Chapter 1

Synopsis

This chapter introduces the relationship between language and discrimination, illustrating new concepts with examples from the killing of Trayvon Martin. The chapter discusses the distinction between discourse and Discourse with discussions of how each view of discourse is important to understanding forms of discrimination. The view of racism and resulting from individual racists is compared to forms of structural racism and the term discourse structural racism is introduced to describe the way in which Discourse supports and maintains structural racism. The chapter introduces the concepts of indexical signs and language ideologies and discusses their importance for understanding language-based prejudice. The chapter concludes by outlining the structure of the remainder of the book.

Keywords and definitions

  • Discourse structural racism: instances of talking where the patterns in language serve to uphold systemic forms of racism; an intricate relationship between language and forms of social inequality
  • Discourse: broad social narratives and ways of speaking that serve to support social structures (also called “social discourse”)
  • discourse: language in use, particularly in everyday conversations (also called “interactional discourse”)
  • Indexical signs: items in language (“indexes”) that are imbued with specific social meaning; a linguistic item serves as an index of some kind of social information beyond what the linguistic item in and of itself would reveal
  • Language ideologies: beliefs and attitudes towards forms of language variation; belief systems surrounding indexical meanings associated with linguistic variation and the forms of Discourse that connect those meanings to broader social structures

Links

Further resources

If you want to learn more about language and racism, here are some important items to read:

  • Hill, J. H. 2008. The Everyday Language of White Racism. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
  • Hodges, A. 2019. When Words Trump Politics: Resisting a Hostile Regime of Language. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
  • Rickford, J. R., & King, S. 2016. Language and linguistics on trial: Hearing Rachel Jeantel (and other vernacular speakers) in the courtroom and beyond. Language, 948-988.
  • Santa Ana, O. 2002. Brown Tide Rising: Metaphors of Latinos in Contemporary American Public Discourse. Austin: University of Texas Press.

Chapter 2

Synopsis

The chapter considers processes of linguistic categorization and relates them to the ways in which social categories form and persist. The chapter begins by describing the ways in which categorizations differ across languages, using color terms as an example. Linguistic categorization is applied to social categorizations based on race. The chapter then explains the history of race as a cultural construct and the lack of any biological basis for racial categories. Systems of categorization from Brazil, the United States, and Colonial Mexico are compared to demonstrate the different ways that race is understood across different contexts. The ways in which categories are defined is consider by focusing on what “counts” in determining whether or not something counts as a “sandwich.” The chapter introduces the concept of performativity and applies it to the social construction of race, drawing on examples from the history of racial categorization in the history of the United States.

Keywords and definitions

  • Performativity: using language to both describe and change the social circumstances of the speech event, such that this language can be used to produce (or perform) and maintain one’s identities
  • Grue: a term linguists use to describe the color category of languages that do not have a separate word for green and blue
  • Semiotics: the study of signs, which are the words and images used to convey meanings of all kinds; signs can be icons, symbols, and indexes

Links

Further resources

If you want to learn more about indexicality, here are some important items to read:

  • Austin, J. L. 1962. How to do Things with Words. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Britt, E. 2011. “Can the church say amen”: Strategic uses of black preaching style at the State of the Black Union. Language in Society, 40(2): 211–233.\
  • Bucholtz, M. 2016. On being called out of one’s name. Indexical bleaching as a technique of deracialization. In H. S. Alim, J. R. Rickford, & A. F. Ball (eds.), Raciolinguistics: How Language Shapes Our Understanding of Race. New York: Oxford University Press, 273–289.
  • Eckert, P. 2008. Variation and the indexical field. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 12(4): 453–476.
  • Johnstone, B. 2006. Mobility, indexicality, and the enregisterment of “Pittsburghese.” Journal of English Linguistics, 34(2): 77–104.
  • Silverstein, M. 2003. Indexical order and the dialectics of sociolinguistic life. Language & Communication, 23: 193.
  • Squires, L. 2014. From TV personality to fans and beyond: Indexical bleaching and the diffusion of a media innovation. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology, 24(1): 42–62.

