Resources

BLOOM’S STRETCH EXERCISES & JOB AIDS

The following Bloom Stretch exercises and job aids supplement those included in Streamlined ID: Chapter 2 – Analyze Needs and Project Scope (2nd edition).

Understand

Instructional Design Project Team Roles & Responsibilities. You may spend your entire instructional design career representing all possible roles and completing all tasks necessary to analyze, design, develop/produce, implement, and evaluate instructional products and programs (sometimes referred to as the “Lone Ranger” approach). However, depending on your chosen career environment and your skill set, it is more likely that you will operate as a member of a design/development team assembled to leverage the combined expertise of several skilled professionals. Alternatively, you may design and manage projects for which you out-source certain job tasks or production activities. Regardless of your career path, make the effort to build your understanding of the various job roles and expertise involved in instructional design and development projects by conducting a web search of team roles and the expectations described in related job advertisements. Then, consider your skill set and which of these roles and responsibilities you could comfortably fulfill. If there is a role you would like to take for which you are not currently qualified, identify an action plan to obtain the required knowledge and/or experience. Depending on the type and nature of the specific project, IDT team roles may include: Instructional Designer, Product Developer (responsibilities are generally specific to a particular type of instructional product, such as a video or eLearning program), Multimedia Developer (again, responsibilities depend on the type of multimedia to be developed), Graphic Artist/Designer, Web Designer, Course Developer, Learning Management System (LMS) Administrator, Project Manager, Quality Control/Quality Assurance Testing Coordinator, Subject Matter Expert (SME) or Content Expert, and Content Writer or Technical Writer/Editor.

Apply

Identify Instructional and Non-Instructional Solutions. Part of the challenge of defining project scope is to determine whether the needs identified should be met with an instructional or non-instructional solution. Read through these needs analysis case studies/worked examples that feature both instructional and non-instructional solutions. Then, try applying your skills to define the scope of this needs analysis scenario. When you are finished, compare your answers to those provided in this list of possible needs analysis solutions.

Needs Analysis Checklist. Use this needs analysis checklist from Chapter 2 of Streamlined ID to identify the questions to investigate for the needs analysis, constraints analysis, and resource analysis of your instructional design projects.

Needs Analysis Job Aids. Use the attached scope and needs analysis worksheet as a job aid as you plan and carry out your project needs analysis. Table 2.4 in Streamlined ID provides a list of analysis methods and tools to consider under the categories of “Ask,” “Observe,” and “Study/Analyze.” Use the worksheet and Table 2.4 to plan your analysis, and to guide the application of that plan for your choice of an instructional project.

Analyze

Analyze Knowing-Doing Gaps in Organizations. Pfeffer and Sutton (2000) claim that even though leaders often know what needs to be done to positively impact performance and results, they are often unaware of whether, and to what extent, such practices are being implemented in their organizations. They recommend that designers identify gaps in “knowing-doing” (p. 265) by asking leaders about the specific practices and behaviors that lead to success in their environment (business, industry, sector, country, locality, discipline, grade level, etc.). The authors emphasize that it is then important to ask leaders and individuals (at all levels) what is actually happening in the organization. Customize this sample needs survey template to your organization and use it to compare the perceptions and expectations of stakeholders. It will help you analyze whether there is a gap between what senior leaders know and think is happening, and what others in the organization report is actually occurring in the organization.

Evaluate

Evaluate Goal Statements. Study the attached examples of needs statements and project goals that were developed to address those needs. Assess the merits of each goal statement to select the one that you think best addresses the need described. Think about how to justify your selection. The last page of the attached examples provides our thoughts on which goal statements best meet the stated needs.

Create

Create Customized Analysis Questions. Planning a successful needs analysis involves first coming up with a list of questions for stakeholders/SMEs that will enable you to define the problem, determine the causes or indicators, and analyze the resulting needs. Begin by identifying the questions to ask and the people to question. In addition to the needs analysis checklist from Chapter 2 that is also linked above under Apply, you can draw from and customize this needs analysis interview job aid to create your own interview questions for stakeholders about project needs, resources, and constraints.

Present Analysis Results and Project Scope. Once you have collected and analyzed needs and have a grasp of the project scope, you should summarize your results and seek approval or feedback on your scope definition and proposed plans. You will likely include information from your analysis of the learners, the project contexts and content (covered in Chapters 3, 4, and 5). Each project situation is unique, so the requirements for justifying your plan and reporting your analysis data will vary. As you craft a project scope document for the approval of your stakeholders, you may wish to refer to this project scope report example.

In addition, you can refer to this example Design Document (opens in a new window), compiled from the sample design plan sections included at the end of each chapter of Streamlined ID (2nd edition). (Note that the information from each Streamlined ID chapter has been revised slightly to produce a coherent total design plan document that transitions smoothly from section to section.)

All Levels

Master Needs Analysis. As anexample of how you might implement all the Bloom’s levels to master what you’ve learned in Chapter 2, apply the levels to your mastery of needs analysis, as conceptualized in Streamlined ID:

Remember – List some common purposes of instruction and the needs that can be met with instruction. Review some of the needs that are better met with non-instructional solutions, and the type of solutions that can be used to address them.

Understand - Select your choice of a project need and explain how that need represents a “gap between what is and what should be.”

Apply - Use the attached scope and needs analysis worksheet to identify stakeholder perceptions of a problem, define needs and the causes of those needs, identify alternative solutions to meet those needs, and define an overall project goal.

Analyze - Table 2.3 in the book provides examples of how different stakeholders may perceive the causes and solutions for a common problem. Analyze the similarities and differences in how the different stakeholders see the problem and identify the potential reasons for any discrepancies.

Evaluate - Select and compare any two solution alternatives provided in Table 2.3 and evaluate the pros and cons of each, addressing the potential human and non-human resources and constraints involved in each alternative.

Create - Customize the example of a project scope approval form provided at the end of this project scope report example to produce a form that you can use as you obtain approvals for different elements of your instructional design project.

All Levels

Master Needs Analysis. As anexample of how you might implement all the Bloom’s levels to master what you’ve learned in Chapter 2, apply the levels to your mastery of needs analysis, as conceptualized in Streamlined ID:

Remember – List some common purposes of instruction and the needs that can be met with instruction. Review some of the needs that are better met with non-instructional solutions, and the type of solutions that can be used to address them.

Understand - Select your choice of a project need and explain how that need represents a “gap between what is and what should be.”

Apply - Use the attached scope and needs analysis worksheet to identify stakeholder perceptions of a problem, define needs and the causes of those needs, identify alternative solutions to meet those needs, and define an overall project goal.

Analyze - Table 2.3 in the book provides examples of how different stakeholders may perceive the causes and solutions for a common problem. Analyze the similarities and differences in how the different stakeholders see the problem and identify the potential reasons for any discrepancies.

Evaluate - Select and compare any two solution alternatives provided in Table 2.3 and evaluate the pros and cons of each, addressing the potential human and non-human resources and constraints involved in each alternative.

Create - Customize the example of a project scope approval form provided at the end of this project scope report example to produce a form that you can use as you obtain approvals for different elements of your instructional design project.

• References cited
• Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2000). The knowing-doing gap: How smart companies turn knowledge into action. Harvard Business Press.

