Recommended Further Reading
Download1. GENERAL
CLASSIC TEXTS
These are the seminal works on forensic anthropology, written by the founders of the field: Wilton Marion Krogman and T. Dale Stewart.
Krogman, W. M. (1939). Guide to the identification of human skeletal material. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 8:3–31.
Krogman, W. M. (1962). The Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
Krogman, W. M., Iscan, M. Y. (1986). The Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine, 2nd ed. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
Stewart, T. D. (1979). Essentials of Forensic Anthropology. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
MODERN TEXTS
These are the more recent texts on forensic anthropology that cover the basic methods in the field.
Burns, K. R. (2013) Forensic Anthropology Training Manual, 3rd ed. New York: Pearson.
Christensen, A. M., Passalacqua, N. V., Bartelink, E.J. (2013) Forensic Anthropology: Current Methods and Practice.
Klepinger, L. L. (2006). Fundamentals of Forensic Anthropology. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Komar, D. A., Buikstra, J. E. (2008) Forensic Anthropology: Contemporary Theory and Practice. New York: Oxford University Press.
Pickering, R. B., Bachman, D. (2009) The Use of Forensic Anthropology. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Tersigni-Tarrant, M. T., Shirley, N. R. (2012) Forensic Anthropology: An Introduction. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
CASE STUDY READERS
These texts contain descriptions of forensic anthropological methods using of actual cases.
Fairgrieve, S. I. (1999). Forensic Osteological Analysis: A Book of Case Studies. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas
Ferllini, R. (2002). Silent Witness. How Forensic Anthropology Is Used to Solve the World’s Toughest Crimes. Willow Dale, Ontario, Canada: Firefly Books.
Galloway, A., ed. (1999). Broken Bones: Anthropological Analysis of Blunt Force Trauma. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
Morse, D., Duncan, J., Stoutamire, J. (1983). Handbook of Forensic Archaeology and Anthropology. Tallahassee, FL: Rose Printing.
Rathbun, T. A., Buikstra, J. E., eds. (1984). Human Identification. Case Studies in Forensic Anthropology. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
Reichs, K. J., ed. (1998). Forensic Osteology Advances in the Identification of Human Remains, 2nd ed. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
Steadman, D. W. (2003). Hard Evidence. Case Studies in Forensic Anthropology. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
Stewart, T. D., ed. (1970). Personal Identification in Mass Disasters. Washington, DC: National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution.
POPULAR LITERATURE (NON-FICTION)
These texts describe actual forensic anthropological cases worked by their authors.
Maples, W. R., Browning, M. (1994). Dead Men Do Tell Tales. The Strange and Fascinating Cases of a Forensic Anthropologist. New York: Doubleday.
Manhein, M. H. (1999). The Bone Lady: Life as a Forensic Anthropologist. New York: Penguin Publishing Group.
Rhine, S. (1998). Bone Voyage. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press.
Ubelaker, D. H., Scammell, H. (1992). Bones: A Forensic Detective’s Casebook. New York: M. Evans and Company.
PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS
These texts present basic and advanced concepts in elementary probability and statistics, and the two main quantitative methods of forensic anthropology: regression and discriminant function analysis.
Draper, N. R., Smith, H. (1998). Applied Regression Analysis,3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
This is the classic textbook on regression analysis, which covers both basic and advanced concepts.
Garson, G. D. (2008). Discriminant Function Analysis. Asheboro, NC: Statistical Associates Publishers.
A modern, short text on discriminant function analysis.
Sokal, R. R., Rolf, F. J. (1995). Biometry, 3rd ed. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.
This text on probability and statistics is most commonly used book by biological and forensic anthropologists.
2. HISTORY OF FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY
Chapter 1. Historical Setting. In: Stewart, T. D. (1979). Essentials of Forensic Anthropology. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
This is the earliest history written on forensic anthropology.
Chapter 6. Forensic Anthropology. In: Rhine, S. (1998). Bone Voyage. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
This is another good history of forensic anthropology.
Chapter 7. Outpacing the Fiend. In: Maples, W. R., Browning, M. (1994). Dead Men Do Tell Tales. The Strange and Fascinating Cases of a Forensic Anthropologist. New York: Doubleday.
