Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. identify functions and characteristics of culture.
2. define and give examples of subcultures/co-cultures.
3. explain language and cultural socialization.
4. define what is meant by a ‘cultural script’ and provide an example.
5. describe seven facets or dimensions of culture.
6. define and provide an example of cultural beliefs, values, and worldviews.

Key terms and concepts

Belief
Co-culture (See subculture)
Core belief
Core value
Critical discourse analysis (CDA)
Cultural competence
Cultural norm
Cultural schema
Cultural script Culture
Dialect
Enculturation
Ethnic group
Ethnicity
Hegemony
Heritage
‘High culture’
Ideology
Imagined community
Language socialization
‘Low culture’
Peripheral belief
Power
Race
Ritual
Socialization
Speech community
subculture
superstition
tradition
value
worldview

Further Reading

Ahearn, L. (2021) Living Language: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology, Wiley Blackwell.
Covering both theory and real-world practice, this accessible textbook examines the relationship between language and social context. It discusses language and cultural socialization.

Baldwin, J.R., Faulkner, S.L., Hecht, M.L., and Lindsley, S.L. (eds) (2006) Redefining Culture: Perspectives across the Disciplines, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
This volume presents over 300 definitions of culture from a wide array of disciplines and illustrates how understandings have changed over time.

Eller, J.D. (2022) Introducing Anthropology of Religion: Culture to the Ultimate, 3rd edn,London and New York: Routledge.
Adopting an anthropological approach, this accessible text examines world religions, covering a range of culture-related topics including religious beliefs, symbols, rituals, morality, fundamentalism, violence, and secularization.

Gardiner, H. (2018) Lives across Cultures: Cross-Cultural Human Development, 6th edn, Harlow: Pearson.
Differences in the primary language and cultural socialization processes in diverse cultural contexts are discussed.

Hall, E.T. (1976) Beyond Culture, New York: Anchor Books.
This book is written by Edward T. Hall, the scholar who is regarded by many as the founding father of the scholarly field of intercultural communication. In this volume, he describes the many influences of culture on the way people live and interact, with a special emphasis on nonverbal codes.

Matsumoto, D., Juang, L. and Hwang, H.C. (2022) Culture and Psychology, 7th edn, Cengage Learning.
Written from a cross-cultural perspective, this introductory text discusses the nature of culture and examines how and why culture influences mental processes and behaviors in humans.

Suggested online resources

YouTube Links

What is culture?
(This video explores the various dimensions of culture.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=57KW6RO8Rcs (1:16 mins.)

What is enculturation?
(This clip defines what is meant by enculturation and provides relevant examples.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bExu41fYExQ (1:41 mins.)

Websites

CARLA: Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition, University of Minnesota, USA
(This website presents various definitions of culture and provides a list of resources related to language and culture, e.g., publications.)
https://carla.umn.edu/culture/definitions.html

LiveScience What is culture?
(This site, which was developed by Bruce LaBrack, an international educator, explains different conceptions of culture and includes relevant articles, video excerpts, and other material including examples of cultural norms in diverse cultures.)
https://www.livescience.com/21478-what-is-culture-definition-of-culture.html

E-Flash cards

Study Quiz

The following quiz aims to test your knowledge and understanding of core concepts in this chapter. For each item, choose the best response. Good luck!

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. define human communication and language.
2. describe the process of human communication.
3. identify and discuss ten properties of human communication.
4. explain the relationship between communication, culture, power, and context.
5. compare and contrast high-context and low-context verbal communication styles.
6. discuss the merits and limitations of communication style typologies.
7. explain the communication accommodation theory (CAT).
8. identify the traits and behaviors of effective intercultural communicators.

Key terms and concepts

channel of communication
Communication
Communication accommodation theory (CAT)
Communication style
Code-switching
Context
convergence
Decoding
Direct communication
divergence
Encoding
Feedback
High-context communication
Human communication
Human language
Indirect communication
Intentional communication
interaction
Interactive communication
International phonetic alphabet (IPA)
Intrapersonal communication
Linguistic determinism
Linguistic relativity
Linguistic style
Low-context communication
Maintenance
Message
Noise (interference)
‘phonetic’ language
Power status
Receiver
Receiver response
register
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
Self-disclosure
Semiotics
Sender
Sign
Sign language
Social distance
Speech style
Speech style preference
Style shifting
symbol
Transactive communication
unintentional communication

Further Reading

Blum, S.D. (2016) Making Sense of Language: Readings in Culture and Communication, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
This accessible text discusses the nature of language and considers questions of power, identity, interaction, and ideology in relation to language, culture, and communication.

Bonvillain, N. (2020) Language, Culture and Communication, 8th edn, Rowan & Lanham, MA, USA, Littlefield.
Using data from cultures and languages throughout the world, this book explores the connections between language, culture, and communicative meaning. 

Croucher, S.M. (2016) Understanding Communication Theory: A Beginner’s Guide, New York and London: Routledge.
This introductory text provides students with a comprehensive, theoretical, and practical guide to communication theory, and includes a chapter devoted to intercultural communication.

Kramsch, C. (1998) Language and Culture, Oxford: Blackwell.
This compact book offers an accessible survey of key language concepts such as social context and cultural authenticity, using insights from such fields as linguistics, sociology, and anthropology.

Remillard, V. and Williams, K. (2016) Human Communication across Cultures: A Cross-cultural Introduction to Pragmatics and Sociolinguistics, London: Equinox.
This introductory text explores how language is used in social interactions in various cultural contexts, drawing attention to differences due to such aspects as gender, age, race/ethnicity, religious background, social class, and level of education.

Saphiere, D.H., Mikk, B.K., and Devries, B.I. (2005) Communication Highwire: Leveraging the Power of Diverse Communication Styles, Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
The authors introduce the notion of communication styles and explain how communication style preferences reflect our personal and cultural upbringing, and also vary depending on the context and cultural setting.

Wilce, J.M. (2017) Culture and Communication: An Introduction, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Drawing on developments in linguistic anthropology, this introductory text explores the relationship between society, culture, and communication.

Suggested online resources

YouTube Links

How the communication process works
(This video explains how humans communicate.)
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=the+communication+process (7:35 mins.)

The communication process model captioned
(In this video the communication process model is illustrated and explained.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Btj94IHVc6I (4:26 mins.)

The accommodation theory
(This video explains the communication accommodations theory and includes examples to illustrate the various elements.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DPgQaIfThdA (11:46)

Does language shape how we think? Linguistic relativity & linguistic determinism
(This video explores the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis and the connection between language, thought, and culture.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Df25r8pcuI8 (3:16 mins.)

Websites

Skills you need: Interpersonal communication
(This website focuses on interpersonal communication and the various components of the communication process.)
https://www.skillsyouneed.com/interpersonal-skills.html

Skills you need: What is communication?
(This website defines communication and explains the communication process.)
https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/what-is-communication.html

Skills you need: Intercultural communication skills
(This website identifies essential language and intercultural communication skills.)
https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/intercultural-communication.html

E-Flash cards

Study Quiz

The following quiz aims to test your knowledge and understanding of core concepts in this chapter. For each item, choose the best response. Good luck!

Learning objectives

1. define nonverbal communication.
2. describe the relationship between verbal and nonverbal communication.
3. identify the characteristics and functions of nonverbal communication.
4. name and describe different types of nonverbal codes.
5. explain the influence of culture on nonverbal communication.
6. discuss ways to enhance the nonverbal dimension of intercultural interactions.

Key terms and concepts

adaptor
Affect display
Appearance message
artifact
chronemics
Cultural display rule
Decorative ornamentation
Direct eye contact
Emblem (emblematic gesture)
Emoji
Emoticon
Emotion regulation
Emotional display
Eye movement
Facial expression
gaze
Gesture
Haptics
High-contact culture
illustrator
Interpersonal distance
Intimate space
Intracultural interactions
Kinesics
Low-contact culture
Monochromic time
Nonverbal code
Nonverbal communication
Nonverbal cue
Nonverbal expectancy violation theory
Oculesics
olfactics
Paralanguage (vocalics)
Personal space
Physical appearance
Physical feature
Polychromic time
posture
Proxemics
Public space
‘regulator’
Self-presentation
Social space
Speech illustrator
Time perception
Turn-taking

Further Reading

Burgoon, J.K., Manusov, V., and Guerrero, L.K. (2022) Nonverbal Communication, 2nd edn, New York and London: Routledge.
This volume provides a comprehensive overview of the theory, research, and applications of nonverbal communication. It includes a chapter on sociocultural influences on nonverbal communication, including some discussion of intercultural interactions.
Eaves, M.H. and Leathers, D. (2018) Successful Nonverbal Communication: Principles and Applications, 5th edn, New York: Routledge.
Drawing on theory and research, the authors review the major forms, functions, and uses of nonverbal communication, and offer practical suggestions to enhance one’s nonverbal communication.

Ekman, P. (2007) Emotions Revealed: Recognizing Faces and Feelings to Improve Communication, New York: Owl Books.
Drawing on decades of research, this book explains how our emotions are displayed on our face, offering insight into cultural variations.

Hall. E.T. (1984) The Dance of Life: The Other Dimension of Time, New York: Anchor Books.
This book, which was written by a foundational figure in intercultural communication studies, explores the cultural nature of time.

Hall, E.T. (1990) The Hidden Dimension, New York: Anchor Books.
This classic explores variations in the use of space across cultures and discusses how that use reflects cultural values and norms of behavior.

Hall, J.A. and Knapp, M.L. (eds) (2013) Nonverbal Communication, Berlin: de Gruyter Mouton.
This edited volume focuses on humans engaging in nonverbal communication and the communicative, cultural, and psychological aspects of this behavior. 

Matsumoto, D., Frank, M.G., and Hwang, H.S. (eds) (2013) Nonverbal Communication Science and Applications, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
This edited collection examines the science of nonverbal behavior, including cultural influences, and discusses applications in various contexts.

Matsumoto, D. and Hwang, H-S (2012) ‘Nonverbal communication: The messages of emotion, action, space, and silence’ in J. Jackson (ed.) The Routledge Handbook of Language and Intercultural Communication, London and New York: Routledge, pp. 130-47.
In this chapter, the authors review the key findings of research that has examined the influence of culture on various nonverbal behaviours (e.g., facial expressions, gestures, gaze, voice, interpersonal space, touch, posture, gait).

Moore, N-J (2021) Nonverbal Communication: Studies and Applications, 7th edn,San Diego: Cognella Academic Publishing.
Balancing theory and practice, this text helps students understand how nonverbal communication affects ‘real-world’ interactions.

Suggested online resources

YouTube Links

Gestures around the world
(This clip provides examples of gestures used in various cultural contexts.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qCo3wSGYRbQ (2:00 mins.)

Greetings from around the world
(This clip provides examples of greetings in diverse cultural settings.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nANhSfCGAs4 (1:47 mins)

Nonverbal communication
(This video introduces various dimensions and types of nonverbal communication.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SKhsavlvuao&t=16s (3:22 mins.)