Websites, Web Articles, Videos, eBooks, e-Chapters, and Podcasts

• Data Gathering, Analysis, and Presentation
  The best way to locate current tools for data gathering and analysis, planning and design, and data presentation, is to do a web search for specific types of tools and reviews of those tools. Here are some tool types to search: mind mapping and concept mapping tools, word clouds and tag cloud tools, visual aggregators, curation tools, infographics, data animators, web markup tools, timeline creators, graphic organizers, tables, histograms, pie charts, bar graphs, diagrams, and tree maps. For example, the search term data visualization tools is an excellent phrase to use, and here are some specific articles for this increasingly popular method used to communicate data to stakeholders, ID teams, and collaborators
• Chapman, C. (2009, September 11). Data visualization and infographics resources. Smashingmagazine.com [web article] (The author also references two previous articles in the quick summary that are also very helpful.)
• Hsu, C., & Sandford, B. A. (2007). The Delphi technique: Making sense of consensus. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 12(10), 1-8.
• Radionov, V. (2017, March 29). Understanding stacked bar charts: The worst or the best? Smashingmagazine.com [web article]
• Raduca, A. (2019, December 19). Quantitative data tools for UX designers. Smashingmagazine.com [web article]
• Suleman, B. (2016, March 28). Diverse and engaging instances of interactive infographic design. Smashingmagazine.com [web article]
• Wawhal, R. (2019, March 27). Building real-time charts with GraphQL and Postgres. [Smashingmagazine.com web article]
• Click to view external links

• Project Scope and Plans
• Bates, T. (2011). E-Learning plans: Series of four web articles:

  • Why you need an e-learning plan

  • How to do an e-learning plan

  • What should go into an e-learning plan

  • How to implement an e-learning plan

• Johnson, N. (2019, June). Avoid mission creep. [podcast and web article]
• Mills, M. (2018, October 29). A guide to eliminating scope creep. Elearning.adobe.com [web article]
• Narum, C. (2017). An instructional designer’s guide to a successful project kickoff meeting.
• Wiley, D., et al. (2012). Project scope. In Project Management for Instructional Designers: PM4ID, (2nd ed.), (Section 7.2).
• Wiley, D., et al. (2012). Project scope. In Project Management for Instructional Designers: PM4ID, (2nd ed.), (Section 7.2)., CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0 related topics.
• Click to view external links

• Connecting Needs to Measurement/Evaluation
• Don Clark’s ADDIE Backwards Planning Model has been around awhile, yet it does an excellent job of explaining how to map project activities to Kirkpatrick’s evaluation levels and Phillip’s needs model. This produces a planning tool to ensure that your forms of evaluation are aligned to the identified needs. See the model and details at:

  • https://bdld.blogspot.com/2010/11/addie-backwards-planning-model.html

  • http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/sat2.html

• Click to view external links

• Instructional versus Non-Instructional Problems and Stakeholder Relations
• Thalheimer, W. (2012). Will Thalheimer’s Stakeholder Responsibilities Mapping Tool. [Web template].
• Broaden your understanding of instructional versus non-instructional problems and solutions by considering this comparison of traditional needs assessment methods and point-of-work readiness assessments, (the latter being a broader examination of workflow issues) by Gary Wise:

  • Wise, G. (2019, December 30). Point-of-work readiness assessment. Living in Learning [Blog post].

  • Wise, G. (2019, September 25). Point-of-Work: A discipline that evolves the scope of training. Living in Learning [Blog post].

• Click to view external links

BLOOM’S STRETCH EXERCISES & JOB AIDS

The following Bloom Stretch exercises and job aids supplement those included in Streamlined ID: Chapter 3 – Analyze Learners (2nd edition).

Apply

Identify Learner Characteristics and Needs. Read through the learner analysis worked examples and then read and propose solutions to the learner analysis scenarios.

Analyze

Analyze Learners (Job Aid). Your analysis of a target learner audience can be optimized when you compile an orderly summary of learner data collected on learner characteristics and needs (gleaned from formal data gathering and/or from your own experience with the learner population). Various methods for gathering this information are covered in chapter 3 of Streamlined ID (2020), and you can use this learner characteristics worksheet to record the information for your analysis.

Analyze the Impact of Learner Characteristics on Instructional Designs. Choose one of the learner analysis scenarios and use Table 3.1 and Figure 3.1 in Streamlined ID (2020) to identify ways that learner characteristics and needs might impact an instructional design project of your choice. (Note that the learner characteristics worksheet mentioned in the previous Analyze activity includes a copy of Table 3.1 from the text, as well as a blank template of the form.) Use the information in the scenario as well as your imagination to provide specific examples of how learner data impacts at least five of the design elements referenced in Table 3.1 and Figure 3.1 (for example, the impact of specific learner characteristic on your design decisions for the type of examples and practice activities, content treatment, delivery formats and modes, etc). In particular, consider how learner differences in prior knowledge and experience; motivation, goals, and interests; and intelligence and mental capabilities will impact your design. You can also refer to these additional learner characteristics to expand on your analysis (use these and the worksheet from the previous Analyze exercise).

Evaluate

Evaluate How Successful Learning Experiences Differ for Adults versus Children. How does the design of successful learning experiences for adults differ from those designed for children? Use this information on age-related differences in learner characteristics as a resource to evaluate a learning experience that you have encountered as an adult. Was that learning experience designed for adults effective? How could the designer have done a better job of addressing the needs and characteristics of adult learners? You can also use this resource as a guide when revising existing learning experiences for a different age group.

Create

Create Project-Specific Analysis Questions. Planning a successful learner analysis involves determining what you need to know about the characteristics and needs of the target learners. Begin by identifying the questions and the people with the answers. Start by customizing the topics and questions in this learner analysis checklist from chapter 3 of Streamlined ID (2020). In addition, consider creating different versions of your questions, customized for use with the target learners, the learners’ supervisors and/or subordinates, stakeholders, SMEs, and others.

Design a Support Plan for Online Learners. Use this information about online learner wellness needs to design a support plan for an online course. Search the Web to locate resources that your learners would require to fulfill their wellness needs.

Design Variety into Instruction to Motivate Learners. As noted in Streamlined ID (2020), the research does not support the efficacy of designing instruction based on Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983) or designing instruction that appeals to a variety of learning styles. However, the research does indicate that allowing learners to choose from a variety of learning opportunities can increase motivation, which, in turn, can improve learning success (Keller, 1987; Malone & Lepper, 1987; Marzano et al., 2001). In addition, a Universal Design for Learning (UDL) approach that provides a variety of flexible choices for learners to address the predictable variability in learner populations, can address individual needs and encourage self-directed learning. You can use a number of different tools to do this. For example, this table aligns instructional strategies to eight of Gardner’s multiple intelligences, providing a tool for planning learning experiences that feature variety and promote engagement.

All Levels

Plan How to Address Learner Differences. Accommodating learner needs is important to ensure accessible instruction, but trying to customize instruction to address every category of individual differences is a time-consuming and difficult process which can easily exceed project time and budget limits, with learning results that are typically unpredictable.As a result of their review of the literature on learner differences, Clark and Feldon (2005) emphasize three categories of differences that, when considered in the design of instruction, have demonstrated significant, positive effects for learning: intelligence and mental capabilities, motivational goal orientations, and prior knowledge. However, it is good to become familiar with other categories of individual differences to inform your design decisions and enable you to justify those decisions. In addition to the other resources linked above and the tables and resources in chapter 3 of Streamlined ID (2020), this information on cognitive styles and learning styles may prove helpful, especially if you are asked by a stakeholder to address one of the featured categories in your design.

In addition, here are some specific suggestions for using all the Bloom’s thinking skills levels to master what you’ve learned in Chapter 3:

• Remember – List and give examples of the three categories of individual differences that have been shown through research to provide significant effects in learning when considered in instructional designs.
• Understand – Describe the impact of a learner profile on different aspects of an instructional design.
• Apply – Use the learner analysis worksheet and these additional learner characteristics to identify learner characteristics and needs for your instructional design project.
• Analyze – Analyze the 13 learning styles models described in the cognitive styles and learning styles resource to identify similarities and differences between the models.
• Evaluate – Read the descriptions of the four cognitive constructs listed first in the table in the cognitive styles and learning styles resource and then conduct a Web search to locate references to these constructs in articles and instructional designs. Evaluate whether the author or designer’s use of the construct was valid and justified.
• Create – Select any construct or cognitive styles model from the cognitive styles and learning styles resource, research the construct/model and then use it as the basis for a learning unit design.

• References
• Clark, R. E., & Feldon, D. F. (2005). Five common but questionable principles of multimedia learning. In R.E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (pp. 97-115). Cambridge University Press.
• Keller, J. M. (1987). Strategies for stimulating the motivation to learn. Performance + Instruction, 26(8), 1-7.
• Malone, T. W., & Lepper, M. R. (1987). Making learning fun: A taxonomy of intrinsic motivations for learning. In R. E. Snow & M. J. Farr (Eds.), Aptitude, learning, and instruction: III Conative and affective process analysis (pp. 223-253). Erlbaum.
• Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D. J., & Pollock, J. E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

DIVING DEEPER WITH RECOMMENDED READINGS & WEB LINKS

Check out the additional resources listed below for more information on topics covered in Streamlined ID: Chapter 3 – Analyze Learners (2nd edition).