This is a good history of forensic anthropology.
3. HUMAN OSTEOLOGY AND ODONTOLOGY
These are the most comprehensive books on human osteology and odontology with extensive images of human bones, how they can be identified, what side they are from, and what they tell of the biological profile (i.e., ancestry, sex, age, and stature).
Bass, W. M. (2005). Human Osteology. A Laboratory and Field Manual, 5th ed. Columbia, MO: Missouri Archaeological Society.
Scheuer, L.. Black, S. (2004) The Juvenile Skeleton. Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press.
Steele, D. G., Bramblett, C. A. (1988). The Anatomy and Biology of the Human Skeleton. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press.
White, T. D., Black, M. T., Folkens, P. A. (2102). Human Osteology, 3rd ed. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
4. NONHUMAN OSTEOLOGY
These texts provide basic information on identifying nonhuman animal bones.
Cornwall, I. W. (1956). Bones for the Archeologist. New York: Macmillan Press.
Gilbert, B. M. (1973). Mammalian Osteo-archaeology: North America. Columbia: The Missouri Archaeological Society.
Gilbert, B. M., Marin, L. D., Savage, H. G. (1981). Avian Osteology. Laramie, WY: B. Miles Gilbert.
Schmid, E. (1972). Atlas of Animal Bones. Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press.
5. BODY MODIFICATIONS
Romero, J. (1970). Dental Mutilation, Trephination, and Cranial Deformation. In: Robert Wauchope, General Ed. Handbook of Middle American Indians, Volume 9, Physical Anthropology, T. Dale Stewart, Volume Ed. Austin: University of Texas Press.
The most comprehensive article on types of dental modifications.
Neumann, G. K. (1942). Types of artificial cranial deformation in the eastern United States. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 7:306–310.
The most comprehensive typology of cranial deformation.
6. RECOVERY SCENE METHODS
Morse, D., Duncan, J., Stoutamire, J. (1983). Handbook of Forensic Archaeology and Anthropology. Tallahassee, FL: Rose Printing.
This is the seminal work on forensic archaeology, which codified the basic methods of (what at the time was) a new field.
7. DECOMPOSITION
Bass, W. M. (1997). Outdoor decomposition rates in Tennessee. In: Haglund, W. D., Sorg, M. H., eds. Forensic Taphonomy. New York: CRC Press.
This article summarizes William Bass’s findings on decomposition over his 30 year studies in the field.
Galloway, A., Birkby, W. H., Jones, A. M., Henry, T. E., Parks, B. O. (1989). Decay rates of human remains in an arid environment. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 34:607–616.
This is an excellent early attempt to correlate amount of decomposition with postmortem interval.
Haglund, W. D. (1997a). Dogs and coyotes: Postmortem involvement with human remains. In: Haglund, W. D., Sorg, M. H., eds. Forensic Taphonomy. New York: CRC Press.
An early study of how canids scatter human remains.
Haglund, W. D. (1997b). Rodents and human remains. In: Haglund, W. D., Sorg, M. H., eds. Forensic Taphonomy. New York: CRC Press.
An early study of how rodents affect human remains.
Haskell, N. H., Hall, R. D., Cervenka, V. J., Clark, M. A. (1997). On the body: Insects’ life stage presence and their postmortem artifacts. In: Haglund, W. D., Sorg,M. H., eds. Forensic Taphonomy. New York: CRC Press.
This is a good overview of forensic entomology.
Komar, D. A. (1998). Decay rates in a cold climate region: A review of cases involving advanced decomposition from the medical examiner’s office in Edmonton, Alberta. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 43:57–61.
This is the only study of decomposition and postmortem interval in cold climates.
Rodriguez, W. C., Bass, W. M. (1985). Decomposition of buried bodies and methods that may aid in their location. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 30:836–852.
This is the only study of decomposition of buried bodies ever published.
8. PREPARTION OF REMAINS
Skeletal Preparation section. In: Rhine, S. (1998). Bone Voyage. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
This is a readable description of the process by which human skeletal remains are stripped of their soft tissue and stabilized for further study.