Websites

Skills you need: Nonverbal communication
(This website defines nonverbal communication and provides examples of various forms. Discussion centers on nonverbal communication in relation to personal appearance, body language, and face and voice.)
https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/nonverbal-communication.html

Ways people communicate nonverbally around the world
(This site highlights the diversity in nonverbal communication across the globe, providing examples of different categories in various cultural settings (e.g., eye contact, dress and appearance, posture, touching, facial expressions and head movements).
https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/verbal-communication.html

E-Flash cards

Study Quiz

The following quiz aims to test your knowledge and understanding of core concepts in this chapter. For each item, choose the best response. Good luck!

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. define what is meant by identity.
2. describe multiple dimensions of identity.
3. identify, define, and provide examples of different types of identity.
4. describe how individuals co-construct and negotiate their identities in intercultural interactions.
5. explain how and why identities may be contested or challenged.
6. describe the relationship between language, power, culture, and identity.
7. explain why questions of identity and belonging are central in the study of language and intercultural communication.

Key terms and concepts

ascribed identity
ascription
avowal
avowed identity
bicultural identity
bilingual identity
bi(multi)lingual identity
class identity
‘community of practice’ (cop)
contested identity
cultural identity
cultural identity formation
digital nomad
emblem of identity
ethnic identity
gender
gender-crossing
gender-diverse
gender expression
gender identity
gender neutral (inclusive) pronoun
gender pronouns
gender socialization
global (transnational) identity
global nomad
heritage language learning
hybrid (mixed) identity
identity
identity confusion
identity intensity
identity label
identity salience
independent self-construal
interdependen self-construal
language affiliation
language expertise
language identity
language inheritance
majority identity
marginality
minority identity
multicultural identity
multilingual identity
national identity
non-binary
personal identity
professional identity
professional identity formation
racial identity
regional identity
social identity
social identity theory (SIT)
social marker
third-culture individual (TCI)
third-culture kid (TCK)
third gender
transgender
virtual (Internet, cyber, online) identity

Further Reading

Block, D. (2009) Second Language Identities, London: Continuum.
Drawing on social science theory, the author discusses identity formation and change in foreign language learners, adult migrants, and study abroad students.

Croucher, S.M. (2017) ‘Identity and intercultural communication’, in S.M. Croucher (ed) Global Perspectives on Intercultural Communication, New York and London: Routledge, pp. 97-128.
This chapter describes key theories of identity and how they relate to intercultural communication.

Jandt, F. (2021) An Introduction to Intercultural Communication: Identities in a Global Community, 10th edn, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
This introductory text discusses the ways in which culture and language influences identities and intercultural communication.

Langman, J. and Shi, X. (2020) ‘Gender, language, identity, and intercultural communication’, in J. Jackson (ed) Routledge Handbook of Language and Intercultural Communication, 2nd edn, London and New York: Routledge, pp. 219-33.
In this chapter, the authors discuss the major topics and theoretical approaches that have shaped language, gender, and identity studies.

Noels, K.A., Yashima, T. and Zhang, R. (2020) ‘Language, identity and intercultural communication’, in J. Jackson (ed.) Routledge Handbook of Language and Intercultural Communication, London and New York: Routledge, pp. 55-69.
In this chapter, the authors critically examine how scholars in social psychology, communication and applied linguistics define identity; their review highlights the complex relation between language and identity in intercultural communication.

Norton, B. (2013) Identity and Language Learning: Extending the Conversation, 2nd edn, Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Through case studies of immigrant women in Canada, the author demonstrates how a poststructuralist notion of identity as multiple, a site of struggle, and subject to change across time and place can facilitate a deeper understanding of language learning. 

Pollock, D.C., Van Reken, R.E. and Pollock, M.V. (2017) Third Culture Kids: Growing Up Among Worlds, 3rd edn, Boston: Nicholas Brealey Publishing.
Drawing on interviews and personal writings, this book explores the challenges and benefits of being Third Culture Kids (TCKs), young people who have spent a significant part of their developmental years abroad.

Suggested online resources

YouTube Links

What does cultural identity mean?
(In this video, the concept of ‘cultural identity’ is explained with multiple examples from around the world.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jsry12zIg90 (3:13 mins.)

Culture and identity
(In this video, an intercultural educator offers definitions of culture and identity, and explores various types of identity, e.g., personal, social, cultural.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xb4O_xE5zAk&t=7s (4:22 mins.)

Websites

Global learning hub: Cultural identity
(This website explores what is meant by cultural identity and provides links to other related resources, with a particular focus on material that targets study abroad students.)
https://globallearning.ucdavis.edu/resources/access/culture-identity

Resources for identity and culture
(Primarily designed for study abroad students, this website, which is prepared by the Global Education Office at Vanderbilt University in the USA, explores issues related to identity and culture that are also relevant for individuals in their home environment. Topics include race and ethnicity, gender identity, religious identity, transgender and non-binary students, cultural adjustment and identity, among others.)
https://www.vanderbilt.edu/geo/identityresources/

E-Flash cards

Study Quiz

The following quiz aims to test your knowledge and understanding of core concepts in this chapter. For each item, choose the best response. Good luck!

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. explain the process of social categorization.
2. discuss how ethnocentrism and Othering can hinder intercultural relations.
3. explain the ingroup-favoritism principle and its potential impact on intercultural communication.
4. distinguish between a generalization and a stereotype.
5. define stereotyping, biases, prejudice, racism, and xenophobia and explain how they harm intercultural relations.
6. identify constructive ways to combat ethnocentric tendencies and biases.

Key terms and concepts

Affirmative action
Ageism
Ageist language
Ageist stereotyping
Anti-Asian sentiments
Anti-Christian sentiments
Anti-discrimination legislation
Anti-racist legislation
Anti-Semitism
Bias
classism
Discrimination
Discriminatory language
Essentialism
Ethnic cleansing
Ethnocentric or monocultural mindset
Ethnocentricism
Gender stereotype
Gender stereotyping
Generalization
Genocide
Hate crime
Hate speech
Holocaust
Individual racism
Ingroup-favoritism (ingroup-bias)
Ingroup-favoritism principle
Ingroup member
Institutional racism
Islamophobia
Linguistic stereotyping
Othering (Otherization)
Outgroup member
Perception
Positive discrimination
Prejudice
Racial discrimination
Racial profiling
Racial quota
Racial segregation
Racism
Racist
Racist discourse
Racist ideology
Reverse discrimination
Sexism
Sexist language
Social categorization
Social class prejudice
stereotype
stereotyping
systemic racism
xenophobia

Further Reading

Brown, R. (2010) Prejudice: Its Social Psychology, 2nd edn,West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
From a social psychological perspective, the author analyzes the prejudices and stereotypes of individuals as part of a pattern of intergroup processes. Numerous examples of prejudice in everyday life are examined.

Golash-Boza, T-M. (2021) Race and Racisms: A Critical Approach, 3rd edn, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Drawing on contemporary research in the United States and around the world, this text examines how race, class, and gender work together to create inequality and identities.

Goodman, A.H., Moses, Y.T., and Jones, J.L. (2020) Race: Are We so Different?, 2nd edn, Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley-Blackwell.
This book examines modern ideas about race, racism, and human diversity, and considers how conceptions of race have changed over time.

Jandt, F. (2021) ‘Chapter 2: Intercultural communication competence’, in F. Jandt, An Introduction to Intercultural Communication: Identities in a Global Community, 10th edn, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
This chapter examines a number of barriers to successful intercultural communication (e.g., anxiety, ethnocentricism, stereotyping, prejudice, assuming similarity instead of difference, etc.).

Jones, J.M., Dovidio, J.F. and Vietze, D.L. (2014) The Psychology of Diversity: Beyond Prejudice and Racism, Oxford: Blackwell.
This volume presents a social-psychological examination of diversity, offering insight into the historical, political, economic, and societal factors shape the way people think about and respond to cultural difference.

Kivel, P. (2017) Uprooting Racism: How White People can work for Racial Justice, 4th edn, Gabriola Island, B.C.: New Society Publishers.
This volume explores the historical roots of racism and puts forward suggestions to move towards equality and justice for all.

Korgen, K.O. & Atkinson, M.P. (eds) (2022) Race and Ethnicity: Sociology in Action, Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
This edited collection explains key concepts and theories in race and ethnicity; most examples focus on the United States.

Ladegaard, H.J. (2020) ‘Constructing the cultural Other: Prejudice and stereotyping’, in J. Jackson (ed) Routledge Handbook of Language and Intercultural Communication, 2nd edn, London and New York: Routledge, pp. 191-203.
This chapter examines the nature, functions, and shifting conceptions of stereotyping and prejudice in intercultural encounters.

Lippi-Green, R. (2012) English with an Accent: Language, Ideology, and Discrimination in the United States, London: Routledge.
The author discusses the ways in which discrimination based on accent functions to both support and perpetuate social structures and unequal power relations.

Suggested online resources

YouTube Links

Don’t put people in boxes
(This video draws attention to the importance of taking time to get to know people who have a different cultural background instead of making snap judgments and putting them into boxes.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zRwt25M5nGw (4:24 mins.)

Race & privilege: A social experiment
(In this video, which is based in Singapore, individuals are challenged to identify and confront their inherent biases.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F2hvibGdg4w (7:27 mins.)

Countering hate speech (United Nations)
(Mr. Adama Dieng, the U.N. Special Advisor on the Prevention of Genocide examines the roots of hate speech and offers potential solutions to address the root causes.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rnbcQT-b8ak (2:22 mins.)

Websites

RacismNoWay!
(This Australian website explores the connections between culture, language, and identity, focusing on the importance of understanding and combatting racism (e.g., institutional racism, unconscious bias, white privilege, cyber racism). Topics include hate speech, countering hate speech, among others.)
https://racismnoway.com.au/about-racism/understanding-racism/the-importance-of-culture-language-and-identity/

Hate Speech (United Nations)
(This website defines hate speech and explores ways to combat it. It includes links for useful resources including videos of related speeches about ways to fight hate speech.)
https://www.un.org/en/hate-speech/take-action/engage

E-Flash cards

Study Quiz

The following quiz aims to test your knowledge and understanding of core concepts in this chapter. For each item, choose the best response. Good luck!

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. define and describe various types of migrants.
2. explain acculturation and second language socialization.
3. compare and contrast four patterns of acculturation in immigrants.
4. define transition shock (confusion) and identify five types.
5. describe the causes, symptoms, and potential benefits of transition shock (confusion).
6. identify factors that can facilitate or hinder intercultural adaptation.
7. discuss constructive ways to enhance intercultural adaptation.

Key terms and concepts

Acculturation
Acculturation strategies
Acculturative stress
Adaptation
Affective competence
assimilation
Asylum seeker
Communication style similarity
Cultural distance
Cultural maintenance
Culture shock (confusion)
Expatriate
host receptivity
human trafficking
identity expansion
identity shock (confusion)
integration
intercultural transformation
International education
Involuntary migrant
Language fatigue
Language maintenance
Language shock or confusion
Marginalization
Micro-term sojourner
Psychological adaptation
Reentry (Reverse) culture shock
Refugee
Resilience
Role shock or confusion
Second language socialization
Self-shock
Separation (segregation)
Sociocultural adaptation
Socio-emotional support
Sojourner
Stress-adaptation-growth dynamic
Tolerance of ambiguity
Tourism
Tourist
Transition shock (confusion)
Voluntary migrant
‘whole person’ development

Further Reading

Jackson, J. (2008) Language, Identity, and Study Abroad, London: Equinox.
This monograph examines the language and intercultural learning of Chinese students who took part in a short-term intensive study abroad program in the U.K.

