges posed by password-protection of digital evidence and the right to protection from self-incrimination in a case involving bank fraud.

This article, published in Forensic Magazine, provides an overview of the process of obtaining and executing a search warrant for digital evidence.

This article from the Bar Association of Minnesota details challenges to the admissability of electronic evidence in courts.

This website provides a comprehensive list of the 2017 US Federal Rules of Evidence, which is invaluable to understanding the process of legal admissions and challenges for the court.

This article, published by the American Bar Association, provides a detailed overview on the need for careful handling and admission of electronic evidence in courts.

The Electronic Frontier Foundation is a not-for-profit group that provides legal information and fights for digital civil liberties. They provide a range of position papers on digital evidence and rights.

This blog post on the practice of law is the first in a series on how to evaluate digital forensic analysis reports, and the ways that they may be challenged using the Daubert standard of evidence. This series is well-written and communicates the issues in a clear fashion.

This video provides an overview of key disclosure laws.

This article provides an overview of the challenges posed by encryption for law enforcement agencies in the US.

Chapter 15

This position piece provides an overview of the future threats posed by a range of cybercrimes written to inform policy makers moving forward.

This article provides an overview of the emergent threats posed by cybercrimes targeting all manner of devices.

This article provides commentary on a presentation regarding the future of digital forensics. This work demonstrates the range of technological shifts that will impact forensic analysis.

This position piece by Sundar Narayanan provides a discussion of his perceptions on the future of digital forensics.

This article provides an overview of how the Ukraine is a potential laboratory for Russian cyber-attacks against various targets, which may be employed against other nations in the future.

This article discusses the need to build better and more secure devices from the start so as to better protect the Internet of Things which comprises home security systems, cars, and smart grids.

This article provides a conceptual review of the value of an international criminal tribunal to deal with multinational cybercrime incidents.

Chapter 2

Barbara, J. L.  (2009). The case against licensing for digital forensic examiners.

Cross, C.  (2015).  No laughing matter: Blaming the victim of online fraud. International Review of Victimology 21: 187-204.

Goodman, M. D. (1997). Why the police don’t care about computer crime. Harvard Journal of Law and Technology, 10, 465–494.

Hinduja, S. (2007). Computer crime investigations in the United States: Leveraging knowledge from the past to address the future. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 1, 1–26.

Holt, T. J., Burruss, G. W., and Bossler, A. M. (2015).  Policing cybercrime and cyberterror.  Raleigh, NC: Carolina Academic Press. 

Kessler International.  (2017).  Computer forensics and forensic accounting licensing survey. 

Marcum, C., Higgins, G. E., Freiburger, T. L., & Ricketts, M. L. (2010). Policing possession of child pornography online: Investigating the training and resources dedicated to the investigation of cyber crime. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 12, 516–525.

Stambaugh, H., Beaupre, D. S., Icove, D. J., Baker, R., Cassady, W., & Williams, W. P. (2001). Electronic Crime Needs Assessment for State and Local Law Enforcement. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, U. S. Department of Justice.

Chapter 3

Decary-Hetu, D. & Dupont, B. (2012) “The Social Network of Hackers”. Global Crime, 13, 60–175. 

Holt, T. J. (2007) “Subcultural Evolution? Examining the Influence of On- and Off-line Experiences on Deviant Subcultures”. Deviant Behavior, 28, 171–198.
Holt, T. J. & Kilger, M. (2012) "Know Your Enemy: The Social Dynamics of Hacking". The Honeynet Project.

Jordan, T. & Taylor, P. (2004) Hacktivism and Cyber Wars. London: Routledge.

Levy, S. (2001). Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution. New York: Penguin.

Schell, B. H. & Dodge, J. L. (2002) The Hacking of America:  Who’s Doing it, Why, and How. Westport, CT: Quorum Books.

Shimomura, T. & Markoff, J. (1996) Takedown: The Pursuit and Capture of Kevin Mitnick, America’s Most Wanted Computer Outlaw—by the Man Who Did It. New York: Hyperion.