Chapter 3

Synopsis

This chapter presents an overview of basic facts about language that are often misunderstood, emphasizing that attitudes towards language variation are forms of social prejudice. The chapter begins by discussing the concept of symbolic revalorization, a process where attitudes towards language serve as a proxy for other forms of social discrimination. The chapter then discusses the uniformity of child language acquisition across languages and discusses the concept of accent as ways to demonstrate that language is a universal part of human cognition. Comparison with different “standard” varieties shows that there is no inherent structural basis for treating some features as “standard” and others as “wrong.” The distinction between prescriptive and descriptive grammar is described and the concept of “standard” English is critiqued.

Keywords and definitions

  • Symbolic revalorization of language: the process by which the attitudes one holds about language (e.g., a word, an expression, or the whole system of meaning) come to symbolically stand in for (and replace) the attitudes they hold about the group of people who use that language
  • Dialect: a system of language in its entirety (e.g., sounds, words, grammar, pragmatics) that is conceived of as belonging to some social or regional group; everyone speaks a dialect of some language
  • Language acquisition: the process by which a child learns to use the language spoken or signed in their immediate community
  • Myth: a widely held but often false belief about something; often a truth that is “just known” within a community without any valid evidence of its verity
  • Prescriptivism: a belief that there is a way language should be used without regard for how it is actually used

Links

Further resources

If you want to learn more about language acquisition, here are some important items to read:

  • Burkette, A., & Kretzschmar Jr, W. A. 2018. Exploring Linguistic Science: Language Use, Complexity, and Interaction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  • Chomsky, N. S. 1959. Review of B. F. Skinner, verbal behavior. Language, 35.
  • Lillo-Martin, D., Quadros, R. M. de, & Chen Pichler, D. C. 2016. The development of bimodal bilingualism: Implications for linguistic theory. (Invited keynote paper for epistemological issue.) Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 6(6): 719–755.
  • Ochs, E., & Schieffelin, B. B. 1984. Language acquisition and socialization: Three developmental stories and their implications. In R. Shweder & R. Levine (eds.), Culture Theory: Essays on Mind, Self and Emotion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 276–320.
  • Quadros, R. M. de, Lillo-Martin, D., & Chen Pichler, D. 2016. Bimodal bilingualism: Sign language and spoken language. In M. Marschark & P. Elizabeth Spencer (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Deaf Studies in Language: Research, Policy, and Practice. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 181–196.
  • Ramírez, N. F., Lytle, S. R., & Kuhl, P. K. 2020. Parent coaching increases conversational turns and advances infant language development. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(7): 3484–3491.

Chapter 4

Synopsis

This chapter introduces the concept of language subordination, the process by which negative evaluations towards certain dialects reproduces patterns of social discrimination. The chapter opens by introducing the idea of communicative burden, using the process of reading a book to demonstrate the ways in which speakers/writers and listeners/readers each of individual responsibilities in ensure that communication is successful. The case of criticisms of women for using creaky voice is used to demonstrate how linguistic stereotypes are founded in social prejudices (rather than linguistic structure). The process of language subordination is discussed in detail, giving specific attention to the language ideological processes leading to negative evaluations of particular varieties of English, even among those who speak those varieties.

Keywords and definitions

  • Language subordination: the process by which one variety becomes known as the ideal and appropriate variety while simultaneously marking all other varieties as lacking in comparison; the rules of the ideal variety are imposed upon other varieties by the dominant population, thus maintaining the dominant position
  • Communicative burden: the share of the responsibility of each participant in a communicative exchange
  • Standard language ideology: the belief that one language variety (the “standard”) is better than all others; the “standard” is conceived of as homogeneous, ideal, abstract, and non-varying, and its position as dominant is maintained by various institutions (e.g., schools, government, media)

Links

Further resources

If you want to learn more about language subordination and the speech of women, here are some important items to read:

  • Ehrlich, S. 2003. Representing Rape: Language and Sexual Consent. New York: Routledge.
  • Gobl, C., & Chasaide, A. N. 2003. The role of voice quality in communicating emotion, mood and attitude. Speech Communication, 40: 189–212.
  • Hahn, P. W., & Clayton, S. D. 1996. The effects of attorney presentation style, attorney gender and juror gender on juror decisions, 20 Law & Human Behavior, 533.
  • Henton, C. G., & Bladon, A. 1988. Creak as a sociophonetic marker. In L. M. Hyman & C. N. Lee (eds.), Language, Speech and Mind: Studies in Honor of Victoria A. Fromkin. London: Routledge, 3–29.
  • Herring, S., Johnson, D. A., & DiBenedetto, T. 1995. “This discussion is going too far!”: Male resistance to female participation on the Internet. In M. Bucholtz & K. Hall (eds.), Gender Articulated: Language and the Socially Constructed Self. New York: Routledge, 67–96.
  • Lakoff, R. T. 1975. Language and Woman’s Place. New York: Harper Colophon Books.
  • Lee, C. 2015. Gender bias in the courtroom: Combating implicit bias against women trial attorneys and litigators. Cardozo Journal of Law & Gender, 22: 229–252.
  • Lee, K. E. 2016. The perception of creaky voice: Does speaker gender affect our judgments? Theses and Dissertations – Linguistics, 17. https://uknowledge.uky.edu/ltt_etds/17.
  • Pittam, J. 1987. Discrimination of five voice qualities and prediction to perceptual ratings. Phonetica, 44: 38–49.
  • Podesva, R. J., & Callier, P. 2015. Voice quality and identity. Applied Linguistics, 35: 173–194.
  • Slobe, T. 2018. Style, stance, and social meaning in mock white girl. Language in Society, 47(4): 541–567.
  • Walfisch, T., Van Dijk, D., & Kark, R. 2013. Do you really expect me to apologize? The impact of status and gender on the effectiveness of an apology in the workplace. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 43: 1446–1458.
  • Yuasa, I. P. 2010. Creaky voice: A new feminine voice quality for young urban-oriented upwardly mobile American women? American Speech, 85(3): 315–337.

Chapter 5

Synopsis

This chapter describes patterns of regional variation in American English. The field of dialectology is discussed, focusing on the history of the discipline itself. The development of dialects is illustrated through a discussion of the South as a region and the emergence of a distinctive Pittsburgh accent. The process of sound change is introduced and the sound changes that currently distinguish American dialects are described, including the Northern Cities Shift, the Southern Vowel Shift, and the California Vowel Shift. The chapter then examines morphological and syntactic patterns of regional variation. Patterns of morphological change are illustrated with a discussion of the emergence of variation in the use of the word like.

Keywords and definitions

  • (Socio)linguistic variation: differences in language (e.g., pronunciations, word choices, syntactic structures) that reflect and recreate variation in various social, regional, and contextual identities
  • Lexical variation: differences in word choice
  • Isogloss: a boundary between ostensibly different ways of speaking (e.g., linguistic features) that, when bundled together, identify the boundaries between dialects
  • Vowel merger: when two sounds that had been perceived/produced as separate at one point in time begin to be perceived/produced as overlapping (e.g., pen/pin in the South)
  • Vowel shift: a systematic series of changes in the pronunciation of vowels, typically involving the shift of the perception/production of such vowels across the system (e.g., NCS, SVS, CVS)
  • Morphosyntactic variation: differences in the use of morphemes (such as the -s at the end of plural nouns like cent for cents) or grammatical structures (such as the use of multiple negation)
  • Discourse marker: a word (e.g., “well”), phrase (e.g., “I mean”), or other type of linguistic material (e.g., “um”) with the function of breaking up a segment of speech into meaningful discourse units to organize the flow of interaction

Links

Further resources

If you want to learn more about some of the linguistic variation discussed in this chapter, here are some important items to read:

  • Barbieri, F. 2009. Quotative be like in American English: Ephemeral or here to stay? English World-Wide, 30(1): 68–90.
  • Chambers, J. K., & Trudgill, P. 1998. Dialectology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  • Dailey-O’Cain, J. 2000. The sociolinguistic distribution of and attitudes toward focuser like and quotative like. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 4(1): 60–80.
  • Fought, C. 2002. Chicano English in Context. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Fridland, V. 1998. The southern vowel shift: Linguistic and social factors. PhD Thesis, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI.
  • Gordon, M. J. 2001. Small-Town Values and Big-City Vowels: A Study of the Northern Cities Shift in Michigan. Durham: Duke University Press.
  • Johnstone, B. 2006. Mobility, indexicality, and the enregisterment of “Pittsburghese.” Journal of English Linguistics, 34(2): 77–104.
  • Johnstone, B. 2013. Speaking Pittsburghese: The Story of a Dialect. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Labov, W., Ash, S., & Boberg, C. 2006. The Atlas of North American English: Phonetics, Phonology, and Sound Change: A Multimedia Reference Tool. Berlin: Walter De Gruyter.
  • Podesva, R. J. 2011. The California vowel shift and gay identity. American Speech, 86(1): 32–51.
  • Rickford, J. R., Wasow, T., & Zwicky, A. 2007. Intensive and quotative all: Something old, something new. American Speech, 82: 3–31.
  • Tagliamonte, S., & D’Arcy, A. 2004. He’s like, she’s like: The quotative system in Canadian youth. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 8: 493–514.

Chapter 6

Synopsis

This chapter considers language variation associated with racial and ethnic communities. The chapter begins with the phenomenon of Chinese restaurant syndrome, in which people become physically ill due to unfounded fears of ingesting MSG. This example is used to illustrate the concept of racialization in which inanimate objects (like MSG or dialects of English) come to be linked to racist stereotypes. The chapter then considers features of language variation that index various racial and ethnic categories, including linguistic patterns stereotypically associated with English speakers who are Black, Latinx, Jewish, or Navajo. Special attention is given to patterns of subject-auxiliary inversion and aspectual marking in different varieties. The chapter includes discussions of Gullah and Hawaiian Creole English to illustrate the role of language contact in the development of innovative varieties of English.

Keywords and definitions

  • Crossing: The use of forms from a linguistic variety that indexes a social group other than those the speaker identifies as belonging to
  • Cultural Appropriation: Using elements of another culture (including language) in order to draw on the symbolic value or indexical meanings without consideration original cultural context
  • Indexical Bleaching: the loss of indexical associations over time; when a linguistic form spreads or is borrowed, it loses the indexical links to its original context
  • Aspect: how an interaction occurs in relation to time (repeatedly, on-going, completely finished); aspect is distinct from tense which marks time in relation to the present (past, present, future)
  • Creole language: A language that emerges in a context of contact between multiple languages; although once thought to be a special class of languages, recent studies find that Creole languages are not structurally or typologically distinct from other languages

Links

Further resources

If you want to learn more about language and race, here are some important items to read:

  • Alim, H.S., J. R. Rickford, and A. F. Ball (eds). 2016. Raciolinguistics: How language shapes out ideas about race. Oxford University Press.
  • Benor, S. B. 2012. Becoming Frum: How newcomers learn the language and culture of Orthodox Judaism. Rutgers University Press.
  • Fought, Carmen. 2006. Language and ethnicity. Cambridge University Press.
  • Green, L. J. 2012. African American English: A linguistic introduction. Cambridge University Press.
  • Webster, A. K. 2016. Intimate grammars: An ethnography of Navajo Poetry. University of Arizona Press.

Chapter 7

Synopsis

This chapter examines multilingualism in the United States. The chapter begins with a discussion of public perceptions of the use of Spanish in the Democratic presidential primary debates leading up to 2020. This example is used to illustrate the language ideologies associated with the use of languages other than English in the United States. The chapter describes the linguistic diversity of the United States and the ways in which language ideology suppresses the use of other languages in public spaces. Basic features of bilingualism are introduced including various types of code-switching. The chapter discusses the history of the suppression of Native American languages and current efforts by Native Americans to preserve and promote the use of heritage languages. The chapter closes with a discussion of patterns of language varieties that mock people of color, including Mock Asian and Mock Spanish. The various topics in the chapter illustrate how symbolic revalorization of language results in patterns of discrimination.