9. SORTING COMMINGELD REMAINS
These articles present discussions of simple to complex methods for sorting commingled human remains.
Baker, P. T., Newman, R. W. (1957). The use of bone weight for human identification. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 15:601–618.
Byrd, J. E., Adams, B. J. (2003). Osteometric sorting of commingled human remains. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 48(4):717–724.
Byrd, J. E., Adams, B. J. (2009). Analysis of commingled human remains. In: Blau, S., Ubelaker, D. Handbook of Forensic Anthropology and Archaeology, Chapter 15. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press.
Fulton, B. A., Meloan, C. E., Finnegan, M. (1986). Reassembling scattered and mixed human bones by trace element ratios. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 31:1455–1462.
Schaefer, M. C., Black, S. M. (2007). Epiphyseal union sequencing: Aiding in the recognition and sorting of commingled remains. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 52(2):277–285.
10. REASSEMBLY OF THE RIB CAGE
Dudar, J. C. (1993). Identification of rib number and assessment of intercostal variation at the sternal rib end. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 38(4):788–797.
Hoppa, R., Saunders, S. (1998). Two quantitative methods for rib seriation in human skeletal remains. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 43:174–177.
Owers, S. K., Pastor, R. F., (2005). Analysis of quantitative methods for rib seriation using the Spitalfields documented skeletal collection. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 127:210–218.
11. ANCESTRY
Brues, A. M. (1977). People and Races. New York: Macmillan.
The last book published on human ancestral groups.
Coon, C. S. (1969). The Living Races of Man. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
The most complete book published on human ancestral groups.
Giles, E., Elliot, O. (1962). Race identification from cranial measurements. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 7:147–157.
This is the seminal work applying discriminant function analysis to distinguishing human ancestral groups.
Gill, G. W., Gilbert, B. M. (1990). Race identification from the midfacial skeleton: American blacks and whites. In: Gill, G. W., Rhine, J. S., eds. Skeletal Attribution of Race: Methods for Forensic Anthropology. Anthropological Papers 4, Maxwell Museum of Anthropology, Albuquerque, NM.
This is a good description of the use of midfacial skeletal measurements for distinguishing ancestral group.
Gilbert, B. M. (1976). Anterior femoral curvature: Its probable basis and utility as a criterion of racial assessment. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 45:601–604.
This is a further discussion of the value of the femur in attributing ancestral group.
Hefner, J. T. (2009). Cranial nonmetric variation and estimating ancestry. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 54(5):985–995.
This article provides the trait frequencies for Whites, Blacks, and Asians.
Hefner, J. T., Pilloud, M. A., Black, C. J., Anderson, B. E. (2015). Morphoscopic trait expression in “Hispanic” populations. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 60(5):1135–1139.
This article adds Hispanics to the original Hefner (2009) trait frequencies.
Stewart, T. D. (1962). Anterior femoral curvature: Its utility for race identification. Human Biology, 34:49–62.
This is the original article on using the femur to determine ancestry.
Wescott, D. J. (2005). Population variation in femur subtrochanteric shape. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 50(2):286–293.
The latest study of ancestry and femoral shape.
12. SEX
Chapter 3. In: Buikstra, J. E., Ubelaker, D. H. (1994). Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Fayetteville: Arkansas Archeological Survey Research Series 44.
This contains well known and used methods for determining sex from the human pelvis and skull.
Giles, E., Elliot, O. (1963). Sex determination by discriminant function analysis of crania. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 21:53–68.
This is the seminal work applying discriminant function analysis to distinguishing the sexes from cranial measurements.
France, D. L. (1998). Observational and metric analysis of sex in the skeleton. In: Reichs, K. J., ed. Forensic Osteology. Advances in the Identification of Human Remains. 2nd ed. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
This is a good overview of the basic methods used to determining sex from skeletal remains.
Phenice, T. W. (1969). A newly developed visual method of sexing the os pubis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 30:297–302.
This is the seminal work on using the ventral arc, subpubic concavity, and medial edge of the pubic bone to determine sex.
Washburn, S. L. (1948). Sex differences in the pubic bone. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 6:199–207. This is the seminal work on the ischium-pubic index and sex determination.