Steinmetz, K. F. (2015). "Craft(y)ness: An Ethnographic Study of Hacking". British Journal of Criminology, 55,125–145.

Taylor, P. (1999). Hackers: Crime in the Digital Sublime. London: Routledge.

Chapter 4

Bossler, A. M. & Holt, T. J. (2009) “On-line Activities, Guardianship, and Malware Infection: An Examination of Routine Activities Theory”. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 3, 400–420.   

Chu, B., Holt, T.J., & Joon Ahn, G. (2010) "Examining the Creation, Distribution, and Function of Malware On-Line". Washington DC: National Institute of Justice, NIJ Grant No. 2007-IJ-CX-0018.

Davis, M. A., Bodmer, S. M., & LeMasters, A. (2009) Hacking exposed: Malware & Rootkits, Secrets & Solutions. Trenton, NJ: McGraw Hill.

Elisan, C. C.  (2012) A Beginner's Guide to Malware, Rootkits, and Botnets. Trenton, NJ: McGraw Hill.

Gordon, S. & Ma, Q. (2003) "Convergence of Virus Writers and Hackers: Factor or Fantasy". Cupertine, CA: Symantec Security White Paper.

Michael, M. (2017) "State of Cyber Security". Cyber Security Insights, F-Secure, Business Security Insider.

Ngo, F. T.  & Paternoster, R. (2011) “Cybercrime Victimization: An Examination of Individual- and Situational-Level Factors". International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 5, 773–793.

Chapter 5

Bachmann, M. (2007) “Lesson Spurned? Reactions of Online Music Pirates to Legal Prosecutions by the RIAA”. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 2, 213–227. 

Brown, S. C. (2016) "Where Do Beliefs About Music Piracy Come From and How Are They Shared? An Ethnographic Study". International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 10(1), 21–39.

Business Software Alliance (2016). "Seizing Opportunity Through License Compliance". BSA Global Software Survey, BSA: The Software Alliance.

Cooper, J. & Harrison, D. M. (2001) "The Social Organization of Audio Piracy on the Internet". Media, Culture, and Society, 23, 71–89.

Higgins, G. E., Fell, B.D., & Wilson, A. L. (2006) “Digital Piracy: Assessing the Contributions of an Integrated Self-Control Theory and Social Learning Theory Using Structural Equation Modeling”. Criminal Justice Studies, 19, 3–22.

Ingram, J. R. & Hinduja, S. (2008) "Neutralizing Music Piracy: An Empirical Examination". Deviant Behavior, 29(4), 334–365.

Nhan, J. (2013) “The Evolution of Online Piracy: Challenge and Response”. In Holt, T. J. Crime On-line: Causes, Correlates, and Context, 2nd ed. Raleigh, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 61–80.

Chapter 6

Cross, C. (2015) "No Laughing Matter: Blaming the Victim of Online Fraud. International Review of Victimology, 21, 187–204.

Finley, L. (2009) "Online Pharmaceutical Sales and the Challenge for Law Enforcement". In F. Schmalleger and M. Pittaro (eds) Crime of the Internet, Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 101–128.

Harrell, E. (2014). "Victims of Identity Theft, 2014". Bureau of Justice, (NCJ 248991).

Holt, T. J. & Lampke, E.  (2010) "Exploring Stolen Data Markets On-line: Products and Market Forces". Criminal Justice Studies, 23, 33–50.
James, L. (2005) Phishing Exposed. Rockland: Syngress.

King, A. & Thomas, J. (2009) “You Can’t Cheat an Honest Man: Making ($$$s and) Sense of the Nigerian E-mail Scams". In F. Schmalleger and M. Pittaro (eds) Crime of the Internet, Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 206–224.

Mitnick, K. D. & Simon, W. L. (2002). The Art of Deception: Controlling the Human Element of Security. New York: Wiley Publishing.

Reyns, B. W. (2013) "Online Routines and Identity Theft Victimization: Further Expanding Routine Activity Theory Beyond Direct-Contact Offenses". Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 50, 216–238.