Jackson, J. (2010) Intercultural Journeys: From Study to Residence Abroad, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.
This book tracks the language and intercultural learning of English majors from Hong Kong who took part in a short-term study abroad program in the U.K.

Jackson, J. (2013) ‘Adjusting to differing cultures of learning: The experience of semester-long exchange students from Hong Kong’, in L. Jin and M. Cortazzi (eds) Researching Intercultural Learning. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan, pp. 235-52.
This book chapter focuses on the experiences of tertiary-level international exchange students in unfamiliar learning situations while abroad.

Jackson, J. (2018) Interculturality in International Education, London and New York: Routledge.
This volume explores the multifarious individual and external elements that can influence the developmental trajectories of students who travel abroad to gain international educational experience.

Kurtzman, R. (2022) Like a Fish in Water: How to Grow Abroad when you Go Abroad, Carson City, Nevada, USA:LionCrest Publishers.
Written by an international-intercultural educator, this accessible, personal guide provides students with practical insights into how to make the most of international experience.

Lantis, J.S. and DuPlaga, J. (2016) The Global Classroom: An Essential Guide to Study Abroad, Abingdon and New York: Routledge.
The authors offer practical suggestions for student sojourners to help optimize their stays abroad. This book encompasses three phases: pre-sojourn preparation, sojourn, and reentry.

Paige, R.M., Cohen, A.D., Kappler, B., Chi, J.C., and Lassegard, J.P. (2006) Maximizing Study Abroad: A Student’s Guide to Strategies for Language and Culture Learning and Use, Minneapolis, MN: Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition, University of Minnesota.
This guide provides students with tools, creative activities, and advice to prepare for and enhance their culture and language learning while studying abroad. It can also help returnees adjust to life when they return home.

Shaules, J. (2010) A Beginner’s Guide to the Deep Culture Experience: Beneath the Surface, Boston: Intercultural Press and London: Nicholas Brealey.
This accessible text suggests ways that individuals who travel or live abroad can experience a deeper, more meaningful intercultural experience.

Slimbach, R. (2010) Becoming World Wise: A Guide to Global Learning, Sterling VA: Stylus.
This book is designed to help sojourners optimize their stays abroad by cultivating mindfulness and a global perspective.

Suggested online resources

YouTube Links

Studying abroad: Culture shock
(This video presents interviews with study abroad students who offer insight into their experiences with culture shock (confusion) and adaptation.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z5EEz_R_RiE (4:00 mins.)

Homesick
(An international exchange student offers insight into the challenges of intercultural transitions in an unfamiliar land.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0IMyTauZoMM (3:17 mins.)

Websites

What’s up with culture?: On-line training resource for study abroad
(This website explores the skills, attitudes, and behaviors that are vital for study abroad students. It explores key concepts related to intercultural adaptation and re-entry.)
https://www2.pacific.edu/sis/culture/

Global Learning Hub
(This website, which is developed by University College Davis in the USA, presents various resources for study abroad students (e.g., articles, video links, blogs), including webpages designed for students of color). Webpages explore topics related to study abroad, global skills and leadership, and global learning outcomes.)
https://globallearning.ucdavis.edu/

Resources for identity and culture
(This study abroad website, which is prepared by the Global Education Office at Vanderbilt University (USA) explores issues related to identity, culture, and intercultural transitions. Topics include heritage-seeking study abroad students, race and ethnicity, gender identity, religious identity, cultural adjustment and identity, among others.)
https://www.vanderbilt.edu/geo/identityresources/

E-Flash cards

Study Quiz

The following quiz aims to test your knowledge and understanding of core concepts in this chapter. For each item, choose the best response. Good luck!

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. define what is meant by intercultural, interpersonal relationships.
2. describe and provide examples of diversity in intercultural relationships.
3. explain the challenges and benefits of intercultural relationships (friendship, romance, marriage), including computer-mediated unions.
4. identify internal and external factors that can facilitate or hinder intercultural relationship building and the diversification of social networks.
5. discuss constructive ways to nurture intercultural relationships.

Key terms and concepts

Anxiety/uncertainty management theory (AUM)
Appropriate communication
Biracial
Communication competence
‘contact hypothesis’
Cyber friendship
Effective communication
Emotional intelligence
empathy
Expectancy violation theory
honorifics
humor style
intercultural friendship
Intercultural intimate relationship
Intercultural relationship
Interethnic relationship
Interfaith (interreligious) friendship
Interfaith (interreligioius) relationship
International relationship
Interpersonal communication
Interpersonal communication skills
Interpersonal relationship
Interracial communication
Interracial friendship
Intracultural relationship
Language anxiety
Long-term relationship
Mutual facework
Pluralistic society
Reflective mindset
Relational bond
Relational identity
Relational interdependence
Relational intimacy
Relational maintenance
Religious pluralistic society
Self-disclosure
Short-term relationship
Similarity-attraction hypothesis
Social network
Social penetration theory (SPT)
Sociopragmatic awareness
Sociopragmatic competence
Third-culture building
Uncertainty reduction theory (URT)
Willingness to communicate (WTC)

Further Reading

Acosta, H., Staller, M., and Hirayama, B. (2016) Intercultural Communication: Building Relationships and Skills, Dubuque, IA, USA: Kendall Hunt Publishing.
This book explains communication theories and offers practical advice to enhance and maintain satisfying intercultural relationships.

Bussey, D.P. (2019) Some of My Friends are… The Daunting Challenges and Untapped Benefits of Cross-Racial Friendships, Boston: Beacon Press.
This book examines cross-racial friendships—how to develop them, why they can be challenging to maintain, and how they can lead to meaningful conversations about race.

Bystydzienski, J.M. (2011) Intercultural Couples: Crossing Boundaries, Negotiating Difference, New York: New York University Press.
The author examines the multidimensional experiences of intercultural couples who negotiate their identities, gender expectations, language use, family relations, childrearing, financial matters, and lifestyle. 

Jackson, J. (2018) ‘Intercultural friendship’, in Y.Y. Kim (ed.) The International Encyclopedia of Intercultural Communication, Volume 2, Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp.1319-328.
After discussing the formation and various types of intercultural friendships, this chapter identifies internal and external factors that can influence the strength and durability of these bonds.

Kastner, M. (2021) ‘Formation and benefits of intercultural friendships: The role of communication’, Intercultural Communication, 21(3): 26-40.
This article explores intercultural friendship formation and the potential benefits of unions of this nature.

Piller, I. (2017) Intercultural Communication: A Critical Introduction, 2nd edn, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Drawing on discourse analysis and sociolinguistics, this text introduces the field of intercultural communication and includes a chapter on intercultural romance. 

Plummer, D. (2019) Some of My Friends Are...: The Daunting Challenges and Untapped Benefits of Cross-Racial Friendships. Boston: Beacon Press.
The author identifies and explores multiple factors that can influence the development and maintenance of ‘cross-racial’ friendships.

Vela-McConnell, J.A. (2011) Unlikely Friends: Bridging Ties and Diverse Friendships, Lanham, Maryland, USA: Lexington Books.
This accessible book focuses on successful friendships that cross one or more social and cultural boundaries (e.g., age, race, gender, class, gender, sexual orientation, religious affiliation). The author raises awareness of techniques that can enhance intercultural friendships.

Wilczek-Watson, M. (2018) ‘Intercultural intimate relationships’, in Y.Y. Kim (ed.) The International Encyclopedia of Intercultural Communication, Volume 2, Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 1339-347.
In this chapter, the author discusses the challenges and benefits of intercultural intimate relationships including intermarriage.

Suggested online resources

YouTube Links

Global relationships: Facing racism
(This video presents interviews with interracial couples who have had to deal with racism.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e7BYexnyxyI (3:06 mins.)

Couples on biggest cultural misunderstandings
(Intercultural couples share their stories of conflict and misunderstandings.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OOdJ4l5IRFk (4:13 mins.)

What are your biggest cultural differences?
(Through interviews, intercultural couples reflect on the language and cultural differences that they have faced or found confusing.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8FnrRgGXE2c (10:24 mins.)

Websites

Skills you need: Emotional intelligence
(This website defines and explains the importance of emotional intelligence in intimate interpersonal relationships, including intercultural unions.)
https://www.skillsyouneed.com/general/emotional-intelligence.html

Skills you need: Understanding other people
(This website explains the skills that can help to nurture interpersonal, intercultural relationships, including empathy, active listening, intercultural sensitivity).
https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/understanding-others.html

E-Flash cards

Study Quiz

The following quiz aims to test your knowledge and understanding of core concepts in this chapter. For each item, choose the best response. Good luck!

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. describe the nature and characteristics of conflict.
2. compare and contrast five types of conflict and provide examples of each.
3. explain the potential role(s) of face/facework, language, power, and culture in conflict situations.
4. explain why it is important to consider how social, political, and historical elements may affect intercultural conflicts.
5. identify and explain constructive ways to deal with intercultural conflicts.

Key terms and concepts

Anxiety/uncertainty management theory (AUM)
Appropriate communication
Biracial
Communication competence
‘contact hypothesis’
Cyber friendship
Effective communication
Emotional intelligence
empathy
Expectancy violation theory
honorifics
humor style
intercultural friendship
Intercultural intimate relationship
Intercultural relationship
Interethnic relationship
Interfaith (interreligious) friendship
Interfaith (interreligioius) relationship
International relationship
Interpersonal communication
Interpersonal communication skills
Interpersonal relationship
Interracial communication
Interracial friendship
Intracultural relationship
Language anxiety
Long-term relationship
Mutual facework
Pluralistic society
Reflective mindset
Relational bond
Relational identity
Relational interdependence
Relational intimacy
Relational maintenance
Religious pluralistic society
Self-disclosure
Short-term relationship
Similarity-attraction hypothesis
Social network
Social penetration theory (SPT)
Sociopragmatic awareness
Sociopragmatic competence
Third-culture building
Uncertainty reduction theory (URT)
Willingness to communicate (WTC)

Further Reading

Not submitted in content

Suggested online resources

YouTube Links

Cultural differences in negotiations and conflicts
(This clip discusses the potential impact of culture in conflict situations.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rSDntIn6ekE&t=16s (4:56 mins)

What is intercultural conflict and why does it happen?
(After defining what is meant by conflict, this video explores some common types of intercultural conflict situations.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nYfY6xQ31qE) (6:42 mins.)

Websites

Language in conflict
(This website, which is presented by the University of Huddersfield in the U.K., aims to bridge the gap between the field of linguistics (e.g., pragmatics) and the study and resolution of conflict.  Some pages explore the concept of face and notions of politeness and their impact on conflict situations.)
https://languageinconflict.org/104-welcome-to-language-in-conflict.html

Skills you need: Conflict resolution and mediation
(This website defines interpersonal conflict and explores ways to resolve conflict situations in a peaceful, constructive manner. Mediation skills are discussed.)
https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/conflict-and-mediation.html

E-Flash cards

Study Quiz

The following quiz aims to test your knowledge and understanding of core concepts in this chapter. For each item, choose the best response. Good luck!