Books, Book Chapters, Articles

• Learner Analysis, Research, and Reporting
• Dirksen, J. (2016). Design for how people learn. (2nd ed.). New Riders.
• Saxena, M. (2011). Learner analysis framework for globalized e-learning: A case study. International Review of Research in Open & Distance Learning, 12(5), 93-107.
• Schwen, T. M. (1973). Learner analysis: Some process and content concerns. AV Communication Review, 21, 44-72. doi:10.1007/BF02770828

• Learner Differences: Prior Knowledge, Motivation, Familiarity with Technology, etc.
• Hailikari, T., Katajavuori, N., & Lindblom-Ylänne, S. (2008). The relevance of prior knowledge in learning and instructional design. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 72(5), Article 113, 1-8. doi: 10.5688/aj7205113
• Witkin, H. A., Moore, C. A., Goodenough, D. R., & Cox, P. W. (1977). Field-dependent and field-independent cognitive styles and their educational implications. Review of Educational Research, 47(1), 1-64.
• With regards to learner differences in familiarity with technology, Marc Prensky’s writings on the concepts of “digital natives” and “digital immigrants” are controversial but prevalent in the field, so become informed by checking out the following pro and con articles:
  • Harding, Tucker. (2010). Digital natives and digital immigrants. CCNMTL [web article]. Retrieved on January 25, 2020 from: http://ccnmtl.columbia.edu/enhanced/primers/digital_natives.html
  • Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon, 9(5).
  • Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants, part II: Do they really think differently? On the Horizon, 9(6).
  • Prensky, M. (2005). Listen to the natives. Educational Leadership, 63(4), 8-13.

• Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligences
• De Bruyckere, P., Kirschner, P. A., Hulshof, C. D. (2015). Urban myths about learning and education. Academic Press.
• Gardner, H. (2011). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. Basic Books.
• Geake, J. (2008). Neuromythologies in education. Educational Research, 50, 123-133.
• Kirschner, P. A. (2017). Stop propagating the learning styles myth. Computers & Education, 106, 166-171.
• Rohrer, D., & Pashler, H. (2012). Learning styles: Where’s the evidence? Medical Education, 46, 630-635.

• Online Learners
• Scheer, S. B., & Lockee, B. B. (2003). Addressing the wellness needs of online distance learners. Open Learning, 18(2), 177-197.

Websites, Web Articles, Videos, eBooks, e-Chapters, and Podcasts

• Learner Analysis, Research, and Reporting
• Joyce, A. (n.d.). Open vs. closed questions in user research. Nielsen Norman UX Research Group. [video, 2:27 minutes]
• Krause, R. (n.d.). How to create a UX Storyboard. Nielsen Norman UX Research Group. [video, 2:30 minutes]
• Krause, R. (2018, July 15). Storyboards help visualize UX ideas. Nielsen Norman UX Research Group. [blog article]
• Rohrer, C. (2014, October 12). When to use which user-experience research methods. Nielsen Norman UX Research Group. [blog article]
• Click to view external links

• Learner Differences: Prior Knowledge, Motivation, Age, etc.
• Dahlstrom, E. (2016). Appreciating a multigenerational higher education IT workforce. EDUCAUSE Review, 38-44,
• EDUCAUSE Center for Analysis and Research. (2016). Current faces of the IT workforce. EDUCAUSE Research Snapshot [infographic].
• Galanek, J. D., Gierdowski, D. C., & Brooks, D. C. (2018, October). ECAR study of undergraduate students and information technology, 2018. Research report. Louisville, CO: ECAR.
• Gierdowski, D. C. (2019, May 28). ECAR study of community college students and information technology, 2019. [Research report] Louisville, CO: ECAR.
• Kirschner, P. A., & Neelen, M. (2019, May 21). What we already know determines what, how, and how well we learn. 3-Star Learning: An evidence-informed blog for learning professionals.
• McCrindle’s handy infographic of the generations
• Musser, T. (2005) Individual differences: How field dependence-independence affects learners
• Oblinger, D. (2003). Boomers, gen-Xers, and millennials: Understanding the "new students." Educause Review. [Archived web article].
• Oblinger, D. G., & Oblinger, J. L. (2005). Educating the net generation. EDUCAUSE [Research monograph].
• Pomerantz, J. (2016, June 13). Retraining the higher education IT workforce. EDUCAUSE Review.
• van Kesteren, M. T. R. (2018). Behind the paper: How to leverage prior knowledge to enhance learning. NPJ Science of Learning.
• van Kesteren, M. T. R., Krabbendam, L., & Meeter, M. (2018, June 25). Integrating educational knowledge: Reactivation of prior knowledge during educational learning enhances memory integration. npj Science of Learning, 3(11). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41539-018-0027-8
• Zur, O., & Walker, A. Z. (2011). On digital immigrants and digital natives: How the digital divide affects families, educational institutions, and the workplace. Zur Institute. [Online Publication.] Retrieved Jan. 25, 2020
• Click to view external links

• Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligences
• Boser, U. (2018, May 2). Learning is a learned behavior. Here’s how to get better at it. Harvard Business Review. [blog article]
• Bozarth, J. (2018, September 20). The truth about teaching to learning styles, and what to do instead. The Elearning Guild. [Research report].
• Willingham, D. T. (2004, Summer).Reframing the mind. Education Next. Retrieved January 20, 2020
• Click to view external links

• Learning Analytics
• Alang, N. (2019, April 23). The lure of learning analytics. University Affairs. [blog article]
• EDUCAUSE provides a variety of resources on learning analytics
• Click to view external links

• Online Learners
• Westra, K. (2018, October 29). Online student services: What, where, who, when, how, and most importantly, why. Educause Review. [web article]
• Click to view external links

BLOOM’S STRETCH EXERCISES & JOB AIDS

The following Bloom Stretch exercises and job aids supplement those included in Streamlined ID: Chapter 4 – Analyze Instructional Contexts (2nd edition).

Apply

Context Analysis. Apply what you have learned about context analysis to customize this expanded version of the context analysis checklist from the end of Chapter 4 in Streamlined ID (2020). It is expanded to include additional questions for learning and cultural contexts. Then, use your version to gather data about the contexts involved in an ID project of your choice.

Analyze

Context Analysis Worked Examples. Read through the attached context analysis examples for learning, performance, and cultural contexts. Then use the attached context analysis worksheet in conjunction with Tables 4.4 and 4.5 in Streamlined ID (2020) “Planning the Learning Context: Options to Consider, Parts 1 and 2” to analyze this context analysis scenario. You can then check your analysis against ours using this context analysis scenario answer key.

Compare Values across Cultures and Career Environments. An awareness of the culture (purposes, goals, and values) of the environment in which you are operating can help you create more effective instruction. If you are unfamiliar with the culture of a society or an organization, your ignorance can impact the success and acceptance of your design by key stakeholders and learners. One way to analyze a cultural context is to do an informal survey to see how stakeholders and target learners would rank different values.

Use this comparison of life values across cultures to help you identify and analyze the societal or organizational cultures of your stakeholders and target learners. How do their values compare with your own? Consider how your results might impact the design of instruction. How might the results influence your plans for grouping, learner interactions, content presentation, and assessment? If your target audience represents a mix of cultures (either societal or organizational, as with a merger), should you design the learning experiences to foster consensus and/or to optimize the benefits of multiple perspectives and varied prior knowledge and experiences?

Evaluate

Evaluate the Level of Alignment between the performance and learning contexts in the attached context analysis examples.

Create

Create a Plan for Online Instruction. Use Tables 4.4 and 4.5 in Streamlined ID (2020) “Planning the Learning Context: Options to Consider, Parts 1 and 2” to design two versions of a unit of online instruction: one for Same Time/Different Location (synchronous online instruction), and one for Different Time/Different Location (asynchronous online instruction).

DIVING DEEPER WITH RECOMMENDED READINGS & WEB LINKS

Check out the additional resources listed below for more information on topics covered in Streamlined ID: Chapter 4 – Analyze Instructional Contexts (2nd edition).