Wall, D. S.  & Large, J. (2010) "Locating the Public Interest in Policing Counterfeit Luxury Fashion Goods". British Journal of Criminology, 50, 1094–1116.

Chapter 7

DeCurtis, C. (2003) “Prostitution, Sex Tourism on the Internet: Whose Voice is Being Heard?”  Computers and Society, 33, 3–11.

Denney, A. S. & Tewksbury, R. (2013) “Characteristics of Successful Personal Ads in a BDSM Online Community”.  Deviant Behavior, 34, 153–168.

Edelman, B. (2009) "Red Light States: Who Buys Online Adult Entertainment?" Journal of Economic Perspectives, 23, 209–220. 

Holt, T. J  & Blevins, K. R. (2007) “Examining Sex Work From the Client’s Perspective: Assessing Johns Using Online Data”. Deviant Behavior, 28, 333–354. 

Lane, F. S. (2000) Obscene Profits: The Entrepreneurs of Pornography in the Cyber Age.  New York: Routledge.

Milrod, C. & Monto, M.A. (2012) "The Hobbyist and the Girlfriend Experience: Behaviors and Preferences of Male Customers of Internet Sexual Service Providers”.  Deviant Behaviors, 33, 792–810. 

Quinn, J. F. & Forsyth, C. J. (2013) “Red Light Districts on Blue Screens: A Typology  for Understanding the Evolution of Deviant Communities on the Internet”. Deviant Behavior, 34, 579–585.  

Weitzer, R. (2014) “The Social Ecology of Red-Light Districts: A Comparison of Antwerp and Brussels”. Urban Affairs Review, 50, 702–730.

Chapter 8

Babchishin, K. M., Hanson, R. K., & VanZuylen, H.  (2015). "Online Child Pornography Offenders are Different: A Meta-analysis of the Characteristics of Online and Offline Sex Offenders Against Children".  Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44, 45–66. 

Durkin, K. F. (1997) "Misuse of the Internet by Pedophiles: Implications for Law Enforcement and Probation Practice". Federal Probation, 14, 14–18.
Holt, T. J., Blevins, K. R., & Burkert, N. (2010) "Considering the Pedophile Subculture On-line". Sexual Abuse: Journal of Research and Treatment, 22, 3–24.

Jenkins, P. (2001) Beyond Tolerance: Child Pornography on the Internet. New York: New York University Press.

Krone, T. (2005) "Does Thinking Make It So? Defining Online Child Pornography Possession Offenses". Trends & Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, 299.

Seigfried, K., Lovely, R., & Rogers, M. (2008) "Self-Reported Internet Child Pornography Users: A Psychological Analysis". International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 2(1), 286–297.

Chapter 9

Catalano, S. (2012)  "Stalking Victims in the United States - Revised". Washington, DC: US Department of Justice.

DeVoe, J. F., Bauer, L., & Hill, M. R. (2011) "Student Victimization in U.S. Schools: Results From the 2009 School Crime Supplement to the National Crime Victimization Survey". Washington, DC: National Center for Educational Statistics.

Hinduja, S. & Patchin, J. W. (2008) Bullying Beyond the Schoolyard: Preventing and Responding to Cyberbullying. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

Hinduja, S. & Patchin, J. W. (2012) Cyberbullying Prevention and Response: Expert Perspectives. New York: Routledge. 

Jones, L. M., Mitchell, K. J., & Finkelhor, D. (2012) “Trends in Youth Internet Victimization: Findings From Three Youth Internet Safety Surveys 2000–2010”. Journal of Adolescent Health, 50, 179–186. 

Priebe, G., Mitchell, K. J., & Finkelhor, D. (2013). "To Tell or Not to Tell? Youth’s Responses to Unwanted Internet Experiences". Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 7,  1–20. 

Reyns, B. W., Henson, B., & Fisher, B. S. (2012) “Stalking in the Twilight Zone: Extent of Cyberstalking Victimization and Offending Among College Students”. Deviant Behavior, 33, 1–25. 