Learning objectives

Not submitted in content

Key terms and concepts

Business acumen
Business ethics
Business etiquette
Business netiquette
Business protocol
Collectivism
Confucian dynamism
‘conscious culture’
Corporate culture
Cultural synergy
Culture broker (intermediary)
Culture brokering
Deep-level diversity
Direct language
Diversity
‘English hegemony’
Englishization
Equality
Equity
Feminine culture
Feminity/masculinity dimension
Gift giving
Glass ceiling
GLOBE dimensions
harassment
hedging
inclusion
Indirect language
Individualism
Interpreting
‘large culture’
‘Long-term orientation to work’
Masculine culture
particularism
power distance
power imbalance
sexual harassment
‘short-term orientation to work’
‘small culture’
surface-level diversity
translation
uncertainty avoidance
‘unconscious culture’
universalism
work ethic
work style
workplace discrimination (employment discrimination)

Further Reading

Guilherme, M. et al. (eds) (2010) The Intercultural Dynamics of Multicultural Working, Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
From theoretical and interdisciplinary perspectives, the chapters in this volume examine intercultural communication in various types of work environments and contexts (e.g., multicultural work teams).

Ladegaard, H.J. and Jenks, C. (eds) (2017) Language and Intercultural Communication in the Global Workplace: Critical Approaches to Theory and Practice, London and New York: Routledge.
This edited volume provides insight into contemporary workplace cultures, focusing on critical approaches to language and intercultural communication theory and practice.

Martin, J.N. and Nakayama, T.K. (2021) ‘Chapter 11: Intercultural communication in business’, J.N. Martin and T.K. Nakayama, Experiencing Intercultural Communication: An Introduction, 7th edn, New York: McGraw Hill.
This chapter centers on intercultural communication in business settings (e.g., different management styles, language issues, power relations, affirmative action).

Nardon, L. (2017) Working in a Multicultural World: A Guide to Developing Intercultural Competence, Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
This practical book suggests ways to enhance intercultural communication in today’s multicultural and globalized workforce.

Rockson, T. (2019) Use Your Difference to Make a Difference: How to Connect and Communicate in a Cross-Cultural World, Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons.
This accessible text provides readers with a skills-based plan to foster inclusion, interpersonal connections, and mutual understanding in the global workplace.

Schmidt, W.V., Conaway, R.N., Easton, S.S., and Wardrope, W.J. (2007) Communicating Globally: Intercultural Communication and International Business, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Integrating intercultural communication theory with the practices of multinational organizations, the authors raise awareness of the potential impact of diverse worldviews in intercultural interactions and suggest ways to enhance intercultural communication in the workplace.

Scollon, R., Wong Scollon, S. and Jones, R.H. (2012) Intercultural Communication: A Discourse Approach, 3rd edn, London: Blackwell.
Grounded in interactional sociolinguistics and discourse analysis, this book explores key concepts in intercultural communication with multiple examples of corporate and professional discourse.

Tuleja, E.A. (2022) Intercultural Communication for Global Business: How Leaders Communicate for Success, 2nd edn, London and New York: Routledge.
Drawing on principles and theories in intercultural communication, this accessible text focuses on communication as the foundation for management and global leadership.

Weaver, G. (2014) Intercultural Relations: Communication, Identity, and Conflict, Boston: Pearson.
This book explores ways in which organizations can enhance intercultural relations and more successfully mediate conflict situations.

Suggested online resources

YouTube Links

What is cultural diversity?
(In this video, cultural diversity is explained.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=phfz2JLu1I4 (1:19 mins.)

Embracing diversity and inclusion
(This clip emphasizes the benefits of diversity and inclusion.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QWTv8NbItt0 (3:49 mins.)

Sexual harassment in the workplace
(This video discusses the harmful effects of sexual harassment in the workplace and how to avoid it.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NGc7KfQ3uWs (4:55 mins.)

Websites

eDiplomat: Cultural etiquette around the world
(This website provides examples of diversity in cultural etiquette across the globe, e.g., business etiquette, nonverbal communication, gift giving, etc.).
http://www.ediplomat.com/np/cultural_etiquette/cultural_etiquette.htm

Skills you need: Intercultural awareness
(This website explains the importance of intercultural awareness in various contexts and situations, including for people who work in multicultural teams at work.)
https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/intercultural-awareness.html

What is intercultural communication?
(This website explores the importance of intercultural communication skills in business.)
https://ehlion.com/magazine/intercultural-communication/

E-Flash cards

Study Quiz

The following quiz aims to test your knowledge and understanding of core concepts in this chapter. For each item, choose the best response. Good luck!

Learning objectives

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. define intercultural (communication/communicative) competence and identify fundamental components.
2. explain what is meant by ‘the intercultural speaker’ and ‘intercultural mediator’.
3. discuss the relationship between intercultural competence, second language proficiency, and intercultural contact.
4. describe the characteristics and actions of an intercultural-global citizen.
5. identify the requisite attitudes, values, knowledge, and skills of ‘global-ready’ graduates.
6. describe ways to enhance one’s intercultural (communicative) competence and intercultural-global citizenry.
7. explain why intercultural competence development is best viewed as a lifelong process.

Key terms and concepts

Active listening
Appropriate intercultural communication
Citizenship
Communicative competence
Critical cultural awareness (savoir s’engager)
Cultural knowledge (saviors)
Discourse competence
Economic justice
Effective intercultural communication
Global citizen
Global citizenship
Global citizenship activism
Global civic engagement
Global competence
Global consciousness
Global ethics
Human rights
Intercultural attitudes (savoir etre)
Intercultural citizenship
Intercultural communication competence
Intercultural communicative competence
Intercultural competence
Intercultural knowledge (saviors)
Intercultural mediator
Intercultural speaker
Interculturality
Language (linguistic) rights
Linguistic competence
Local identity
Respect
Self-awareness
Skills of discovery and interaction (savoir apprendre/faire)
Skills of interpreting and relating (savoir comprendre)
Social justice
Social responsibility
Sociolinguistic competence

Further Reading

Barrett, M. and Byram, M. (2022) Autobiography of Intercultural Encounters, 2nd edn, Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Online. Available: https://www.academia.edu/71506637/Autobiography_of_Intercultural_Encounters_2nd_edition. (accessed 28 October 2022).
Aligned with the Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture, this practical guide for students promotes reflection and the analysis of intercultural experience.

Barrett, M. and Byram, M. (2022b) Autobiography of Intercultural Encounters through the Internet, 2nd edn, Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Online. Available: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358590493_Autobiography_of_Intercultural_Encounters_through_the_Internet_2nd_edition (accessed 28 October 2022).
Aligned with the Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture, this practical guide for students promotes reflection and the analysis of online intercultural experiences.

Barrett, M. and Byram, M. (2022b) Autobiography of Intercultural Encounters through Visual Media, 2nd edn, Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Online. Available: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358590380_Autobiography_of_Intercultural_Encounters_through_Visual_Media_2nd_edition (accessed 28 October 2022).
Aligned with the Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture, this practical guide for students promotes reflection and the analysis of images of diverse cultures (e.g., on the internet, in print media, on television, in movies).
Byram, M., Golubeva, I., Hui, H., and Wagner, M. (eds) (2017) From Principles to Practice in Education for Intercultural Citizenship, Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
The contributors offer their views about ways to promote competences in intercultural communication and citizenship in foreign language education.

Davies, I., Sant, E., Schultz, L. and Pashby, K. (2018) Global Citizenship Education: A Critical Introduction to Key Concepts and Debates, London and New York: Bloomsbury.
In this volume global citizenship education is discussed in relation to citizenship education, global education, development education, and peace education.

Deardorff, D. (ed.) (2009) The SAGE Handbook of Intercultural Competence, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Linking theory with research and practice, this handbook raises awareness of the complexity of intercultural communication and draws attention to evolving understandings of what it means to be interculturally competent.

Deardorff, D.K. (2020) ‘Defining, developing and assessing intercultural competence’, in G. Rings and S. Rasinger (eds), The Cambridge Handbook of Intercultural Communication, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 493-503.
In this chapter, the author explores various definitions of intercultural competence and identifies some principles of intercultural competence assessment with reference to particular contexts (e.g., education, healthcare, organizations).

Del Villar, C. (2017) ‘Intercultural communication competence’, in S.M. Croucher (ed) Global Perspectives on Intercultural Communication, New York and London: Routledge, pp. 247-69.
The author explains how intercultural communication relates to communicative competence.

Gerzon, M. (2010) Global Citizens. London: Rider.
The author draws attention to the major problems facing the world today and stresses the need for individuals to become responsible global citizens to improve the world.

Harden, A. and Witte, T. (ed.) (2011) Intercultural Competence: Concepts, Challenges, Evaluations, Berlin: Peter Lang.
The essays in this volume explore a broad range of perspectives on intercultural competence, including theories and applications in the teaching and learning of foreign languages.

Sorrells, K. (2022) Intercultural Communication: Globalization and Social Justice, 3rd edn, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Adopting a social justice framework, this student text explores intercultural communication within the cultural, geopolitical, and economic context of globalization and provides direction for the development of intercultural-global citizenship. 

Spanglet, G. and Newing, D.J. (2019) Global Citizenship in the 21st Century: A Leap of Faith to a Better World, Tellwell Talent.
This book explains how global citizenship education (e.g., learning about and respecting each other's cultures and faiths) can foster harmony and mutual intercultural understanding.

UNESCO (2013) Intercultural Competences: Conceptual and Operational Framework. Online. Available: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000219768 (accessed 20 March 2023).
This publication, which is freely available online, offers insight into the intercultural knowledge, skills, and abilities that individuals need to fully engage with diversity in daily life within and among contemporary plural societies.

Suggested online resources

YouTube Links

Intercultural competence
(This video, which has German and English script and narration in English) explains the various dimensions of intercultural competence.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ToOiAiqEvrE&t=145s (6:35 mins.)

Introduction to global citizenship
(This video introduces and explains what is meant by global citizenship.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5rbiOGs4AOM (2:23 mins.)

Global citizen
(In this clip, interviewees offer their understanding of what it means to be a global citizen today.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_yio6kQrlYQ (1:44 mins.)

Websites

Developing intercultural competencies through story circles (UNESCO)
(This video reviews the characteristics of interculturally competent individuals and introduces Story Circles, a methodology that aims to help individuals practice intercultural competencies.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QUQcA-FKWqg (2:28 mins.)

Skills you need: Active listening
(This website explains the importance of active listing in intercultural communication.)
https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/active-listening.html

Cultural Survival
(This website advocates for Indigenous people’s rights, e.g., cultural, linguistic.)
https://www.culturalsurvival.org/

Building intercultural competence (Council of Europe)
(This website defines intercultural competence and includes useful resources related to intercultural competence development and intercultural citizenship.)
https://www.coe.int/en/web/interculturalcities/intercultural-competence

What is global citizenship?
(This website explains the concept of global citizenship and provides relevant examples.)
https://csglobalpartners.com/resources/what-is-global-citizenship/

E-Flash cards

Study Quiz

The following quiz aims to test your knowledge and understanding of core concepts in this chapter. For each item, choose the best response. Good luck!