Washburn, S. L. (1949). Sex differences in the pubic bone of Bantu and Bushman. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 7:425–432. This is a follow-up article on the ischium-pubic index and sex determination.
13. AGE
Chapter 3. In: Buikstra, J. E., Ubelaker, D. H. (1994). Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Fayetteville: Arkansas Archeological Survey Research Series 44.
This is a good overview of the methods used to determine age at death from the human skeleton.
Harris, E. F., McKee, J. H. (1990). Tooth mineralization standards for Blacks and Whites from the middle southern United States. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 34:859–872.
This is the largest study on tooth development and age.
McKern, T., Stewart, T. D. (1957). Skeletal age changes in young American males, analyzed from the standpoint of identification. Technical report EP-45. Headquarters, Quartermaster Research and Development Command, Natick, MA.
This is a seminal work on determining age from the human skeleton.
Moorrees, C. F. A., Fanning, E. A., Hunt, E. E. (1963a). Formation and resorption of three deciduous teeth in children. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 21:205–213.
This presents the most often method used to determine age of subadults from the deciduous dentition.
Moorrees, C. F. A., Fanning, E. A., Hunt, E. E. (1963b). Age variation of formation stages for ten permanent teeth. Journal of Dental Research, 42: 1490–1502.
This presents the most often method used to determine age of subadults from the deciduous dentition.
Suchey, J. M., Katz, D. (1998). Application of pubic age determination in a forensic setting. In: Kathleen Reichs, ed. Forensic Osteology, 2nd ed. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
This is the latest description of the Suchey-Katz-Brooks method for determining age from the symphyseal surface.
Schour, I, Massler, M. (1941). The development of the human dentition. Journal of the American Dental Association, 28(7):1153-1159.
The seminal work on tooth eruption and age.
Todd, T. W. (1920). Age changes in the pubic bone: I, the male white pubis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 3:285–334.
This is the seminal work on determining age from the symphyseal surface.
Todd, T. W., Lyon, D. W. (1924). Endocranial suture closure: Its progress and age relationship. Part I, adult males of white stock. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 7:325–384.
This is the seminal work on determining age from cranial suture closure.
Todd, T. W., Lyon, D. W. (1925a). Cranial suture closure: Its progress and age relationship. Part II, ectocranial closure in adult males of white stock. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 8:23–44.
This is an addition to the original article on cranial suture closure and age at death.
Todd, T. W., Lyon, D. W. (1925b). Cranial suture closure: Its progress and age relationship. Part III, endocranial closure in adult males of Negro stock. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 8:47–71.
This is an addition to the original article on cranial suture closure and age at death for Blacks.
Todd, T. W., Lyon, D. W. (1925c). Cranial suture closure: Its progress and age relationship. Part IV, ectocranial closure in adult males of Negro stock. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 8:149–168.
This is an addition to the original article on cranial suture closure and age at death for Blacks.
14. STATURE
These are the seminal works on calculating living height (stature) from long limb bones.
Trotter, M. (1970). Estimation of stature from intact long limb bones. In: Stewart, T. D., ed. Personal Identification in Mass Disasters. Washington, DC: National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution.
Trotter, M., Gleser, G. C. (1951). The effect of aging on stature. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 9:311–324.
Trotter, M., Gleser, G. C. (1952). Estimation of stature from long bones of American Whites and Negroes. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 10:463–514.
Trotter, M., Gleser, G. C. (1958). A re-evaluation of estimation of stature based on measurements of stature taken during life and of long bones after death. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 16:79–123.</bibliomixed>
15. SKELETAL TRAUMA
Galloway, A. (1999). Broken Bones: Anthropological Analysis of Blunt Force Trauma. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
This is an excellent overview of the effects of blunt force trauma on the human skeleton.
Huelke, D. F., Darling, J. H. (1964). Bone fractures produced by bullets. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 9(4):461–469.
This is an early definitive reference on effects of bullets on long bones.
Reichs, K. J. (1998b). Postmortem dismemberment: recovery, analysis and interpretation. In: Reichs, K. J., ed. Forensic Osteology Advances in the Identification of Human Remains. 2nd ed. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
This contains a list of the characteristics of knife wounds to bone.