Keywords and definitions

  • Bilingualism: the use of two languages (by an individual or within a society)
  • Code-switching: alternations between two languages or two language varieties
  • Heritage speaker: A person who is raised in a community where a minority language is spoken but formal education in that language is not widely available
  • Motherese/Parentese/Baby talk: The adjustment of one’s speech when speaking to a baby to try to adapt to the baby’s limited ability to communicate
  • Multilingualism: the use of multiple languages (by an individual or within a society)
  • Mock varieties: sets of linguistic forms that are used to denigrate social groups through sarcastic mimicry
  • Semantic derogation: when a linguistic form comes to take on negative indexical associations over time

Links

Further resources

If you want to learn more about multilingualism, here are some important items to read:

  • Edwards, J. 2012. Multilingualism: Understanding linguistic diversity. Continuum.
  • Fuller, J. M. and J. Leeman. 2020. Speaking Spanish in the U.S.: The sociopolitics of language. Multilingual Matters.
  • Gardner-Cholos, P. 2009. Code-switching. Cambridge University Press.
  • Otheguy, R. and A. C. Zentella. 2012. Spanish in New York: Language contact, dialect leveling, and structural continuity. Oxford University Press.
  • Rosa. J. 2017. Looking like a Language, Sounding like a Race: Raciolinguistic Ideologies and the Learning of Latinidad. Oxford University Press.
  • Silver, S. and W. R. Miller. American Indian languages: Cultural and social contexts. University of Arizona Press.
  • Zentella, A. C. 1997. Growing up bilingual: Puerto Rican children in New York. Wiley-Blackwell

Chapter 8

Synopsis

This chapter discusses American Sign Language (ASL) and deaf culture in the United States. The chapter opens with an overview of how human ears process sound and introduces terminology related to being deaf or hard of hearing. The chapter then introduces the concept of deaf culture and illustrates the uniqueness of deaf culture with discussions of dancing and poetry in ASL. The chapter gives a detailed history of the development of ASL and treatment of deaf individuals in the United States, including the oralist tradition that attempts to teach deaf people to use spoken language. The chapter closes with a discussion of deaf identity and deaf politics, including protests for hiring a deaf president at Gallaudet University and current debates regarding cochlear implants.

Keywords and definitions

  • Audism: attitudes, ideologies, or practices that denigrates or discriminates against people who are deaf or hard of hearing
  • Deaf/Hard of Hearing: those with no (deaf) or limited (hard of hearing) ability to hear
  • Deaf Culture: the unique cultures found in deaf communities and founded on shared language (ASL)
  • Oralism: prejudice against sign languages; the basis for attempting to teach deaf children spoken English
  • Sign Languages: languages in which the basic units involve handshapes and movements rather than sounds; sign languages are equal to spoken languages in terms of grammatical complexity and ability to convey complex thought

Links

Further resources

If you want to learn more about Deaf Culture and ASL, here are some important items to read:

  • Baynton, D., J. R. Gannon, and J. L. Bergey. 2007. Through deaf eyes: A photographic history of an American community. Gallaudet University Press.
  • Gannon, J. 2012. Deaf heritage: A narrative history of deaf America. Gallaudet University Press.
  • Holcomb, T. K. 2012.An introduction to American deaf culture. Oxford University Press.
  • Lucas, C. (ed). 2001. The sociolinguistics of sign languages. Cambridge University Press.
  • McCaskill, C. C. Lucas, R. Bayley, J. C. Hill. 2012. The hidden treasure of Black ASL: Its history and structure. Gallaudet University Press.
  • Padden, C. and T. Humphries. 1990. Deaf in America: Voices from a culture. Harvard University Press.
  • Padden, C. and T. Humphries. 2009. Inside deaf culture. Harvard University Press.

Chapter 9

Synopsis

This chapter introduces the study of linguistic landscapes and perceptual dialectology, illustrating these concepts with discussions of the perception of the speech of Southerners. The principles and methods of perceptual dialectology are introduced with a discussion of the use of maps to elicit attitudes towards language variation. The chapter also considers perceptual experiments judging the correctness and pleasantness of particular dialects and uses this distinction to discuss the double-bind faced by speakers of non-standard varieties of English who must navigate between expressions of local identity and ideologies of “correct” grammar. The chapter then introduces the field of linguistic landscape studies with a discussion of public signage in languages other than English. The chapter returns to the issue of Southern English by considering the use of non-standard spellings and eye dialect in ways that index Southern identities.