Books, Book Chapters, Articles

• Designing Learning Environments
• Benson, R., & Samarawickrema, G. (2009). Addressing the context of e-learning: Using transactional distance theory to inform design. Distance Education, 30(1), 5–21.
• Clark, R. & Mayer, R. (2008). E-Learning and the science of instruction: Proven guidelines for consumers and designers of multimedia learning. (2nd ed.). Pfeiffer.
• Dabbagh, N. (2004). Distance learning: Emerging pedagogical issues and learning designs. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 5(1), 37–49.
• Dillenbourg, P. (1996) Some technical implications the distributed cognition approach on the design of interactive learning environments. Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 7(2), pp. 161-180.
• Drysdale, J. S., Graham, C. R., Spring, K. J., & Halverson, L. R. (2012). An analysis of research trends in dissertations and theses studying blended learning. The Internet and Higher Education, 17, 90–100.
• Graham, C. R. (2006). Blended learning systems: Definition, current trends, and future directions, (pp. 3-21). In C. J. Bonk & C. R. Graham (Eds.), The Handbook of Blended Learning: Global Perspectives, Local Designs. Pfeiffer Publishing. [Includes Graham’s “Dimensions of Interaction” model for online or blended learning environments.]
• Haythornthwaite, C., & Andrews, R. (2011). E-learning theory and practice. Sage.
• Janzen, K. J., Perry, B., & Edwards, M. (2011). Aligning the quantum perspective of learning to instructional design: Exploring the seven definitive questions. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 12(7), 56–73.
• Resnick, L. (1987). Learning in school and out. Educational Researcher, 16 (9), 3‐21.
• Scardamalia, M., Bereiter, C., McLean, R. S., Swallow, J., & Woodruff, E. (1989). Computer supported intentional learning environments. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 5, 51‐ 68.
• Tessmer, M., & Richey, R. C. (1997). The role of context in learning and instructional design. Educational Technology Research & Development, 45(2), 85–115.
• Tu, C-H., Sujo-Montes, L., Yen, C-J., Chan, J-Y., & Blocher, M. (2012). The integration of personal learning environments & open network learning environments. TechTrends, 56(3), 13–19.
• Winn, W. (2002). Current trends in educational technology research: The study of learning environments. Educational Psychology Review, 14(3), 331–351.

• Cultural Contexts (Social and Organizational)
• Thomas, M., Mitchell, M., & Joseph, R. (2002). The third dimension of ADDIE: A cultural embrace. TechTrends, 46(2), 40–45.
• Useem, J., Useem, R., & Donoghue, J. (1963). Men in the middle of the third culture: The roles of American and non-western people in cross-cultural administration. Human Organization, 22(3), 169–179.103-124.

Websites, Web Articles, Videos, eBooks, e-Chapters, and Podcasts

• Learning and Performance Contexts
  Additional resources on learning environments are available in the chapter 1 resources.
• EDUCAUSE. (2021). The EDUCAUSE resource page on Learning Environments. [Information on a range of learning environment-related topics.]
• Lynch, M. (2020). Online learning courses I would avoid designing. [Blog article at The Tech Edvocate. You may or may not agree with all the author’s points.]
• Oblinger, D. (2006). Learning spaces. [An EDUCAUSE eBook.] (Addresses many issues of context, in both face-to-face and online environments.]
• Sambamurthy, N., & Cox, M. (2013). A review of the literature: Understanding best practices of blended learning in industry and academia. In T. Bastiaens & G. Marks (Eds.), Proceedings of E-Learn 2013--World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education (p. 2084). Las Vegas, NV, USA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). Retrieved March 27, 2021
• Thalheimer, W. (2005, 2009) Aligning learning and performance contexts.

  https://www.worklearning.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Aligning-Learning-and-Performance-Contexts_v2009.pdf

  and

  https://www.worklearning.com/tag/learning-context-performance-context-simulations-aligning-aligning-contexts-research-learning-research/

• The mass movement of instruction to an online format during the 2020 Covid-19 crisis yielded a wealth of research and ideas to address the educational context referred to as Hyflex (hybrid flexible) or Concurrent instruction, as well as highlighting strategies and ideas that work for other blended forms of online instruction. Check out these related resources:
  • Beatty, B. J. (2019). Hybrid-flexible course design: Implementing student-directed hybrid classes. Open access book on the Hyflex model and implementation strategies.
  • Beatty, B. J. (2019). Bibliography of Hybrid-Flexible Literature (using various terms). In B. J. Beatty (Ed.), Hybrid-Flexible Course Design. EdTech Books.
  • California State University’s Quality Learning & Teaching (QLT) Evaluation Rubric for online and hybrid peer review and certification.
  • University of Central Florida’s open source Blended Learning Toolkit.
  • University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee’s Blended Learning Toolkit.
• Click to view external links

• Cultural Contexts – Social and Organizational
• CultureGrams™. (2014). China. [sample PDF]
• GLOBE® 2020. (2020). GLOBE 2020: Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness. [Website with results of a large-scale study of cultural practices, leadership ideals, and generalized and interpersonal trust, in 160+ countries by 500+ researchers.]
• Hammond, Z. (2021). Learning for justice. [Articles and resources to support change and racial justice.]
• Hofstede, G. (n.d.). Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory: Overview.

  http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_66.htm

  , and his website where you can compare cultural dimensions of multiple countries:

  https://www.hofstede-insights.com/product/compare-countries/

• Meyer, E. (2014) Culture map: Breaking through the invisible boundaries of global business. Philadelphia, PA: Perseus Books. See this video interview of the author:

  http://thinkers50.com/biographies/erin-meyer/

  (5:27 minutes), and an introduction to her Country Mapping Tool:

  https://www.erinmeyer.com/tools/culture-map-premium/

• Thalheimer, W. (2017). Using Linguistically, Culturally, and Situationally Appropriate Scenarios to Support Real-World Remembering. [Scenarios for transfer.]
• Click to view external links

• Future Learning Environments
• Bailenson, J. N. (2021). Nonverbal overload: A theoretical argument for the causes of Zoom fatigue. Technology, Mind, and Behavior, 2(1). DOI: 10.1037/tmb0000030.
• Downes, S. (2021). Conversation on future learning environments with a Task Force at Nazarbayev University, Kazakhstan. [Audio recording of a discussion, licensed as CC BY-NC-SA by Stephen Downes.]
• Click to view external links

BLOOM’S STRETCH EXERCISES & JOB AIDS

The following Bloom Stretch exercises and job aids supplement those included in Streamlined ID: Chapter 5 – Analyze Content (2nd edition).

Understand

Understand Content Analysis. Study this example of a content analysis for a workshop for university faculty on finding, using, and licensing Creative Commons (CC) images (one source of open educational resources, or OER) for use in higher education classrooms.

Understand the Demands of Cognitive Content. To ensure that you understand the demands of cognitive content, read through this Cognitive Content Analysis explanation and example that uses Bloom’s revised cognitive taxonomy (thinking skills) as a basis for the analysis. The example provides questions to ask about the content at each Bloom’s thinking skill level, a list of possible teaching/learning strategies for each level, and then ends with an example content analysis at the analyze and evaluate thinking skills levels for the cognitive task of classifying matter.

Study Worked Examples of Content Analysis. Build your understanding by studying the different analysis and presentation methods used in these examples of content analysis. Then, consider the analysis method descriptions in Table 5.2 of Streamlined ID (2020) and identify which method you think was used by each designer in the examples.

Apply

Gather Information about Content. Apply what you know about content analysis to gather information about the content for your choice of an instructional design project. You can use this Existing Content Form with your SMEs and stakeholders to identify resources that may provide information about the content or that can be used or modify for the project. Then, you can customize this expanded version of the Content Analysis Checklist from Streamlined ID (2020) and this additional list of Content Analysis Questions to identify questions to ask about the content.

Identify Content KSAs. An important element of content analysis is identifying all the knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs) that learners must master to meet the project goal and learning outcomes. To increase your content analysis skills, start with simple, well-structured problems and gradually tackle more complex topics. Start with this partially completed graphic KSA map for a workshop on furniture refinishing. Decide what you might change, add, and/or delete to complete it.

Verify the Content with SMEs or Colleagues. The Notable Non-Example for chapter 5 (Streamlined ID, 2020) illustrates the dangers of finalizing content for a unit of instruction without having others review and verify that content. Successful design projects typically involve the review and/or approval of content and content analysis by key project stakeholders, whether those stakeholders are Subject Matter Experts (SMEs), funders, the target learners themselves, or colleagues who can provide an informed review and offer suggestions. Content and content analysis reviews can be carried out in real time through meetings and interviews with content experts using the list of Content Analysis Questions cited above, or, you can summarize the content and analysis information for expert review in a written or digital format (see the “Evaluate” exercise below that provides guidance on how to select a format for content and content analysis for these review opportunities). You may also find it helpful for later identification of teaching and learning strategies to dialogue with SMEs about specific content and learning experiences and the type of thinking skills that learners must use or master to reach the instructional goal. For this type of task, you can customize this list of questions for each of Bloom’s thinking skill levels.