Wolak, J.,Finkelhor, D., & Mitchell, K. (2012) Trends in Law Enforcement Responses to Technology-Facilitated Child Sexual Exploitation Crimes: The Third National Juvenile Online Victimization Study (NJOV-3).  Durham, NH: Crimes Against Children Research Center.

Chapter 10

Berger, J. M. & Morgan, J. (2015) The ISIS Twitter Census: Defining and Describing the Population of ISIS Supporters on Twitter. The Brookings Institute. 

Britz, M. T. (2010) "Terrorism and Technology: Operationalizing Cyberterrorism and Identifying Concepts". In T. J. Holt (Ed.), Crime On-Line: Correlates, Causes, and Context. Raleigh, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 193–220.

Denning, D. E. (2010) "Cyber-Conflict as an Emergent Social Problem". In T. J. Holt & B. Schell (Eds), Corporate Hacking and Technology-Driven Crime: Social Dynamics and Implications. Hershey, PA: IGI-Global, 170–186.

Department of Defense. (2011) "Preventing and Defending Against Cyber Attacks".  Washington DC: The National Security Archive, The George Washington University.

Executive Office of the President of the United States. (2011) "International Strategy for Cyberspace: Prosperity, Security, and Openness in a Networked World". Washington DC: Executive Office of the President of the United States [National Security Council].

Holt, T. J.  (2009) "The Attack Dynamics of Political and Religiously Motivated Hackers". In T. Saadawi & L. Jordan (Eds) Cyber Infrastructure Protection. New York: Strategic Studies Institute, 161–182.

Pollitt, M. M. (1998) "Cyberterrorism – Fact or Fancy?" Computer Fraud & Security, 2,  8–10.

Rid, T. (2013) Cyber War Will Not Take Place. London: Hurst & Company.

Schmid, A. P. & Jongman, A. J. (2005) Political Terrorism: A New Guide to Actors, Authors, Concepts, Data Bases, Theories, & Literature. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

Chapter 11

Bossler, A. M. & Holt, T. J.  “The Effect of Self Control on Victimization in the Cyberworld”. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38, 227–236. 

Goldsmith, A. & Brewer, R. (2015) "Digital Drift and the Criminal Interaction Order". Theoretical Criminology, 19, 112–130.

Higgins, G. E. (2005) “Can Low Self-Control Help with the Understanding of the Software Piracy Problem?” Deviant Behavior, 26, 1–24.

Holt, T. J. & Bossler, A. M. (2009) “Examining the Applicability of Lifestyle-Routine Activities Theory for Cybercrime Victimization”. Deviant Behavior 30, 1–25. 

Ingram, J. R & Hinduja, S. (2008) “Neutralizing Music Piracy: An Empirical Examination”. Deviant Behavior, 29, 334–366.

Kerstens, J. & Jansen, J. (2016). "The Victim-Perpetrator Overlap in Financial Cybercrime: Evidence and Reflection on the Overlap of Youth’s On-line Victimization and Perpetration". Deviant Behavior, 37(5), 585–600.

Ngo, F. T. & Paternoster, R. (2011) “Cybercrime Victimization: An Examination of Individual- and Situational-Level Factors”. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 5, 773–793.

Pratt, T. C. , Holtfreter, K., & Reisig, M. D. (2010) “Routine Online Activity and Internet Fraud Targeting: Extending the Generality of Routine Activity Theory". Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 47, 267–296. 

Rogers, M., Smoak, N. D., & Liu, J. (2006) “Self-Reported Deviant Computer Behavior: A Big-5 Moral Choice, and Manipulative Exploitive Behavior Analysis”. Deviant Behavior, 27, 245–268. 

Skinner, W. F. & Fream, A. F.  (1997) “A Social Learning Theory Analysis of Computer Crime Among College Students”. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 34, 495–518.

Wolfe, S. E. , George E. Higgins, G. E., & Marcum, C. D. (200&) “Deterrence and Digital Piracy: A Preliminary Examination of the Role of Viruses”. Social Science Computer Review, 26, 317–333. 