Keywords and definitions

  • Covert prestige: the symbol value of local varieties that are not overtly prestigious in broader society
  • Eye dialect: the use of spelling conventions to indicate presumed dialectal differences in cases where the non-standard spelling does not reflect an actual difference in pronunciation (e.g., wuz for was)
  • Linguistic landscapes: the relationship between language and space, including the language visible in public spaces and the perceptions of geographic variation among speakers
  • Perceptual Dialectology: the study of the perceptions and ideologies of language variation by non-specialists

Links

Further resources

If you want to learn more about linguistic landscapes and perceptual dialectology, here are some important items to read:

  • Alfaraz, G. G., & Mason, A. 2019. Ethnicity and perceptual dialectology: Latino awareness of US regional dialects. American Speech, 94(3): 352–379.
  • Cenoz, J., & Gorter, D. 2006. Linguistic landscape and minority languages. International Journal of Multilingualism, 3(1): 67–80.
  • Cramer, J. 2016. Contested Southernness: the linguistic production and perception of identities in the borderlands. Publication of the American Dialect Society 100. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
  • Hult, F. M. 2014. Drive-thru linguistic landscaping: Constructing a linguistically dominant place in a bilingual space. International Journal of Bilingualism, 18(5): 507–523.
  • Landry, R., & Bourhis, R. Y. 1997. Linguistic landscape and ethnolinguistic vitality: An empirical study. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 16(1): 23–49.
  • Long, D., & Preston, D. R. 2002. Handbook of Perceptual Dialectology, Vol. 2. Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
  • Preston, D. R. 1989. Perceptual Dialectology: Nonlinguists’ Views of Areal Linguistics (Topics in Sociolinguistics). Berlin, Germany: Mouton De Gruyter.
  • Preston, D. R. 1999. Handbook of Perceptual Dialectology, Vol. 1. Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
  • Shulist, S. 2018. Signs of status: Language policy, revitalization, and visibility in urban Amazonia. Language Policy, 17(4): 523–543.

Chapter 10

Synopsis

This chapter discusses the history of ‘r’ sounds in American English. The chapter begins with a general discussion of sound change in English and an explanation of the distinction between the letter ‘r’ and the various sounds that have been associated with it over time. The range of these rhotic sounds in the world’s languages is discussed with a focus on the sounds that have been used in the history of American English. The indexical meanings historically associated with an absence of post-vocalic ‘r’ are discussed within the context of language ideologies and language change. The chapter describes the way in which ‘r-less’ dialects lost prestige in the early twentieth century and contemporary indexical meanings associated with the absence of ‘r’ at the end of syllables. The chapter closes with a discussion of the history of ‘r’ in New York City, focusing on studies of ‘r’ usage that have been reproduced several times over the last fifty years.

Keywords and definitions

  • Post-vocalic r: A rhotic that occurs after a vowel and before a consonant or at the end of a word
  • Rhotic sound: When used to describe a speech sound, 'rhotic' refers to a family of r-like sounds. This unusual category includes a number of places and manners of articulation with varied acoustic consequences.
  • Rhotic variety: When used to describe speech varieties, 'rhotic' describes varieties of a language with r-like consonants; particularly in opposition to other varieties with more limited distribution of rhotic sounds (e.g., traditional Boston-accented English can be described as 'non-rhotic' because it tends to lack r-sounds at the end of syllables).

Links

  • Praat
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  • Click to view external links

Further resources

If you want to learn more about the history of 'r' sounds in English, here are some important items to read:

  • Bonfiglio, T. P. 2002. Race and the Rise of Standard American. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
  • Bailey, R. W. 1996. Nineteenth-Century English. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

Chapter 11

Synopsis

This chapter examines language ideologies in the context of the educational system in the United States. The chapter opens by distinguishing types of learning, focusing on the difference between learning a second dialect and learning to read and write. The chapter critiques the supposed ‘word gap’ that claims that impoverished families use fewer words with their children and compares it with other prejudicial attitudes towards the speech of different social groups. The chapter discusses negative assumptions about minority and working-class varieties of English and the impact these ideologies have on children who speak under-valued Englishes. The chapter discusses difference in language socialization that impact children’s expectations for learning. The chapter then discusses education as a tool for cultural assimilation through a discussion of the Native American boarding school movement which used education as a tool to eradicate Native American languages and cultures. The chapter closes with a discussion of the communicative burden and student perceptions of the speech of teachers with a focus on teaching by international graduate students.