Analyze

Consider Different Content Analysis Methods. According to Jennifer Maddrell (2008), a traditional task or job analysis enables designers to identify the inputs, task steps, and the decision points involved in carrying out a task, while a cognitive task analysis (CTA) provides a better “understanding of the nature of the cognitive processes required to complete the task…. as well as the cues and strategies which are central to successful completion of the task” (p. 8). Maddrell offers the following guidance on which type of analysis to use based on

• (1) the degree of observable behaviors,
• (2) the differences in content required by experts versus novices, and
• (3) the relative cognitive difficulty of the task:
  • If the desired outcomes are primarily observable behaviors then a traditional task analysis is most appropriate, while a CTA is more appropriate if the outcomes involve primarily mental actions and less observable behaviors.
  • If successful completion of the task requires expertise or knowledge that a novice would likely not possess, then a CTA will enable the designer to identify more tacit or even elementary cognitive elements that would not be readily evident from the results of a traditional task analysis.
  • Finally, if the steps in a task differ with respect to their importance or difficulty and a relative assessment of the difficulty and/or criticality of each step is necessary to the proper analysis of the demands of the content, then a CTA is more appropriate for task outcomes that involve cognitively difficult judgements or decisions.

You can use these guidelines and the information on different analysis methods provided in Table 5.2 of Streamlined ID (2020), to justify your selection of either a traditional job/task analysis or a CTA to analyze the content for a task-based project of your choice. Then, customize this content classification summary to identify and provide the results of the different analysis methods you chose to use.

To contribute further input for your selection, you may also wish to complete this Cognitive Demands Table as you analyze the decisions and other cognitive processes involved in the task, consulting Table 5.4 in Streamlined ID (2020) for guidance.

Analyze Content Relationships and Dependencies. How do you determine the scope of the content to cover for an instructional project? One way is to identify all the content possibilities and then analyze the dependencies and relationships between those content topics. This enables you to distinguish essential, need-to-know and/or foundational knowledge and skills from the nice-to-know or more advanced topics. When carried out with a Subject Matter Expert (SME), this process provides a justification for content scope and may also identify a logical sequence for the learning experiences you design. Consider the attached Content Scope Diagram, which illustrates content dependencies and relationships for a jewelry making workshop. Analyze the diagram to determine possibilities for content scope and sequencing for the workshop. Then, compare your results to this Chart of Scope and Sequencing Options.

Prioritize Content. You can prioritize content using a variety of methods. The attached Priority Criteria Table is an expanded version of Table 5.5 in Streamlined ID (2020). It describes several categories that can be used to rate content to be prioritized. Study the categories listed and then complete this DIF Analysis Exercise to analyze content for Difficulty, Importance/Criticality, and Frequency. When finished, check your answers by comparing them to this DIF Analysis Answer Key. In addition, some designers prioritize content by analyzing risk, a process that considers both probability and consequences. For details on that process, study this Risk Matrix Example.

Evaluate

Evaluate Formatting Options for Content Review and Testing. What formats are most effective to use for representing content that must be reviewed by stakeholders or tested for usability? There are many formats that you can use to present content for stakeholder review or testing, such as: content outlines, concept maps, paper prototypes, software prototypes, Content classification summary charts, a content review form, or an action map (see Cathy Moore’s instructions on action mapping). Compare the tools available that represent content in those formats (see some tool possibilities below.) Also consider the demands of the content involved. Then, select the most appropriate formatting option and tool to illustrate your content analysis results and proposed content treatment. For example, if you need to communicate a treatment that branches learners based on their input or choices, you can use the free Twine tool recommended by Cathy Moore. Other content formatting tools to consider include:

• Mind Mapping tools – There are many mind mapping tools available that a web search will reveal. At this writing, two of the mind mapping tools available include Popplet http://popplet.com/and FreeMind http://freemind.sourceforge.net/wiki/index.php/Main_Page
• Microsoft PowerPoint – PowerPoint and other presentation tools can help you quickly produce a prototype of your proposed instruction.
• Redhaven Outline – Is a handy tool for making outlines
• Click to view external links

Create

Create a Summary of the Content Classification for Approval. Content is classified to inform design decisions about content treatment, including the identification of learning outcomes, and the selection of appropriate instructional strategies, assessments, and technologies. Part of this classification effort involves identifying the KSAs and the associated domain of learning for each content element (Knowledge = cognitive domain; skills = psychomotor domain; attitudes = affective domain). Beyond this, there are many other classification methods that help identify the demands of the content and inform design decisions, content prioritization, content sequencing, content treatment, resource allocation, and decisions on how much instructional (and learner) time should be devoted to each element of the content.

Create a plan for your classification efforts, customizing the attached Content Classification Summary Chart to enable you to summarize the results of the classification methods you choose to use, including one or more of the following:

• identify the required content; i.e., the knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs) learners must master
• identify the applicable learning domain for each KSA (cognitive domain, psychomotor domain, affective domain, or a combination)
• distinguish between need-to-know (essential) content and nice-to-know content
• for cognitive content, identify the applicable Bloom’s level of thinking skill required (remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, create)
• identify the Gagné learning outcome type (refer to this Gagné outcome types summary and Tables 5.6 and 5.7 in Streamlined ID)
• classify each content task or element according to pre-determined selection criteria (e.g., difficulty, importance/criticality, frequency, universality, standardization, feasibility, etc.).

Create a Design Document to Obtain Feedback and Approval. Obtaining feedback on your content analysis and classification from stakeholders and SMEs enables you to identify the specific content to include in the instructional project, as well as its priority and sequencing. Once those decisions are made, you can move forward to finalize how you will treat the content, design and develop it, and present it to the target learners. Depending on the approval process established for the project, this may involve a formal presentation of your project design plan to stakeholders for approval. This can be done with a project scope document or design plan (opens in a new tab or browser window), in either written or presentation format. In this document you can highlight ALL the analyses completed for the project (including needs and scope analysis, learner analysis, context analyses, and content analysis), summarizing the results and communicating their significance to your proposed design.

• Reference:
• Maddrell, J. (2008). Cognitive task analysis. Designed to Inspire [blog post].

DIVING DEEPER WITH RECOMMENDED READINGS and WEB LINKS

Check out the additional resources listed below for more information on topics covered in Streamlined ID: Chapter 5 – Analyze Content (2nd edition).

Books, Book Chapters, Articles

• Analyzing Content, Learning Domains and Taxonomies, and Information Processing
• Davie, E., Martin, M., Cuppett, M., & Lebsack, D. (2015). Effectiveness of mobile learning on athletic training psychomotor skill acquisition. Athletic Training Education Journal, 10(4), 287-295.
• Merrill, M. D. (1973). Content and instructional analysis for cognitive transfer tasks. AV Communication Review, 21(1), 109-125. doi:10.1007/BF02770831
• Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. The Psychological Review, 63(2), 81-96.
• Rothwell, W. J., & Kazanas, H. C. (2009). Mastering the instructional design process: A systematic approach (4th edition). Pfeiffer.  
• Shiffrin, R. M., & Schneider, W. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing. II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and a general theory. Psychological Review, 84, 127–190.
• Theory into Practice (2002, Autumn). Revising Bloom’s Taxonomy. This special issue of Theory into Practice, 41(4), contains articles on Bloom’s revised taxonomy by notable authors, including:

  • Krathwohl, D. R. A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy: An overview (pp. 212-218).

  • Mayer, R. E. Rote versus meaningful learning (pp. 226-232).

  • Pintrich, P. R. The role of metacognitive knowledge in learning, teaching, and assessing (pp. 219-225).

