Overview
In the chapter, two more Central Eight risk/need factors, associates and attitudes, are reviewed.
The path to criminal associations begins with a family environment that fails to effectively monitor and supervise children and youth. As a result, young persons can easily fall under the influence of delinquents. Whether it is involvement in gangs or simply associating with other procriminal friends, youth learn procriminal attitudes and behaviors in these groups. Family and gang interventions that reduce procriminal association are reviewed and evaluated.
Cognitions (i.e., the decision of the self to act in a specific way) plays a central role in criminal behavior. Ultimately, the cause of behavior resides in the cognitions of the individual. People make a choice, and they are responsible for their choices. Sometimes we may not be fully aware of our decision to act because of the automatic nature of some behaviors, or impulsive-emotional reactions, or the disruption of thinking processes due to alcohol or other drugs. However, even in these situations, we can trace back in the chain of behavioral events to a point where an active choice was made that accounts for the present behavior.
Worth Remembering
- Two factors that have a very strong influence on the decision to engage in criminal behavior are procriminal associates and attitudes. Procriminal associates provide opportunities to learn procriminal attitudes and the techniques of crime.
- Inappropriate parenting can lead the youth to procriminal associations and the learning of procriminal attitudes. Lack of parental monitoring and discipline frees the youth to associate with procriminal others without fear of censure from the parent(s). Poor emotional ties to the parents may further exacerbate the situation. Antisocial parent(s) may also model and reinforce criminal behavior.
- Gang membership enhances criminal behavior. Most individuals who join gangs already have a well-entrenched criminal propensity. However, belonging to a gang appears to increase criminal behavior beyond what is expected from the individual.
- Procriminal attitudes can be reliably measured and changed. Assessments of antisocial attitudes fall into three general categories: (1) Techniques of Neutralization, (2) Identification with Criminal Others, and (3) Rejection of Convention. A number of treatment programs have demonstrated that procriminal attitudes can be reduced. Changes in attitudes may lead to reduced recidivism.
Quiz
Further Reading
Cloward, R. A., & Ohlin, L. E. (1960). Delinquency and opportunity: A theory of delinquent gangs. New York: Free Press.
Cohen, A. K. (1955). Delinquent boys: The culture of the gang. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
Maruna, S., & Copes, H. (2005). What have we learned from five decades of neutralization research? Crime and justice, 32, 221-320.
Sutherland, E. H. (1939). Principles of criminology, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott.
Walters, G. D. (2022). Crime and social cognition: a meta-analytic review of the developmental roots of adult criminal thinking. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 18, 183–207.
Wong, J. S., Gravel, J., Bouchard, M., Descormiers, K. & Morselli, C. (2016). Promises kept? A meta-analysis of gang membership prevention programs. Journal of Criminological Research, Policy and Practice, 2, 134-167.