Keywords and definitions

  • Appropriacy arguments: Approaches to language education that categorize language varieties as “appropriate” or “inappropriate” for certain social contexts (like school); appropriacy arguments inevitable reproduce prejudicial language ideologies
  • Cultural assimilation: Giving up the practices associated with one’s culture in order to adopt the norms of the dominant culture
  • Word Gap: The mistaken belief that racial and class disparities in educational achievement result from parents using fewer words with their young children rather than from systemic inequalities in the educational system

Links

Further resources

If you want to learn more about language variation and education, here are some important items to read:

  • Baker-Bell, A. 2020. Linguistic Justice: Black language, literacy, identity, and pedagogy. New York: Routledge.
  • Canagarajah, S. (ed.). 2013. Literacy as translingual practice: Between communities and classrooms. New York: Routledge.
  • Charity Hudley, A. H., & Mallinson, C. 2010. Understanding English Language Variation in U.S. Schools. New York: Teachers College Press.
  • Charity Hudley, A. H., & Mallinson, C. 2013. We Do Language: English Language Variation in the Secondary English Classroom. New York: Teachers College Press.
  • Perryman-Clark, S., Kirkland, D. E., & Jackson, A. 2014. Students’ right to their own language: A critical sourcebook. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
  • Rosa, J. 2019. Looking like a language, sounding like a race: Raciolinguistic ideology and the learning of Latinidad. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Young, V. A., Barrett, R., Rivera, Y. Y., & Lovejoy, K. B. 2018. Other people’s English: Code meshing, code switching and African American literacy. 2nd edition. Philadelphia: New City Community Press.

Chapter 12

Synopsis

This chapter examines language ideologies conveyed through the media. The chapter begins with a discussion of Foley artists and the ways in which our expectations for a sound learned through the media do not always match the sound in real life. The chapter then turns to the language ideologies in entertainment for children, focusing on the use of different language varieties in Disney films. This discussion focuses on how non-humans (animals or inanimate objects) are portrayed as speaking different varieties of English in ways that reflect racist and sexist language ideologies. The chapter then moves to a discussion of the dissemination of information through the media. This section of the chapter focuses on repeal of FCC fairness doctrine, which required new sources to provide time for opposing viewpoints. The chapter closes with a discussion of echo chambers and filter bubbles and the processes that lead individuals to only receive information that they already agree with.

Keywords and definitions

  • Information literacy: the ability to recognize the need for information, to find appropriate information, to use information effectively, to critically examine information sources, and to apply the information appropriately to address the recognized need
  • Linguistic marketplace: the metaphorical idea that languages exist as a form of capital that can be used to “purchase” something (e.g., access, information) because of the symbolic value a language carries in various interactions in the figurative marketplace of linguistic exchanges

Links

Further resources

If you want to learn more about language in the media, here are some important items to read:

  • Dorfman, A., & Mattelart, A. 1984. How to read Donald Duck: Imperialist Ideology in the Disney Comic. Amsterdam: International General Publishers.
  • Fought, C. & Eisenhauer, K. 2022. Language and Gender in Children's Animated Films. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Sperb, J. 2012. Disney’s most notorious film: Race, convergence, and the hidden histories of Song of the South. Austin: University of Texas Press.
  • Queen, R. 2014. Vox Popular: The Surprising Life of Language in the Media. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.