• Click to view external links

• Task Analysis
• Clark, R. E., Feldon, D. F., van Merrienboer, J. J. G., Yates, K. A., & Early, S. (2007). Cognitive Task Analysis. In J. M. Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. van Merrienboer, & M. P. Driscoll (Eds). Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology. (3rd ed.). AECT.
• Crandall, B., Klein, G., Hoffman, R. R. (2006). Working minds: A practitioner’s guide to cognitive task analysis. MIT Press.
• Davies, I. K. (1973). Task analysis: Some process and content concerns. AV Communication Review, 21(1), 73-86. doi:10.1007/BF02770829
• Jonassen, D. H., Tessmer, M., & Hannum, W. H. (1998). Task analysis methods for instructional design. Routledge.
• Riggle, J. D., Wadman, M. C., McCrory, B., Lowndes, B. R., Heald, E. A., Castens, P. K., & Hallbeck, M. S. (2014). Task analysis method for procedural training curriculum development, Perspectives on Medical Education, 3, 204-218.
• Click to view external links

Websites, Web Articles, Videos, eBooks, e-Chapters, and Podcasts

• Content Analysis
• Chyung, S. Y., & Trenas, A. S. (August 24, 2009). Content analysis: Key to excellence in your blended learning. Learning Solutions Magazine.
• Legault, N. (n.d.). How to do a task analysis like a pro. [Articulate E-Learning Heroes blog article.]
• Legault, N. (n.d.). The dos and don’ts of separating need-to-know from nice-to-know. [Articulate E-Learning Heroes blog article.]
• Pappas, C. (2015). 6 tips to apply the Goldilocks principle in eLearning. [eLearning Industry blog article.]
• Popova, M. (2013). 14 ways to acquire knowledge: A timeless guide from 1936. Brain Pickings [blog article].
• Simon, H. A. (1974). How big is a chunk? Science, 183(4124), 482-488.
• Sudarshan, S. (2018). The Goldilocks principle: 6 tips on creating the ‘just right’ elearning content. [eLearning Industry blog article.]
• Thalheimer, W. (2021). Maximize your training results with one powerful question: What one thing can L&D teams do to improve their training? [Tier1 Performance blog article on distinguishing between need-to-know (essential) and nice-to-know content. is an important part of content analysis. Available at: https://tier1performance.com/maximize-your-training-results-with-one-powerful-question/
• The content for many instructional design projects is developed to address standards. Here are two examples of standards used in the K-12 contexts:

  • U.S. Common Core Standards. [Adopted by most states in the U.S. for K-12 instruction.]

  • World Readiness Standards for Learning Languages.[Collaboratively developed by foreign language organizations including AATA, AATF, AATG, AATI, AATJ, AATK, AATMG, ACL, ACTFL, ACTR, ASLTA, CLASS, CLTA, MLA, NCOLCTL, and the National Standards Task Force for Hindi.]

• Wujec, T. (2013). Got a wicked problem? First, tell me how you make toast. [Video of a TED talk on approaches and best strategies used to map processes.]
• Click to view external links

• Categorizing Tasks and Representing Content Visually for Review
• Aungst, G. (2014, September 4). Using Webb's depth of knowledge to increase rigor. Edutopia Education Trends [blog post].
• Creately. (2017, October 11). The 5 essential diagrams everybody should be able to draw. Creately [blog article].
• Gibbons, S. (2019, August 11). Cognitive mapping in user research. Nielsen Norman UX Research Group [blog article]
• See also the mind mapping tools cited in the website resources for Chapter 1.
• Click to view external links

• Taxonomies & Bloom’s Taxonomy
• O’Neill, G., & Murphy, F. (2010). Guide to taxonomies of learning. UCD Resources [web article].
• There are many resources for designing instruction using Bloom’s revised taxonomy of cognitive objectives (a.k.a., thinking skills levels). Check out some of these resources to build your understanding of the importance of using Bloom’s in content analysis:
  In 2009, Andrew Churches produced the Digital Bloom’s taxonomy that mapped the taxonomy to digital tools. Some of the related resources have been removed from the Internet, but you can still glean a lot from the reference at this site
• Patti Shank’s 2013 eLearning Guild article on Bloom’s Taxonomy and its uses is a classic worth reading
• Kathy Schrock’s Bloomin’ Apps
• Click to view external links

• Content Treatment
• After analyzing your content, you may decide that a system of performance support may make more sense than developing a traditional training course. Consult this article by Gary Wise that explains how performance support differs from training, providing a rationale for its use
• Click to view external links

BLOOM’S STRETCH EXERCISES & JOB AIDS

The following Bloom Stretch exercises supplement those included in Streamlined ID: Chapter 6 – Design Learning Theories & Perspectives (2nd edition).

Apply

Identify Stakeholder Assumptions. Identify the theory foundations for these stakeholder assumptions. Then check the theory tables in chapter 6 of Streamlined ID and adjust your categorization, if desired. Finally, check your answers against this answer key to see how we categorized each assumption.

Identify the Theoretical Context. This exercise provides an opportunity to practice identifying the theory base of a unit of instruction and to justify that position. Access the web-based instructional units at the following links, and then explore the instruction to identify the theory or theories likely used as a basis for the design. If working with a group, compare your answers to your peers and discuss the features of the instruction that led you to categorize it as reflecting a particular theory or pedagogical approach. You can also try to identify the assumptions and principles that the designers might have used in their design. You can use any web-based unit of instruction, including these:

• Any of William Horton’s eLearning examples
• The exercises for ToneSavvy at: https://tonesavvy.com/emusictheory/ or the archived site at: http://archive.emusictheory.com/
• Virtual Frog Dissection
• Click to view external links

Analyze

Analyzing the Key Elements of Learning Theories. While there are many learning theories used by designers for determining a theoretical context, you should be particularly familiar with the “big three”: Behaviorism, Cognitivism, and Constructivism. You may also want to explore Connectivism. To help you identify the key features of the these theories and approaches, complete this theory comparison chart using Tables 6.1 through 6.5 in Chapter 6 of Streamlined ID (2020). (You may also want to add a theory of your choice in the final column, such as Social Learning Theory or Situated Learning Theory.) When you have finished, you can compare your answers to those we thought made sense in this theory comparison chart answer key.

Evaluate

Evaluate the Pedagogical Approach. Using Table 6.5 in Streamlined ID (2020), evaluate your choice of a unit of instruction to determine whether the pedagogical approach taken was appropriate for the contexts involved.

Create

Create a Theory and Pedagogical Approach Questionnaire. Customize the questions on this Theory and Pedagogy Checklist from Chapter 6 of Streamlined ID (2020) for an early ID project meeting with a SME or stakeholder.

Create a Design Document to Obtain Feedback and Approval. Obtaining feedback on the project analyses and resulting instructional design plans from stakeholders and SMEs enables you to obtain approval and buy-in for your design decisions. Depending on the approval process established for the project, this process may involve a formal presentation of your design plan to stakeholders for approval. This can be done with a project scope document or a design plan, in either written or presentation form. This document or presentation can summarize ALL the analyses completed for the project (including needs and scope analysis, learner analysis, context analyses, and content analysis), summarizing the results and communicating their significance for your proposed design decisions. Once those decisions are approved, you can move forward to develop, test, and implement the instruction for the target learners. Use this Design Plan Checklist from the appendices of Streamlined ID (2020), these Tips on Project Design Documents, this Design Plan Example (opens in a new tab or window), which is compiled from all the end-of-chapter examples in Streamlined ID, 2020, to guide the creation of design documents for your ID projects.

DIVING DEEPER WITH RECOMMENDED READINGS & WEB LINKS

Check out the additional resources listed below for more information on topics covered in Streamlined ID: Chapter 6 – Design Learning Theories & Perspectives (2nd edition).

Books, Book Chapters, Articles

(See also the extensive list of books and articles at the end of chapter 6 in Streamlined ID, 2020.)