B

beliefs Learned assumptions and convictions about concepts, events, people, and ways of being that are held to be true by an individual or a group
bias A personal preference, like or dislike, which can interfere with one’s ability to be objective, impartial, and without prejudice
bicultural identity A psychological connection to two ethnic groups and linguistic communities
bilingual identity A hybrid sense of self linked to the use of two languages
biracial Having parents affiliated with two different races
business acumen One’s ability to understand business situations and make appropriate decisions in a short amount of time
business ethics Principles that guide behavior in business
business etiquette Rules that guide social behavior in workplace situations
business netiquette Guidelines for courtesy in the use of email and the internet for communication purposes in business
business protocol The discourse, nonverbal behavior, dress, procedures, and social conventions that are expected within a particular company or organization

C

channel of communication The medium used to convey a message from one person to another, e.g., through speech, writing, and nonverbal signals
chronemics The study of how people use and structure time
citizenship The relationship between the individual and the state, and the need for citizens to understand the economic and political processes, structures, institutions, laws, rights, and responsibilities within the system that governs the state
class identity A sense of belonging or attachment to a group that shares similar economic, occupational, or social status
classism Prejudice or discrimination on the basis of social class
climate change A broad range of changes in global weather patterns created predominantly by burning fossil fuels
climate change refugee A person who is forced to evacuate permanently to another region due to climate change (e.g., floods, droughts)
climate crisis The climate change disaster that requires humans to take urgent, decisive action to mitigate the effects
co-culture See subculture
code of ethics Guidelines that spell out what is ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ behavior in everyday life as well as in professional contexts
code-mixing The mixing of two or more languages or language varieties in speech
code-switching Changing between different languages when communicating
cognitive conflict A type of conflict that centers on the completion of a task
collectivism Interdependence and social cohesion are emphasized so that the needs and wants of groups are given priority over individuals
communication A symbolic, dynamic process by which we create and share meaning with others
communication accommodation theory (CAT) A theory developed by Howard Giles and his colleagues that posits that people in intercultural interactions adjust their communication toward or away from their communication partner, conveying different aspects of their identities
communication competence The ability to achieve one’s goals in a way that is acceptable to both communication partners
communication style The way individuals or a group of individuals prefer to communicate with others
communicative competence What a speaker needs to know to be able to use language appropriately and effectively in specific social/cultural settings
community of practice (CoP) A group of people who share a concern or passion for something they do and gradually learn how to do it better through interaction with more experienced individuals on a regular basis
competence (in communication) The process of managing the interaction to bring about appropriate and effective individual, relational, group, or institutional outcomes
conflict An expressed struggle between interdependent individuals or groups over perceived incompatible interests, goals, values, and resources
conflict face negotiation theory A theory developed by Stella Ting-Toomey which addresses the ways face-losing and face-saving behaviors influence intercultural conflict situations
conflict facework competence The use of culturally and inguistically appropriate and effective facework negotiation skills in conflict situations
conflict interaction style Patterned responses to conflict situations
conflict management The process by which individuals or groups try to find a satisfying outcome in conflict situations
conflict management style Preferred ways of dealing with conflict situations
conflict resolution The informal or formal process that the parties use to find a peaceful solution to their dispute
conflict script A routinized sequence of verbal and nonverbal actions in a dispute
conflict style A preferred way of behaving in conflict situations
Confucian work dynamism A value dimension that aims to account for particular cultural characteristics and behaviors (Confucian values) that are prevalent in East Asian nations, such as persistence, thrift, and a long-term orientation to time
‘conscious’ culture Cultural elements that are visible, explicit, and able to be sensed
constructive conflict communication skills The ability to manage a conflict situation appropriately and effectively by way of skillful interpersonal conflict management skills and verbal and nonverbal communication
contact hypothesis George Allport’s notion that increased contact between different cultural or ethnic groups can lead to mutual acceptance and reduced levels of tension/prejudice provided that certain conditions are met
contested identity Facets or elements of one’s identity that are not recognized or accepted by the people one is in contact with
context The overall environment in which communication occurs (e.g., physical, psychological, sociocultural, political, sociorelational)
convergence The act of adjusting one’s communication (e.g., verbal, nonverbal) and stressing particular identities to become more aligned with one’s addressees to convey solidarity and reduce social distance
core belief Deeply-rooted tenets or convictions that fundamentally influence our sense of self as well as our perception of and interpretation of the world core values Deeply-ingrained traits or qualities that effect one’s sense of ethics and serve as guiding principles in one’s daily life
corporate culture The culture of a particular business or organization
‘crimes against humanity’ The systemic practice of serious offenses against people that are either carried out or condoned by a government (e.g. widespread murder, religious persecution, rapes as a weapon of war)
critical cultural awareness/political education (savoir s’engager) The ability to critically evaluate perspectives, practices, and products in one’s own and other cultures
critical discourse analysis (CDA) A form of discourse analysis which aims to bring about social change by disclosing connections of hidden relationships encoded in language that may not be immediately evident
critical intercultural speaker An individual (second language speaker) who is able to negotiate between his or her own cultural, social, and political identifications and representations with those of the other’, and in the process, become critically aware of the complex nature of cultural identities in an intercultural encounter (See also intercultural speaker) critical reflection The identification, exploration, and challenging of one’s intercultural attitudes, knowledge, and behaviors
cultural competence The ability that enables us to function in our own society
cultural display rules Cultural rules that influence whether and how to express one’s emotions in a particular situation
cultural distance The gap between the ways of being of two different cultural groups
cultural identity A social identity that is influenced by one’s membership or affiliation with particular cultural groups
cultural identity formation The formation of a sense of belonging or attachment to a particular cultural group that develops through shared experiences and the teachings of other members of the group
cultural intelligence The ability and competence to use all of the human senses to empathize and communicate effectively and appropriately with people who have a different cultural background
cultural knowledge (savoirs) – specific knowledge of social groups and their products and practices in one’s own and interlocutor’s country, and of the general knowledge of processes of societal and individual interaction
cultural maintenance The effort of immigrants or minorities to sustain elements of their home culture or heritage (e.g., preserve core values, traditions, language(s), and other ways of being) especially when faced with pressure to adopt the customs of the new, dominant culture (e.g., the majority group)
cultural membership Perceived affiliation or sense of belonging to a particular cultural group
cultural norms Shared expectations of appropriate behaviors in certain situations and contexts
cultural schema A mental structure in which our knowledge and understanding of the world is organized to facilitate our thinking and communication in a particular cultural context
cultural script Representations of cultural norms which are widely held in a given society and which are reflected in verbal and nonverbal acts (e.g. a sequence of expressions and behaviors in certain situations)
cultural synergy The combined power of people from diverse cultural backgrounds working together to create a greater, stronger effect than if they were separate
culture A community or group that shares a common history, traditions, norms, and imaginings in a particular cultural space (e.g., a neighborhood, region, virtual space)
‘culture as nation’ orientation The perception and treatment of nations or cultural communities as homogeneous, largely ignoring the diversity within
culture broker (intermediary) An individual who is tasked with bridging cultural differences
culture brokering The act of bridging or mediating between people who have a different cultural background in order to facilitate communication and reduce conflict
culture shock (confusion) Disorientation and discomfort that an individual may experience when entering an unfamiliar cultural environment
cyber friendship A personal connection or affiliation forged between people online

D

decoding The process by which the receiver tries to understand the meaning of a message
decorative ornamentation Accessories or materials used for decoration
deep-level diversity Differences among individuals and groups that are not easily observable such as attitudes, beliefs, values, knowledge, skills, and worldviews
dialect A particular variety of a language that is used in a specific region (e.g., distinguished by vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation)
digital nomad Someone who lives in a nomadic way while working remotely by using technology and the Internet
direct eye contact Looking into the eyes of one’s communication partner
direct language The use of precise, explicit discourse
discourse competence The ability to understand and produce the range of spoken, written, and visual texts that are characteristics of a language
discrimination The prejudicial or unequal treatment of individuals based on their membership, or perceived membership, in a particular group or category discriminatory language Derogatory terms, stereotypes, or generalizations about an individual or group (e.g., ethnic, gender, minority, religious)
discussion (conflict) style A verbally direct approach to conflict situations that is tempered by an emotionally restrained response
divergence The distancing of oneself from one’s interlocutors by accentuating differences in one’s speech (e.g., communication style, accent), identities, or nonverbal behaviors (e.g., gestures, use of space)
diversity Differences among humans in terms of such aspects as culture, language, race, ethnicity, gender, socio-economic status, age, physical/cognitive abilities, national origin, physical attributes, sexual orientation, ethnic affiliation, regional differences, religious beliefs, and political beliefs, or other ideologies.
dynamic conflict code-switching Adopting one’s conflict style to meet the other party’s approach to conflict (e.g., conflict communication style)
dynamic conflict style The use of indirect strategies and emotionally intense expression to deal with major disagreements or conflicts

E

economic justice Economic policies that distribute benefits equally to all
education abroad Education outside one’s home country (e.g., study abroad, internships, work, volunteering, directed travel with learning goals)
effective communication Communication that achieves the desired results from the perspective of both the sender and receiver
effective intercultural communication Intercultural communication that achieves the desired results from the perspective of both the sender and receiver
emblem (emblematic gesture) Direct nonverbal replacement for word(s) (e.g., OK signal in the U.S.)
emblem of identity Markers of affiliation with a particular group (e.g., clothing, language, communication style, tattoos, flags)
emoji A pictograph of a face, object, or symbol to display an emotion or convey the tone of a message
emoticon Pictorial representations of facial expressions and other symbols that are meant to convey particular emotions
emotion regulation The culturally-influenced process of modifying one’s emotions and expressions in certain situations and contexts
emotional display The expression of our emotions
emotional expression Observable verbal and nonverbal actions that convey emotions
emotional intelligence The ability to understand and manage one’s own emotions and display sensitivity to others’ feelings
emotional restraint Controlling the expression of one’s emotions
empathy The ability to understand another person’s feelings and point of view
encoding The process of putting an idea or message into a set of symbols (e.g., words, gestures)
enculturation The learning of social norms, values, and practices in one’s home environment from an early age
endangered language Few or no children are learning the language
engagement (conflict) style A conflict style characterized by a more verbally direct and confrontational or direct approach
English hegemony The power and domination of English so that it brings about inequality and discrimination
Englishization The spread of English throughout the world
equality Treating people the same way regardless of need or individual differences (e.g., providing the same benefits to all employees).
equity Fairness and equality in support, resources, and outcomes
essentialism The belief that the attributes and behavior of socially-defined groups can be explained by reference to cultural and/or biological characteristics believed to be inherent to the group (See also ‘culture as nation’ orientation)
ethnic cleansing The systematic and violent removal of an ethnic or religious group from a particular territory
ethnic group A group of people who share a common cultural background and heritage
ethnic identity An identity linked to one’s perceptions and emotional ties to an ethnic group(s)
ethnicity A socially defined category based on such aspects as common ancestry, cuisine, dressing style, heritage, history, language or dialect, physical appearance, religion, symbols, traditions, or other cultural factors
ethics Principles of conduct that help govern the behavior of individuals and groups
ethnocentric (monocultural) mindset A way of thinking which holds that one’s cultural worldview and way of life are superior to all others
ethnocentricism An orientation that views one’s group’s standards as the best and judges all other groups in relation to them
expatriate An individual who lives and/or works outside their country of origin
expectancy violation theory A theory developed by Judee Burgoon that posits that individuals have culturally-based expectations about how people should behave in a communicative event and when they do not perform as expected, miscommunication and negative perceptions may develop
extinct language A language in which the last native speaker has died extremism The tendency to go to extremes, especially in relation to politics and religion
eye movement The movement of the eye(s) that conveys meaning (e.g., rolling the eyes to convey contempt, direct gaze to convey interest)