Ross, A. H. (1996). Caliber estimation from cranial entrance defect measurements. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 41:629–633.
This is the best article on the size of cranial projectile wounds and caliber of the causative firearm.
Ubelaker, D. H. (1992). Hyoid fracture and strangulation. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 37:1216–1222.
This is an excellent overview of hyoid fracture due to strangulation.
16. ANTEMORTEM SKELETAL CONDITIONS
Freyschmidt, J., Brossman, J., Wiens, J., Sternberg, A. (2003) Koehler/Zimmer's Borderlands of Normal and Early Pathological Findings in Skeletal Radiography, 5th ed. Stuttgart, Germany: Georg Thieme Verlag.
This is a definitive text on the radiology of nonmetric traits.
Ortner, D. J. (2003). Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains,2nd ed. New York: Academic Press.
This is a definitive work on paleopathology.
Wilczak, C. A., Kennedy, K. A. R (1998). Mostly MOS: Technical aspects of identification of skeletal markers of occupational stress. In: Reichs, K. J., ed. Forensic Osteology Advances in the Identification of Human Remains, 2nd ed. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
This is an excellent overview of occupational stress markers in the human skeleton.
17. POSTMORTEM CHANGES TO BONE
Correia, P. M. M. (1997). Fire modification of bone: A review of the literature. In: Haglund, W. D., Sorg, M. H., eds. Forensic Taphonomy. New York: CRC Press.
This is an excellent overview of the effects of heat (fire) on bone.
Nawrocki, S., Pless, J., Hawley, D., Wagnes, S. (1996). Fluvial transport of human crania. In: Haglund, W. D., Sorg, M. H., eds. Forensic Taphonomy. New York: CRC Press.
This is an excellent overview of how water transport affects the human skull.
Reichs, K. J. (1998b). Postmortem dismemberment: recovery, analysis and interpretation. In: Reichs, K. J., ed. Forensic Osteology Advances in the Identification of Human Remains, 2nd ed. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
This contains a list of the characteristics of saw and axe mark on bone.
18. ASPECTS OF INDIVIDUALIZATION
Baker, P. T., Newman, R. W. (1957). The use of bone weight for human identification. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 15:601–618.
This is an early attempt to determine living weight from bone weight.
Prag, J., Neave, R. (1997). Making Faces: Using Forensic and Archeological Evidence. College Station: Texas A&M University Press.
This is a good overview of how to reproduce a face on the human skull.
Ubelaker, D. H., Zarenko, K. M. (2012) Can handedness be determined from skeletal remains? A chronological review of the literature. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 57(6):1421-1426.
This is an excellent review that shows that handedness cannot be determined from the human skeleton.
19. OBTAINING AN IDENTIFCATION
Chapter X. In: Krogman, W. M. (1962). The Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
This is an early description on the use of radiographs of the frontal sinuses for positive identification.
Christensen, A. M. (2005). Testing the reliability of frontal sinuses in positive identification. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 50(1):18–22.
This is a recent review of the value of frontal sinus radiography in identification.
Ubelaker, D. H. (2015) Craniofacial superimposition: Historical review and current issues. Journal of Forensic Sciences, July, 2015 [Epub ahead of print].
This is the most review the method and value of face-skull comparison for the purposes of identification.
20. CONCLUDING SUBJECTS
Blau, S. (2009). More than just bare bones: Ethical considerations for forensic anthropologists. In: Blau, S., Ubelaker, D. Handbook of Forensic Anthropology and Archaeology, Chapter 37. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press.
This is a fine description of the personal aspects of ethics in forensic anthropology.
Chapter 16. In: Burns, K. R. (2013) Forensic Anthropology Training Manual,3rd ed. New York: Pearson.
This has a good description of professional ethics in forensic anthropology.
Henneberg, M. (2009). The expert witness and the court of law. In: Blau, S., Ubelaker, D. Handbook of Forensic Anthropology and Archaeology, Chapter 40. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press.
This is a readable account of the aspects of courtroom testimony.