• Theory and Theoretical Designs
• Alessi, S. M., & Trollip, S. R. (2001). Learning principles and approaches (chapter 2, pp. 16-47), in Multimedia for learning: Methods and development. (3rd edition). Allyn & Bacon.
• Boller, S., & Fletcher, L. (2020). Design thinking for training and development: Creating learning journeys that get results. ATD.
• Brown, J. S. Collins, A., & Duquid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18, 32‐42.
• Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1991). Cognitive load theory and the format of instruction. Cognition and Instruction 8, 293‐332.
• Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2016). E-Learning and the science of instruction: Proven guidelines for consumers and designers of multimedia learning. (4th ed.). Wiley.
• Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Holum, A. (1991). Cognitive apprenticeship: Making thinking visible. American Educator, 15(3), 6-11.
• Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction. (3rd ed.) Pearson Education.
• Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (2013). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 26(2), 43-71. doi.org/10.1002/piq.21143
• Flavell, J. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34, 906‐ 911.
• Fosnot, C. T. (Ed.). (2005). Constructivism: Theory, perspectives, and practice. (2nd ed.) Teachers College Press.
• Greenberg, J. D., & Dickelman, G. J. (2000), Distributed cognition: A foundation for performance support. Performance Improvement, 39(6), 18–24.
• Haythornthwaite, C., & Andrews, R. (2011). E-learning theory and practice. Sage.
• Herrington, J., & Oliver, R. (2000). An instructional design framework for authentic learning environments. Educational Technology Research & Development, 48(3), 23-48.
• Jonassen, D. H. (2000). Toward a design theory of problem solving. Educational Technology Research and Development, 48 (4), 63 - 85.
• Karasavvidis, I. (2002). Distributed cognition and educational practice. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 13(1), 11-29.
• Oliver, K. (2000). Methods for developing constructivist learning on the web. Educational Technology, 40(6), 5-18.
• Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2003). Cognitive load theory and instructional design: Recent developments. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 1‐4.
• Plass, J. L., Moreno, R., & Brunken, R. (Eds). (2010). Cognitive load theory. Cambridge University Press.
• Reeves, T. C. (2000). Socially responsible educational technology research. Educational Technology, 40(6), 19-28.
• Richey, R. C., Klein, J. D., & Tracey, M. W. (2011). The instructional design knowledge base: Theory, research, and practice. Routledge.
• Ross, S. M., Morrison, D. R., Hannafin, R. D., Young, M., van den Akker, J., Kuiper, W., Richey, R. C., & Klein, J. D. (2008). Research designs. In J. M. Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. van Merriënboer, & M. P. Driscoll (Eds.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology, (3rd ed., pp. 715 - 761). Taylor & Francis.
• Sawyer, R. K. (2006). Cambridge handbook on the learning sciences. Cambridge U Press. (Portions available online as a Google Book.)
• Sorden, S. D. (2013). The cognitive theory of multimedia learning. In B. J. Irby, G. Brown, R. Lara-Alecio, & S. Jackson (Eds.), The handbook of educational theories (p. 155–167). IAP Information Age Publishing.
• Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12, 257–285.
• Sweller, J., van Merrëinboer, J., & Paas, F. (1998). Cognitive architecture and instructional design. Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251–296.
• Tennyson, R. D. (2010). Historical reflection on learning theories and instructional design. Contemporary Educational Technology, 1(1), 1-16.
• Yanchar, S. C., South, J. B., Williams, D. D., Allen, S., & Wilson, B. G. (2010). Struggling with theory? A qualitative investigation of conceptual tool use in instructional design. Educational Technology Research & Development, 58(1), 39-60.
• Wilson, B. G. (1996). Introduction: What is a constructivist learning environment? In B.G. Wilson (Ed.), Constructivist learning environments: Case studies in instructional design. Educational Technology Publications.

• Grounded Design
• Hannafin, M. J., Kim, M. C., & Kim, H. (2004). Reconciling research, theory, and practice in web-based teaching and learning: The case for grounded design. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 15(2), 3-20.

• Designing Instruction for Specific Needs and Environments
• Brown, A. L. (1992). Design experiments: Theoretical and methodological challenges in creating complex interventions in classroom settings. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 2(2), 141-178.
• Gottfredson, C., & Mosher, B. (2011) Innovative performance support: Strategies and practices for learning in the workflow. U.S.A.: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. [This book emphasizes that the design of effective instruction involves identifying when the learner will need specific knowledge and skills and then designing formal and/or informal learning experiences to address those needs. The book describes Gottfredson and Mosher’s "Five Moments of Need" model, which describes five times when the learner needs instruction in the workplace, the last three of which refer to informal learning opportunities: 1) Learning for the first time, 2) Learning more, 3) Applying what you've learned, 4) When things go wrong, and 5) When things change.]

Websites, Web Articles, Videos, eBooks, e-Chapters, and Podcasts

• Learning Theories and Theoretical Design Approaches
• Bonk, C. J., & Cunningham, D. J. (1998). Searching for Learner-Centered, Constructivist, and Sociocultural Components of Collaborative Educational Learning Tools. In C. J. Bonk & K. S. King (Eds.), Electronic collaborators: Learner-centered technologies for literacy, apprenticeship, and discourse (pp. 25-50). Erlbaum.
• Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. (2nd ed.) National Academies.
• Deubel, P. (2003). An investigation of Behaviorist and Cognitive approaches to instructional multimedia design. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 12(1), 63-90.
• Downes, S. (2021). Connectivism. [Unedited AI-generated transcript of an overview of Connectivism from April 27, 2021.]
• National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2018). How people learn II: Learners, contexts, and cultures. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. DOI: 10.17226/24783.
• Shank, P. (May 16, 2018). How well do we learn from experiential or inquiry learning approaches? eLearning Industry. [Blog post.]
• Siemens, G. (2018). Connectivism (chapter 19). In R. West (Ed.), Foundations of Learning and Instructional Design Technology (1st ed.).
• Stephen Downes’ newsletter provides his constructivist perspective on learning design and on learning technologies. You can subscribe daily or weekly, or merely visit his blog occasionally to benefit
• A web search will provide information on other theories commonly used by instructional designers, including Merrill’s Component Display Theory (1983), Reigeluth’s Elaboration Theory (1983), van Merrienboer’s 4C/ID Model (1997), and many others mentioned in this chapter. For example, many are featured in R. West’s (2018) Foundations of Learning and Instructional Design Technology
• Click to view external links

• Designing Instruction for Specific Environments
• Biewener, D. (2019, May 29). 2018 blended learning studies: The year in review. [blog article.]
• Wenger, E., White, N., & Smith, J. D. (2009). Digital habitats: Stewarding technology for communities. Portland, OR: CPsquare. [Free eBook.]
• Click to view external links

• Design Thinking
• ExperiencePoint. (December 18, 2019). The 10 best blog posts on design thinking.
• Fletcher, L. (2020). Create responsive learning programs with design thinking. [Tier1 Performance blog post.]
• Gibbons, S. (January 14, 2018). Empathy mapping: The first step in design thinking.
• Green, A. (2017). Design thinking for instructional design – Part 1. [Scroll down at link to read parts 1 through 4 of this 4-part series.]
• Click to view external links

BLOOM’S STRETCH EXERCISES & JOB AIDS

The following Bloom Stretch exercises supplement those included in Streamlined ID: Chapter 7 – Design Outcomes and Alignment (2nd edition).

Apply

Identify Good Outcomes/Objectives. Well-written or “good” outcomes and objectives are written from the learner’s perspective, are worthwhile and relevant, and they are SMART: Specific, Measurable, Action-oriented, Realistic, and Timely. Apply what you learned in Chapter 7 of Streamlined ID to complete these exercises on identifying and writing good outcomes/objectives. When finished, use this answer key to check your work.

Apply Knowledge of Alignment to Outcomes, Assessments, and Teaching/Learning Strategies. When instruction is described as “well-aligned,” it means that the basic structure of learning outcomes, assessments, and teaching/learning strategies reflect each other and support the overall instruction in the same way that a skeleton supports the body. When the learner reads the learning outcomes or objectives, they should have a clear indication of the type of learning activities they will experience, and those activities (teaching/learning strategies) should support and accurately reflect the type of assessments that will be used to determine the learner’s mastery of the content. Designers can plan for and demonstrate proper alignment to stakeholders by using a simple three-column table and corresponding numbering. This formatting clearly illustrates the alignment between the targeted learning outcomes, the supporting teaching/learning activities or strategies, and the associated assessments that are intended to demonstrate learner mastery of the outcomes. Consider this sample three-column alignment table for a face-to-face workshop on furniture refinishing and study the alignment of the outcomes, teaching/learning strategies, and assessments, and the explanation provided for their alignment. Then, elaborate on the bottom half of the table to attempt to explain the alignment of the outcomes, assessments, and strategies for the third module. Finally, use the blank template that follows the example to identify learning outcomes for your own choice of a unit of instruction and learner audience. You can use this same table to add aligned assessments and strategies, following instructions provided in Chapters 8 and 9 of Streamlined ID (2020).

Analyze

Analyze Outcomes/Objectives to Identify the Parts. Complete outcomes/objectives are often made up of four parts: specifying the learner Audience, the desired Behavior, the Conditions under which the learner is to exhibit that behavior, and the Degree to which the learner is to exhibit the desired behavior. Analyze each objective/outcome statement in this document to identify the Audience, Behavior, Conditions, and Degree, underlining and labeling each part (note that some parts may be divided up and located in several places within each objective). Then, use this answer key to check your efforts.

Evaluate

Evaluate Outcomes/Objectives. Search the web to locate three examples of well-written outcomes/objectives and three examples of poorly written outcomes/objectives for a content area and audience of your choice. Summarize the criteria you used to evaluate the quality of the examples.