Yar, M. (2005) "The Novelty of Cybercrime”. European Journal of Criminology, 2, 407–427.

Chapter 12

Cowen, D. (2013) Computer Forensics InfoSec Pro Guide. Trenton, NJ: McGraw-Hill.

Ferraro, M. & Casey, E.  (2005) Investigating Child Exploitation and Pornography: The Internet, the Law, and Forensic Science. New York, NY: Elsevier Academic Press.  

National Institute of Justice. (2008) Electronic Crime Science Investigation: A Guide for First Responders, 2nd ed., Washington, DC: NCJ 219941.

Nilsson, D. K. & Larson, U. E. (2009) "Conducting Forensic Investigations of Cyber Attacks on Automobile In-Vehicle Networks". International Journal of Digital Crime and Forensics, 1(2), 28–34.

Peyton, A. (2016). "A Litigator’s Guide to the Internet of Things". Richmond Journal of Law and Technology, 22(3), 1–20.

Chapter 13

Altheide, C. &  Carvey, H. (2012) Digital Forensics with Open Source Tools. Syngress: Sacramento, CA.

Carrier, B. (2002) "Open Source Digital Forensic Tools: The Legal Argument". 

EC-Council. (2017) Computer Forensics: Investigating Data and Image File.2nd ed. Cengage Learning: United States.

Kassin, S. M., Dror, I. E., & Kukucka, J. (2013) "The Forensic Confirmation Bias: Problems, Perspectives, and Proposed Solutions. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 2 (1), 42–52.

Sammons, J. (2012) The Basics of Digital Forensics: The Primer for Getting Started in Digital Forensics.  Syngress: Sacramento, CA. 

Schmitt, V., & Jordaan, J. (2013). "Establishing the Validity of MD5 and SHA-1 Hashing in Digital Forensic Practice in Light of Recent Research Demonstrating Cryptographic Weaknesses in These Algorithms". International Journal of Computer Applications, 68 (23), 40–43.

Chapter 14

Casey, E. (2011) Digital Evidence and Computer Crime: Forensic Science, Computers, and the Internet, 3rd ed.  New York, NY: Elsevier Academic Press.  

Frieden, J. D. & Murray, L. M.  (2007)  "The Admissability of Electronic Evidence Under the Federal Rules of Evidence". Richmond Journal of Law and Technology. 5(2), 1–39. 

"Seigfried-Spellar, K. & Leshney, S. (2016) ""The Intersection Between Social Media, Crime, and Digital Forensics: #WhoDunIt?"" In J. Sammons (ed.) Digital Forensics: Threatscape and Best Practices, 59–67
"

Smith, F. C. & Bace, R. (2002) A Guide to Forensic Testimony: The Art and Practice of Presenting Testimony as an Expert Technical Witness, 1st ed. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley Professional.

Wasserman, R. (2004) Procedural Due Process: A Reference Guide to the United States Constitution. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.

Watson, D. & Jones, A. (2013) Digital Forensics Processing and Procedures: Meeting the Requirements of ISO 17020, ISO 17025, ISO 27001 and Best Practice Requirements. Waltham, MA: Syngress.

Chapter 15

Project 2020. "Scenarios for the Future of Cybercrime – White paper for Decision Makers".  International Cyber Security Protection Alliance. 

Olsen, P.  (2012) We are Anonymous: Inside the Hacker World of LulzSec, Anonymous, and the Global Cyber Insurgency.  New York: Little, Brown, and Company.

O'Brien, Laura.  (2014) "The Future of Mobile Malware".  Symantec Security Response.

McAfee Labs.  (2014) " McAfee Labs 2014 Threat Prediction". 

Schjolberg, J.  (2012) "Recommendations For Potential New Global Legal Mechanisms Against  Global Cyberattacks and Other Global Cybercrimes".  EastWest Institute (EWI) Cybercrime  Legal Working Group.