F

face The public self-image that one wants others to recognize and support
face threat A challenge to an individual’s self-image
facework Verbal and nonverbal actions that individuals use to maintain or restore their own or others’ face
facial expressions Facial movements that convey one’s emotional state
feedback Intentional or unintentional verbal or nonverbal signals which receivers give to a speaker to indicate that they have processed what has been said
feminine culture A culture that promotes gender equality, interpersonal contact, flexible balancing of life and work, and group decisions
femininity Gender roles that dictate certain roles and behaviors for women (e.g., modesty, tenderness)
femininity/masculinity dimension The extent to which gender roles are valued, and attitudes towards ascribed masculine values (e.g. achievement, ambition)

G

gaze That act of looking at someone or something
gender One’s identification as male, female, both male and female, or neither
gender-crossing Beginning life as a male and assuming female behaviors and characteristics (or vice versa)
gender-diverse Individuals whose gender identity and gender expression differ from what is viewed as the norm in a particular context at a certain point in time
gender expression How a person expresses gender outwardly through language use, nonverbal behavior, clothing, hairstyles, adornments or other perceived characteristics
gender identity The meanings and interpretations individuals hold about their self-images and expected other-images of femaleness and maleness
gender neutral (gender inclusive) pronoun A pronoun which does not affix a gender to the individual being discussed (e.g., Ze/hir/hir instead of she/he/they)
gender pronouns Words that people use to refer to others in sentences and conversations without using their names (e.g., he/she/they/ze)
gender socialization The process of developing gender identities in a particular social and cultural context
gender stereotype A generalized preconception about the attributes and/or roles that are or ought to be possessed by, or performed by, men and women
gender stereotyping Simplistic overgeneralizations about the gender characteristics, differences, and roles of males and females
generalization A statement about common trends or elements in a group coupled with an understanding that more information is required to determine whether the generalization applies to a particular individual
genocide The targeted killing of a particular ethnic, or religious group
genocide of Indigenous people (colonial or settler genocide) The elimination of entire communities of aboriginal or native peoples due to settler colonialism
gesture A movement or position of the hand, arm, body, head, or face that conveys an idea, opinion, or emotion
gift giving The ritual of providing gifts to business clients
glass ceiling An unseen barrier that keeps minorities and women from rising to more senior positions in organizations, regardless of their qualifications or achievements
global citizen An individual who identifies with being part of an emerging world community and whose actions contribute to building this community’s values and practices
global citizenship Awareness of and commitment to societal justice for marginalized groups and care for the environment based on principles of equity, respect, and sharing
global citizenship activism Assuming an activist role to cultivate ethical values, principles, and practices characteristic of global citizenship
global civic engagement Recognition of local, state, national, and global community issues and response through actions such as volunteerism, political activism, and community participation
global competence Possessing an open mind while actively seeking to understand different cultural norms and expectations, and using this knowledge to interact, communicate, and work effectively outside one’s environment
global consciousness Concern about the welfare of our planet
global ethics Basic shared ethical values, criteria, and attitudes for peaceful coexistence among humans
global health The area of study, research, and practice concerned with improving health for all people worldwide
global health security The activities required to minimize the danger and impact of serious public health events that threaten people’s health across the globe
global (transnational) identity An identity which affords an individual a sense of belonging or attachment to a worldwide culture, which is often associated with the use of an international language
global nomad An individual who has a mobile and international lifestyle
‘global village’ The term coined by Marshall McLuhan in the 1960s to refer to the way the world is ‘shrinking’ as people become increasingly interconnected through media and other communication advances
global warming The long-term rising of the earth’s atmosphere and oceans that is bringing about droughts and floods
globalization The growing tendency towards international interdependence in business, media, and culture.
GLOBE dimensions Cultural differences in societal values and practices identified by the GLOBE project: institutional and group collectivism, gender egalitarianism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, future orientation, assertiveness, performance orientation, and humane orientation

H

haptics The use of touch in communication, including the type of contact as well as its frequency and intensity
harassment Behaviors of an offensive or threatening nature
hate crime A prejudice-motivated crime in which the perpetrator targets a victim because of their affiliation (or perceived affiliation)with a particular social group or racial demographic
hate speech Abusive or threatening speech or writing that expresses discrimination or prejudice against a particular group, especially on the basis of race, ethnicity, religion, gender, sexual orientation, or other identity factor
hedging The use of cautious or vague language
hegemony Domination through consent whereby the aims, ideas, and interests of the dominant class are so engrained that minorities go along with their own subordination and exploitation
heritage Aspects that are inherited or linked to the past (e.g., language, rituals, preferences for music, certain foods, dress)
heritage language learning The acquisition of a minority or indigenous language at home that typically is incomplete
high-contact culture A kind of culture in which people display considerable interpersonal closeness or immediacy
high-context communication A style of communication in which most information is implicitly communicated through indirect, nonverbal, and mutually shared knowledge rather than expressed explicitly in words
‘high culture’ Culture which is linked to the arts (e.g., fine paintings, classical music, literature)
Holocaust A mass slaughter of people (e.g., Jews and Gypsies murdered by the Nazis during WWII)
homogenization The loss of linguistic and cultural distinctiveness through the process of globalization
honor killing The murder of a young woman by relatives who believe that her actions (e.g., premarital sex, refusal to accept an arranged marriage) have brought dishonor on the family
honorifics Words (e.g., titles) or expressions in a language that convey respect towards a social superior
host receptivity The degree to which the host environment welcomes newcomers into its interpersonal networks and offers support
human communication The process of meaning-making between people through the exchange of verbal and/or nonverbal signs
human language A system of communication which enables people to exchange messages, ideas, and emotions through the use of verbal and/or nonverbal codes
human migration Physical movement by people from one place to another, sometimes over long distances
human rights The basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled, e.g., the right to life and liberty, freedom of thought and expression, equality before the law
human trafficking The illegal trade of human beings for sexual exploitation or forced labor
humor style The ways individuals use humor in particular contexts and situations
hybrid (mixed) identity A sense of self which includes elements from multiple cultures

I

identity How people view themselves and their relationship to their interlocutors, community, and the wider world
identity confusion An individual who moves from one environment to another may feel caught between two distinct worlds
identity expansion The broadening of one’s sense of self through exposure to new ideas and practices
identity intensity The degree of significance of a particular identity
identity labels Terms used to categorize individuals or groups
identity salience The degree to which an identity is prominent in a particular situation
identity shock (confusion) Inconsistent, conflicting self-images, which can involve the loss of communication competence and self-confidence in a new environment
ideology A system of ideas which promotes the interests of a particular group of people
illustrators Nonverbal actions that shape/illustrate what is being said (e.g., pointing)
imagined community Individuals assume that the people they associate with their group follow norms, practices, and beliefs similar to their own
immigration Moving from one’s home country to reside in another country
inclusion An environment whereby all people feel welcomed, valued, respected, and accepted regardless of differences
independent self-construal A self-perception that puts an emphasis on one’s autonomy and separateness from others
indirect communication A style of communication that emphasizes the use of subtle, indirect forms of expression (e.g., hints, suggestions)
indirect language The use of expressions that suggest or hint at ideas
individual racism A person’s attitudes, beliefs, and actions which support or perpetuate racism
individualism The tendency to emphasize the rights, identities, responsibilities, and independent action of the individual rather than the group
inequality Unequal access to power and resources
information and communication technology (ICT) The infrastructure and technologies that combined enable people and organizations to create, access, store, transmit, and manipulate information in the digital world
ingroup-favoritism (ingroup bias) Situations in which people give preferential treatment to those who are perceived to be in the same ingroup
ingroup favoritism principle The tendency to favor perceived members of one’s own group over those in other groups
ingroup members People with whom you feel emotionally connected to
institutional racism A kind of racism that can result in differential access to the goods, services, and opportunities of society
integration Immigrants take steps to maintain their cultural heritage and original cultural identity while developing harmonious relationships with host nationals
intentional communication Two or more people consciously engage in interaction with a specific purpose in mind
interaction The process of encoding and decoding messages
interactive communication A two-way process involving the sending and receiving of messages
intercultural attitudes (savoir être) Curiosity and openness, readiness to suspend disbelief about others cultures, and belief about one’s own intercultural attitudes
intercultural citizenship The development of the competencies necessary to engage in political activity with people who have a different linguistic and cultural background
intercultural communication Negotiated interpersonal interactions between people who have a different cultural and/or linguistic background
intercultural communication competence The ability to communicate appropriately and effectively with individuals who have a different cultural (and often linguistic) background
intercultural communicative competence The abilities needed to communicate effectively and appropriately with people who are linguistically and culturally different from oneself
intercultural competence The ability to communicate effectively and appropriately in intercultural situations, drawing on one’s intercultural attitudes, knowledge, and communication skills
intercultural conflict The perceived or actual incompatibility of cultural values, situational norms, goals, face orientations, scarce resources, styles/processes, and/or outcomes in a face-to-face (or mediated) context
intercultural conflict competence The mindful management of emotional frustrations and conflict interaction struggles largely due to cultural, linguistic, or ethnic group membership differences
intercultural dialogue A process by which people respectfully and critically examine the norms and perspectives of both their own and other cultures in intercultural interactions with the aim of building bridges between them
intercultural education Education designed to help prepare students for responsible intercultural citizenship in our global community
intercultural ethics A branch of knowledge concerned with the norms or rules of behavior that individuals with different cultural backgrounds may adopt to manage their intercultural relationship
intercultural facework competence The ability to manage vulnerable identity-based conflict situations appropriately, effectively, and adaptively
intercultural friendship A personal connection or affiliation forged between people who have a different cultural background
intercultural mediator An individual who is able to facilitate appropriate and effective communication with and between people who have a different linguistic and cultural background (See also intercultural speaker)
intercultural relationship A relationship between individuals who have a different cultural background
intercultural sensitivity The ability to recognize, respect, and appreciate people who have a different cultural background
intercultural speaker A competent, flexible second language speaker who is able to establish positive intercultural relationships by drawing on/recognizing multiple identities and ways of being in intercultural interactions
intercultural transformation A process of change in which an individual develops a broadened sense of self that is more inclusive and intercultural
interculturality The forging of respectful, equitable links between individuals and groups who have a different cultural (and linguistic) background
interdependent self-construal A self-perception that emphasizes one’s relatedness to other people
interethnic (ethnic) conflict A conflict situation between individuals or groups affiliated with different ethnic groups, whereby ethnicity is salient
interethnic relationship A relationship between individuals affiliated with different ethnic groups
interfaith (interreligious, religious) conflict Disputes or conflict situations between individuals or groups affiliated with different faiths, whereby religion is a salient issue
interfaith (interreligious) friendship An interpersonal friendship bond between individuals who are affiliated with a different religion
Interfaith (interreligious) relationship An interpersonal connection (e.g., friendship, romance, marriage) between individuals or groups who are affiliated with a different religion
intergenerational conflict Disputes between individuals or groups from different generations, whereby age is a salient issue
intergroup conflict Disputes that arise between two or more groups of people
international conflict Disputes between different countries, conflict between people and organizations from different nation-states, intergroup conflicts within a nation that impact other nations
international education Education that takes place outside one’s home country
international English A particular variety of English (e.g., Singaporean English)
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) An alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin alphabet that serves as a standardized representation of the sounds of spoken language
international relationship The ties that develop between individuals affiliated with different countries
internationalization Any systematic sustained effort designed to make higher education more responsive to the requirements and demands of an interconnected, global world
Internet identity See virtual identity
interpersonal communication A form of communication that involves a small number of people interacting with one another, usually for the purpose of managing relationships
interpersonal communication skills Communication strategies and techniques that can enhance relationships and be improved through knowledge, practice, feedback, and reflection
interpersonal conflict A conflict or a struggle between two or more people who may or may not have a similar linguistic and cultural background
interpersonal distance The psychological ‘bubble’ or distance that individuals stand from one another in a particular cultural context
interpersonal relationship Close personal ties between two or more people that may range in duration from brief to enduring
interpreting The act of translating spoken communication
interracial communication Interactions between two people in a situational context where racial difference is a salient issue
interracial conflict Individuals in a conflict situation whereby race or racial difference is a source of friction
interracial friendship A relationship between friends who are affiliated with a different race
interracial relationship A relationship (e.g., friendship, romance, marriage) between people who are affiliated with a different race
intimate space The closest ‘bubble’ of space surrounding a person, which is reserved for private situations with those who are emotionally close and if others invade this space, the individual may feel threatened.
intracultural conflict A struggle between individuals with a similar linguistic and cultural background
intracultural interactions The exchange of messages between people who share the same cultural background
intracultural relationship Interpersonal bonds that form between individuals who share the same linguistic and cultural background
intrapersonal communication Language use or thought directed at oneself
involuntary migrant An individual is forced to move to another country or region
islamophobia The fear, hatred of, prejudice, discrimination, or racist acts against the Islamic religion or Muslims in general