Additional information

The following list represents the 38 Disney movies that comprised the analysis in editions 1 and 2 of this book:

  • Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs
  • Pinocchio
  • Dumbo
  • The Reluctant Dragon
  • Bambi
  • Cinderella
  • Robin Hood
  • Peter Pan
  • Lady and the Tramp
  • Sleeping Beauty
  • 101 Dalmatians
  • The Sword in the Stone
  • The Jungle Book
  • The Aristocats
  • The Rescuers
  • The Fox and the Hound
  • The Great Mouse Detective
  • The Little Mermaid
  • Duck Tales: Treasure of the Lost Lamp
  • The Rescuers Down Under
  • Beauty and the Beast
  • Aladdin
  • The Lion King
  • Pocahontas
  • The Hunchback of Notre Dame
  • Hercules
  • Mulan
  • Tarzan
  • The Emperor’s New Groove
  • Atlantis: The Lost Empire
  • Lilo & Stitch
  • Treasure Planet
  • Brother Bear
  • Home on the Range
  • Chicken Little
  • Meet the Robinsons
  • Bolt
  • The Princess and the Frog

Chapter 13

Synopsis

This chapter examines language in the workplace as it relates to cases of racial discrimination or sexual harassment. The chapter opens with legal cases involving language in the workplace as a way of introducing the issues involved. The chapter describes different approaches to increasing diversity in the workplace and outlines the government regulations involving workplace language. The details of regulations regarding languages other than English are presented along with rules regarding judging an individual on the basis of having a non-native accent when speaking English. The chapter then turns to cases of sexual harassment and the role of language in creating an unwelcoming work environment. The chapter closes with a discussion of microaggressions and their role in producing inequality in work environments.

Keywords and definitions

  • Civil Rights Act (1964): “This act, signed into law by President Lyndon Johnson on July 2, 1964, prohibited discrimination in public places, provided for the integration of schools and other public facilities, and made employment discrimination illegal.” (Full information can be found here: https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/civil-rights-act)

Links

Further resources

If you want to learn more about language in the workplace and sexual harassment, here are some important items to read:

  • Crabb, A. M. 2004. Language and implementation of sexual harassment policies. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
  • Franch, P. B. 2016. Exploring language aggression against women. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
  • Gardner, C. B. 1995. Passing by: Gender and public harassment. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
  • Hochschild, A. R. 2003. The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
  • Koester, A. 2010. Workplace discourse. London: Bloomsbury.
  • Vine, B. 2018. The Routledge Handbook of Language in the Workplace. New York: Routledge.

Chapter 14

Synopsis

This chapter considers the place of language-based discrimination within the judicial system and in housing. The chapter begins with a discussion of language ideologies in legal contexts and the ways in which these ideologies result in inequalities in treatment. The chapter discusses laws regarding the use of other languages in the courtroom and the ways in which language ideologies create barriers for speakers of languages that have few speakers and aren’t recognized by most Americans. This is illustrated with cases in which individuals received unfair treatment due to be given interpreters that did not speak their native language. The issues associated with language variation in the legal system are illustrated with a discussion of reactions to different dialects in the Trayvon Martin trials. The chapter then turns to the issue of housing, explaining the concept of redlining and discussing the process of linguistic profiling in which landlords or real estate agents use an individual’s speech in an attempt to determine the ethnic background of individuals in order to racially discriminate.

Keywords and definitions

  • Linguistic profiling: the practice of attempting to determine someone’s race (or other social characteristics) from someone’s way of speaking, ultimately for the purpose of discriminating against the person because of it

Links

Further resources

If you want to learn more about language as it relates to the judicial system and housing, here are some important items to read:

  • Baugh, J. 2018. Linguistics in pursuit of justice. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Berk-Seligson, S. 2009. Coerced confessions: The discourse of bilingual police interrogations. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
  • Berk-Seligson, S. 2017. The bilingual courtroom: Court interpreters in the judicial process. 2nd edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  • Mason, M., & Rock, F. (eds.) 2020. The discourse of police interviews. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Epilogue

Synopsis

This short chapter summarizes the main arguments found within English with an accent focusing on the ways in which language prejudice silences certain individuals through failures to share the communicative burden. Judging an individual on the basis of the way they speak or refusing to interact with someone because they are “hard to understand” not only limits the ability of some individuals to be heard and listened to, but also limits the experience of those who make judgements about the language of others. The epilogue ends by encouraging readers to listen to everyone equally to experience the world from multiple perspectives.