J

K

kinesics A broad category of nonverbal actions, which encompasses the study of body movement, e.g., posture, gestures, facial expressions and eye movements
knowledge of cultures (saviors) Knowledge of social groups and related products and practices in one’s own culture as well as that of one’s intercultural communication partner

L

language affiliation One’s attitudes towards and feelings about the language
language anxiety Degree of nervousness and fear when using a second language
language awareness Enhanced consciousness of and sensitivity to the forms and functions of language
language death (language extinction, linguistic extinction or linguicide) A process whereby a language that has been used in a speech community gradually dies out
language expertise An individual’s degree of proficiency in a particular language
language fatigue Exhaustion that may arise when communicating in a second language
language identity The relationship between one’s sense of self and the language one uses to communicate
language inheritanc Being born into a family or community where a particular language is spoken
language loss The societal or individual loss in the use or ability to use a language
language maintenance The preservation of a language or language variety in a context where there is significant pressure for speakers to use the more prestigious or politically dominant language
language (or linguistic) rights The right to choose the language(s) for communication in private and public places; the right to one’s own language in legal, administrative and judicial acts, language education, and the media
language shock (confusion) The challenge of understanding and communicating in a second language in an unfamiliar environment
language socialization The acquisition of linguistic, pragmatic, and other cultural knowledge about a language through social experience
‘large culture’ Prescribed ethnic, national and international entities, which typically overlook variations within
lingua franca A language which is used as the medium of communication between speakers who have a different first language
linguistic competence The ability to apply knowledge of the rules of a standard version of the language to produce and interpret spoken and written language
linguistic determinism The strong form of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis which posits that the language we speak determines our ability to perceive and think about objects
linguistic relativity The weaker version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis which indicates that the language one speaks influences thinking patterns but does not determine them
linguistic stereotyping The tendency for people to categorize and judge others on the basis of their language output (e.g., ethnically-marked accented speech)
linguistic style An individual’s speaking pattern, including such features as degree of directness or indirectness, pacing and pausing, word choice, and the use of such elements as jokes, sarcasm, figures of speech (e.g., metaphors, irony, hyperbole), stories, questions, silence, and apologies
localism A political philosophy which prioritizes the local, e.g., the local production and consumption of goods, local control of government, the promotion of local culture/customs, a local identity
long-term orientation to work The virtues of perseverance and thrift are fostered with the focus on future rewards; relationships are ordered by status
long-term relationships Interpersonal ties that endure many years
low-contact culture In this context, touch occurs in limited circumstances and too much contact is viewed as intruding on an individual’s privacy or personal space
low-context communication Explicit verbal messages are the norm, e.g., most of the information is conveyed directly in the transmitted message in order to make up for ambiguity in the context
‘low culture’ (‘popular culture’ or ‘folk culture’) Elements in society that have mass appeal, e.g., the sports, food, dress, manners, and other habits of the ‘common people’ who have limited education, money, and sophistication

M

maintenance (speech style) Speakers maintain their style or pattern of speech and do not make any adjustments in intercultural interactions.
majority culture The dominant group that has established its own norms, values, and preferences as the standard for the majority
majority identity An individual’s identification with the dominant or majority group
marginality Living at the edges or margins of society
marginalization An acculturation strategy in which immigrants do not nurture their cultural heritage (e.g., first language, traditions) and also resist developing a close connection with the new society
masculine cultures Distinct differences in the gender roles and responsibilities of men and women
mediation The settlement or negotiation of a conflict or dispute by an independent person or third party
mediator (intermediary) An independent or third party who facilitates negotiations and dialogue between the disputants
message What is conveyed verbally (e.g., in speech, writing) or nonverbally from one person (the sender) to one or more persons (the receiver(s))
mindful awareness Recognition of our own and others’ cultural ways of knowing and being and how they affect our intercultural interactions
mindful fluency The ability to tune into our own cultural, linguistic, and personal habitual assumptions in intercultural interactions and learn from the unfamiliar other
mindfulness Being conscious of our own assumptions, ideas, and emotions and those of our communication partners
minority culture A culturally distinct group that coexists with but is subordinate to the more dominant group
minority identity One’s sense of belong to a minority group
minority language A language that only a minority of the people use in a population
monochronic time orientation A time system in which tasks tend to be done simultaneously and time is segmented into precise, small units
moral obligation The requirement to pursue what we believe is right and act accordingly
multicultural identity A psychological connection to multiple ethnic groups and linguistic communities
multilingual identity A hybrid sense of self linked to the use of multiple languages
mutual face The concern for the public image of oneself and one’s interlocutor, or, more broadly, the image of the relationship between communication partners as a whole

N

national identity An individual’s affiliation with and sense of belonging to a state or nation
negative face The desire to have autonomy and not be controlled by others
negotiation A process by which individuals or groups resolve a dispute by holding discussions and coming to an agreement that is mutually acceptable
noise (interference) Any disturbance or defect which interferes with or distorts the transmission of the message from one person to another
nonbinary Individuals who do not describe themselves or their genders as fitting into the categories of male or female
nonverbal codes All symbols that are not words, e.g., bodily movements, use of space and time, clothing and adornments, sounds other than words
nonverbal communication Communication without words through various channels (e.g., gestures, clothing, use of personal space, touch)
nonverbal cues All potentially informative behaviors that are not purely linguistic in content
nonverbal expectancy violation theory A theory developed by Judee Burgoon (1978), which suggests that during the primary socialization process we build up expectations (mostly subconscious) about how others should behave nonverbally in particular situations and contexts and we respond negatively when people do not conform to these norms

O

oculesics A subcategory of kinesics, which is concerned with eye behavior as an element of communication
olfactics (olfaction) The study of how we use and perceive odors, e.g., perfume, cooking spices, body scents, deodorant
organizational conflict Disputes that can arise within an organization due to competing needs, values, beliefs, and interests
Othering (Otherization) The labeling, objectifying, and degrading of people who are different from oneself
outgroup members Individuals with whom one feels emotionally and psychologically detached

P

pacifism An approach in which individuals strive to avoid conflict situations
paralanguage (vocalics) The study of vocal cues, the nonphonemic qualities of language which convey meaning in verbal communication, e.g., accent, emphasis, loudness, rate of speech
particularism Treating individuals differently depending on their social status, interpersonal relationships, and obligations
perception Becoming aware of, knowing, or identifying something or someone by means of the senses through a process involving selection, organization, and interpretation
peripheral beliefs Beliefs related to personal perceptions and tastes
personal identity An individual’s sense of self, which differentiates him or her from others, e.g., personal interests or hobbies, gender, age, personality
personal space The distance most people feel comfortable standing from each other in public
‘phonetic’ language A language in which there is a direct relationship between the spelling (symbol) and the sound
physical appearance An individual’s outward appearance, e.g., skin color, facial features, hairstyle, dress
physical features Bodily characteristics such as height, body type, deformities, eye shape, gender, skin color, weight, etc.
pluralistic society A society composed of people from numerous cultural and ethnic backgrounds, whereby cultural diversity among citizens is acknowledged and encouraged polychronic time orientation A system whereby time is cyclical, several things tend to be carried out simultaneously, and there is a fluid approach to scheduling
populism A political approach that seeks to appeal to ordinary people who believe that their concerns have been ignored by established groups in power
positive discrimination Education, business, or employment policies that aim to redress the negative, historical impact of discrimination by taking factors such as race, sex, religion, gender, or national origin into consideration in hiring/promotion situations (See also affirmative action)
positive face A person’s desire to gain the approval of other people
posture An individual’s bodily stance, e.g., slouching, towering, legs spread, jaw thrust, shoulders forward, arm crossing
power Authority or strength
power distance The degree to which less powerful members of a society or organization expect and accept the unequal distribution of power among members
power imbalance A situation in which an individual, group, or nation has great influence, control, or domination over others
power relations The dynamics of power, status, and (in)equality in the language use, communication, and relationships between individuals or groups
prejudice Dislike or hatred of a person or group formed without reason that is often rooted in a person’s early socialization
primary socialization See enculturation
professional identity An individual’s sense of belonging to a particular profession, e.g., teaching, nursing, business
professional identity formation The developmental process in which individuals develop a sense of what it means to be a member of a particular profession, which distinguishes them from other professional groups
proxemics The social use of space in a communication situation
psychological adaptation Feelings of personal well-being and self-esteem
public space The area of space beyond which individuals perceive interactions as impersonal and relatively anonymous

Q

R

race A system of organizing people into groups perceived to be distinct because of physical appearance; this social construction has historically privileged people in positions of power
racial discrimination The prejudicial or unequal treatment of certain individuals based on their membership, or perceived membership, in a particular racial group or category
racial identity An identity linked to one’s biological or genetic make-up, e.g., Black, White, biracial
racial profiling An individual is subjected to differential treatment (e.g., more scrutiny, more traffic stops) because of negative stereotypes related to their race, skin color, ethnicity, ancestry, religion, or place of origin instead of reasonable suspicion
racial quotas Numerical requirements for the selection and promotion of people from a group that is disadvantaged
racial segregation The separation of people into racial groups in daily life
racism The belief in the inherent superiority of a particular race or ethnic group and the perceived inferiority of other races or ethnic groups
racist A person who is prejudiced against people on the basis of their (perceived) membership in a particular racial or ethnic group, especially one that is a minority or marginalized
racist discourse Talk which has the effect of sustaining racist practices racist ideology The beliefs underpinning racism
receiver The person (or persons) who is receiving a message that is being sent, whether intentional or not
receiver response The verbal or nonverbal reaction, if any, of a receiver after decoding the message
reconciliation The process whereby people involved in a conflict situation learn to live together in the post-conflict environment
reentry (reverse) culture shock The process of readjusting and reacculturating to one’s own home environment after living in a different cultural setting
reflective mindset The ability to revisit and make meaning from one’s experience
refugee An individual who flees to another country to escape danger or persecution
regional identity The part of an individual’s identity that is rooted in his or her region of residence
register Linguistically-distinct varieties in which the language is systematically determined by the context
‘regulator’ Action (e.g., hand gestures, head nods, touching) which influences the flow of a conversation
relational bonds The interpersonal connection between individuals, which serves as the basis of social groups and society as a whole
relational identity The coordination of the attitudes, actions, and identities of communication partners in a close relationship
relational interdependence Mutual dependence or reliance on one other
relational intimacy The closeness one feels and displays towards one’s friends
relational maintenance Communication which aims to keep relationships operating smoothly and satisfactorily
religious conflict See interfaith conflict
religious pluralistic society Many different religious beliefs, concepts, and ideologies co-exist and intermingle; individuals have the freedom, rights, and security to worship, or not, according to their own conscience
resilience An individual’s ability to cope with stress and adversity
respect The display of positive regard for an individual from a different cultural background
restitution Compensation of land or resources to settle a conflict situation
reverse culture shock See reentry culture shock
reverse discrimination Perceived unfair treatment of the majority (or group that is generally considered to have more power and privilege) by providing advantages for minorities or other groups that are deemed underprivileged
ritual A set of actions or rites performed for symbolic meaning
role shock (confusion) Lack of knowledge and confusion about the norms of behavior in a new cultural setting (e.g., what actions are expected in particular situations)

S

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis The notion that differences in the way languages encode cultural and cognitive categories determines or affects the way the users of a particular language view the world around them (See also linguistic determinism, linguistic relativity)
second language socialization The process by which novices in an unfamiliar linguistic and cultural context enhance their intercultural communication as they gain exposure to and reflect on the linguistic conventions, sociopragmatic norms, cultural scripts, and other behaviors associated with the new culture (See also acculturation)
self-awareness Conscious knowledge of one’s self-identities, thoughts, actions, emotions, strengths, and weaknesses
self-disclosure The process of deliberately revealing information about oneself that would not normally be known s
elf-presentation Information we disclose about ourselves through our discourse and nonverbal acts (e.g., dress, accent, gestures)
self-shock See identity shock (confusion)
semiotics The study of signs, symbols, and signification
sender The person who is intentionally or unintentionally sending a message (verbally or nonverbally)
separation The acculturation strategy in which individuals strive to maintain their cultural heritage and avoid participation in the larger or dominant society in their new country
sexism The behavior, conditions, or attitudes that promote stereotypes of social roles based on gender
sexist language The use of words or phrases that unnecessarily emphasize gender, or ignore, belittle, or stereotype members of either sex
sexual harassment Bullying or coercion of a sexual nature
short-term orientation to work The focus is on hard work to gain immediate results and there is less concern about status in relationships
short-term relationship An interpersonal relationship that is very brief, e.g., lasting a few weeks or months
sign Something that stands for or represents something else; the smallest unit of meaning
sign language A system of communication among deaf people that employs visual symbolic signs (e.g., gestures)
similarity-attraction hypothesis The belief that we are drawn to people we perceive to be similar to us
skills of discovery and interaction (savoir apprendre/faire) The ability to acquire new knowledge of a culture and to operate this knowledge in real-time communication.
skills of interpreting and relating (savoir comprendre) The ability to interpret a document or event from another culture, to explain it and relate it to documents or events from one’s own
‘small culture’ The notion of culture is attached to small social groupings or activities wherever there is cohesive behavior rather than large groups (e.g., ethnic groups)
social categorization The way we group people into conceptual categories in order to make sense of our increasingly complex social environment
social class prejudice Negative personal attitudes towards individuals affiliated with a different social class
social distance The perceived gap or degree of solidarity/closeness between individuals or social groups
social identity How we identify ourselves in relation to others based on what we have in common
social identity theory (SIT) A theory developed by Tajfel and Turner (1979, 1986) that suggests that individuals tend to categorize people in their social environment into ingroups and outgroups
social justice Fairness in laws and policies so that all people have equal economic, political, linguistic, and social rights and opportunities within a society
social marker An indicator of one’s social status or position in society (e.g., accent, material possessions, level and source of education) social media websites and applications that allow users to create and share content or engage in social networking
social network The multiple web of relationships that individuals form in a society with other people who they are linked to directly or indirectly through friendship or other social relationships
social penetration theory (SPT) A theory proposed by Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor (1973) which suggests that as self-disclosure increases in depth (degree of intimacy on a particular topic), amount, and breadth (the number of topics about which one self-discloses to one’s communication partner), our relationships become more intimate
social responsibility The perceived level of interdependence and social concern for others, the society, and the environment
social space The formal distance between individuals in a social setting or, more broadly, cultural space (e.g., the global community)
socialization The process by which individuals learn to internalize and follow the conventions of behavior imposed by a society or social group (See also enculturation)
sociocultural adaptation Competence in dealing with social and cultural dimensions in one’s environment
socio-emotional support The psychological assistance provided by friendship circles, intracultural and intercultural relationships, and family members
sociolinguistic competence The ability to communicate verbally and nonverbally in ways that are deemed appropriate in a particular sociocultural setting
sociopragmatic awareness The awareness of how and why language is used in certain ways in social situations in a particular cultural context
sociopragmatic competence The ability to use language appropriately in specific social situations in a particular cultural context
sociopragmatic expectancy violation The use of language or nonverbal actions that are perceived as inappropriate in relation to one’s status or role identity in a particular social and cultural context
sociopragmatic norm The social rules for the use of language
sojourner An individual who is temporarily in a new environment for a specific purpose (e.g., study, work, business) and typically for a certain length of time (e.g., several days or months)
speech community A group of individuals who use the same variety of a language and share specific rules for speaking and interpreting speech (e.g., speakers of Appalachian English)
speech illustrators Gestures or movements that illustrate or emphasize a verbal message, even though the user may not be conscious of their use
speech style The way we talk, such as our use of vocabulary, syntactic patterns, volume, pace, pitch, register, and intonation
speech style preference The speech we are most comfortable using in interactions
stereotype A preconceived, fixed idea that attributes certain characteristics (e.g., personality traits, level of intelligence), intentions, and behaviors to all perceived members of a particular group
stereotyping A strong tendency to characterize people from other cultural backgrounds unfairly, collectively, and usually negatively
stress-adaptation-growth dynamic Young Yun Kim’s (2001) notion that acculturative stress (e.g., language and culture shock) can prompt intercultural learning and gradually lead to adaptation in border crossers
style shifting The process of adjusting or changing from one style of speech to another within the same language
subculture (co-culture, subgroup, microculture) A small group that is distinctive from the majority or dominant culture due to different characteristics (e.g., race, social class) and ways of being (e.g., dialect use, values)
superstition A belief or half-belief that is based on chance or magic rather than scientific or rational thinking
surface-level diversity Differences that are easily recognized through a quick assessment of physical characteristics, e.g., gender, age, race, ethnicity
symbol An artifact, word(s), gesture, sign, or nonverbal behavior that stands for something meaningful to individuals in a particular context
systemic racism The mistreatment of people of a particular race, religious, or ethnic group on a wide scale

T

terrorism The intimidation or coercion of people through the threat or acts of violence, including the taking of hostages
third-culture building The blending of different cultural identities and practices to form an identity that is unique to the parties involved, i.e. the identity of a multicultural family
third-culture individuals (TCIs) Individuals who have spent a significant part of their developmental years outside their parents’ home country
third-culture kids (TCKs) See third-culture individuals (TCIs)
third gender People who are categorized as neither male nor female, either by themselves or by social consensus
time perception Views about such aspects as punctuality, willingness to wait, and number of tasks to carry out at the same time
tolerance of ambiguity One’s ability to cope with situations that are unclear
tourism The movement of people to countries or places outside their usual environment for personal, recreational or business/professional purposes
tourist Visitors who usually stay abroad for only a short time (e.g., a few days to several weeks or months) to sight-see, enjoy themselves, and get a taste of a different linguistic and cultural environment
traditions Customs or beliefs that are transmitted from generation to generation
transactive communication People are consciously directing their messages to someone else
transgender People whose gender identities are different from the expectations and social norms associated with their biological sex
transition shock (confusion) The state of loss, disorientation, and identity confusion that can occur when one enters a new situation, job, relationship, or physical location, e.g., the strain of adjusting to the unfamiliar
translation The act or process of translating from one written language to another
transnational competence See global competence
transnational identity See global identity
turn-taking The use of nonverbal or verbal means to start and finish a turn in a conversation

U

uncertainty avoidance Feeling threatened by ambiguous situations, individuals take steps to avoid uncertainty and return to the familiar
uncertainty reduction theory (URT) A theory developed by Berger and Calabrese (1975) that posits that the greater our ability to predict and explain our communication partners’ behavior, the greater the chance that our relationships will become more intimate
‘unconscious’ culture Elements that are invisible, nonverbal, and unconsciously learned over time
unintentional communication Messages that are unintentionally communicated to a receiver
universalism The application of the same rules for everyone regardless of their status or relationship

V

value Shared ideas about what is right or wrong
virtual identity (Cyber, online, Internet identity) An online social representation that an Internet user (or group) establishes in websites and other internet-based communities
vocalics See paralanguage
voluntary migrant An individual who willingly chooses to settle abroad

W

ways of being Characteristic or frequent ways of acting or thinking
‘whole person’ development The nurturing of emotional intelligence and resourcefulness, interpersonal communication skills, intercultural competence, independence, and maturity
willingness to communicate (WTC) An individual’s readiness to enter into discourse at a particular time with a specific person or persons
work ethic A set of values based on hard work and discipline
work style The preferred way to plan and carry out work tasks and communicate professionally with others
workplace discrimination Unfair practices in hiring, promotion, job assignment, termination, and compensation
world citizen See global identity
World Englishes Varieties of English in the world
worldview Our overall way of looking at the world, which serves as a filter to help us make sense of humanity

X

xenophobia An irrational fear of foreigners or strangers

Y

Z