Create

Create your own Learning Outcomes/Objectives. Create a set of outcomes or objectives for a unit of instruction and learner audience of your choice. Along with the tables in Chapter 7 of Streamlined ID, use these job aids to help you identify a variety of outcomes/objectives that will support your instructional goal and targeted learner:

• an outcomes checklist from Chapter 7provides questions to help you identify and refine learning outcomes;
• a table of vague versus illustrative verbs provides helpful examples and non-examples of action verbs to use in outcome statements; and
• an outcome worksheet that provides a table for identifying outcomes at the Bloom’s levels for four different types of knowledge (factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge), and customizable phrases for the Gagné types of learning outcomes.

DIVING DEEPER WITH RECOMMENDED READINGS & WEB LINKS

Check out the additional resources listed below for more information on topics covered in Streamlined ID: Chapter 7 – Design Outcomes and Alignment (2nd ed., 2020).

Books, Book Chapters, Articles

• Outcomes, Objectives, and Alignment – Seminal and more recent works
• Anderson, L., & Krathwohl, D. A. (2001) Taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. Longman.
• Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals; Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. Longmans, Green.
• Dave, R. H. (1970). Psychomotor levels (pp. 33-34). In R. J. Armstrong, (Ed.), Developing and writing behavioral objectives. Educational Innovators Press.
• Day, E. A., Blair, C., Daniels, S., Kligyte, V., & Mumford, M. D. (2006). Linking instructional objectives to the design of instructional environments: The integrative training design matrix. Human Resource Management Review, 16(3), 376-395.
• Gronlund, N. E., & Brookhard, S. M. (2008). Gronlund’s writing instructional objectives. (8th edition). Pearson. [The classic text on writing instructional objectives as learning outcomes; especially suited to teaching thinking, performance, and problem-solving skills. Highlights alignment of outcomes and assessments.]
• Harrow, A. J. (1972). A taxonomy of the psychomotor domain: A guide for developing behavioral objectives. David McKay.
• Jonassen, D. H. (1997). Instructional design model for well-structured and ill-structured problem-solving learning outcomes. Educational Technology: Research and Development, 45 (1), 65-95.
• Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1973). Taxonomy of educational objectives, the classification of educational goals. Handbook II: Affective domain. David McKay.
• Mager, R. E. (1975). Preparing instructional objectives. (2nd ed.). Pitman Learning.
• Marzano, R. J., & Kendall, J. S. (Eds.). (2007). The new taxonomy of educational objectives. (2nd ed.) Corwin Press.
• Marzano, R. J., & Kendall, J. S. (2008). Designing and assessing educational objectives: Applying the new taxonomy. Corwin Press.
• Simpson, E. J. (1972). The classification of educational objectives in the psychomotor domain. Gryphon House.
• Smith, P. L., & Ragan, T. J. 1993. Designing instructional feedback for different learning outcomes. In J. Dempsey & G. Sales (Eds.), Interactive instruction and feedback (pp. 75-103). Educational Technology Publications.

Websites, Web Articles, Videos, eBooks, e-Chapters, and Podcasts

• Objectives and Outcomes, and Backwards Design
• Black, E. L. (2020). Instructional design for single information literacy sessions. Public Services Quarterly, 16(3), 161-171.
• Bowen, R. S. (2017). Understanding by design. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching.
• Holz, S. (2017). Why it’s important to support self-directed learning in the classroom. [Article on Neo Blog.]
• NIU provides a good overview of objectives and other important instructional design elements
• Indiana University. (2021). Backwards course design. [Description of how to use Wiggins and McTighe’s backwards design model to identify appropriate learning outcomes.]
• Jonassen, D. H., & Tessmer, M. (1996/7). An outcomes-based taxonomy for the design, evaluation, and research of instructional systems. Training Research Journal, 2, 11pp.
• Click to view external links

• Learning Outcomes at the Bloom’s Levels
• Iowa State’s web site on Bloom’s Taxonomy
• Johnston, J. (2016). Using Bloom’s taxonomy in e-learning. [Video and other helpful resources on using Bloom’s in eLearning.]
• Kathy Schrock’s “Bloomin’ Apps” site provides resources on incorporating specific technologies to address each level of Bloom’s revised taxonomy of thinking skills
• List of action verbs for each level of Bloom’s revised taxonomy of cognitive thinking skills, licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 International license by Northern Illinois University Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning (2020) at: https://www.niu.edu/citl/resources/guides/instructional-guide/blooms-taxonomy.shtml
• Lee Watanabe-Crockett’s Bloom’s Taxonomy Periodic Table of Activities for Inspired Learning
• BagTheWeb provides a vast list of Bloom’s resources
• Rex Heer’s (Iowa State) 3D Blooms Taxonomy model
• Kecia Ray (2021) has made one of the more recent attempts to apply Bloom’s Taxonomy to digital learning. Tech & Learning. [Web article]
• Click to view external links

• Alignment of Assessments and Strategies to Learning Outcomes
• Brigham Young University. (2021). Aligning assessments with learning outcomes. [Descriptions and extensive examples.]
• UC San Diego’s Online Course Mapping Guide that provides a tutorial resource for online course development that results in a course map that displays the alignment of all components of a course
• Click to view external links

BLOOM’S STRETCH EXERCISES & JOB AIDS

The following Bloom Stretch exercises supplement those included in Streamlined ID: Chapter 8 – Design Assessments (2nd edition).

Apply

Self-Assess Your Assessment Practices. Complete this self-assessment on your assessment practices and then apply what you’ve learned about assessment to develop your own self-assessment instrument for a learner population on a topic of your choice.

Guide Learners to Improve Their Metacognition. If designed mindfully, self-assessment instruments can be used to prompt self-reflection in learners. You can also prompt self-reflection and metacognition by teaching learners to keep track of their own learning. Consider these tracking and self-assessment forms and search for other examples on the Internet. Then, develop one of your own for a specific learner audience to help them monitor their own learning during a formal course or when they are engaged in an informal learning experience.

Analyze

Analyze Assessments You’ve Experienced. Review the information from Chapter 8 on the alignment of outcomes and assessments, and on the different types of assessments. Think about the different assessments you’ve experienced throughout your life – in both formal and informal school settings. Write down four or more that represent different assessment types, identifying the contexts in which you experienced them. Analyze each assessment, answering the following questions:

1. What type of assessment was involved? (Use the Streamlined ID type categories: Traditional, Non-Traditional, Alternative, Formal, Informal, etc.).
2. Was the assessment aligned to the stated (or unstated) learning outcomes?
3. Were the teaching and learning activities (strategies) used in the instruction supportive of and aligned to the assessment?
4. Were your assessment results successful? What did you like or dislike about the assessment experience?
5. Do you think the assessment was well-designed? Why or why not?

Analyze Assessments. Select a traditional and an alternative assessment from your experience or from the Internet. Analyze it using this checklist from the end of Chapter 8 to identify whether it includes all necessary elements to yield a quality rubric, or if it should be reworked.

Evaluate

Evaluate Alignment. Complete these exercises on evaluating the alignment between outcomes (or objectives) and assessments. When you are finished, consult the answer key to check your understanding.

Evaluate Rubrics. What makes a good rubric? Examine these rubric samples and instructions and conduct an Internet search to locate additional examples (refer to the web links provided for this chapter). Then, follow the instructions to evaluate the included rubrics and devise your own list of what makes a good rubric.

Create

Create Assessments. Use these guidelines for traditional assessments and these guidelines for non-traditional assessments to guide the creation of assessments for your instructional projects.

Create Peer Assessments. Customize this peer assessment tool to provide learners with a means to provide fellow group members with constructive feedback on their group work and collaboration skills.

Create Assessments Aligned to Learning Outcomes. Instructions for the Chapter 7 website resources provided guidance on identifying learning outcomes for your choice of a unit of instruction and a learner audience, using the first column of a 3-column table template. Now that you have identified your learning outcomes, use the same 3-column table to add assessments in the second column, each of which should be appropriately aligned to the learning outcomes in the first column.

DIVING DEEPER WITH RECOMMENDED READINGS & WEB LINKS

Check out the additional resources listed below for more information on topics covered in Streamlined ID: Chapter 8 – Design Assessments (2nd edition).

Books, Book Chapters, Articles

• Assessments, Alignment of Assessments and Outcomes, and Formative Assessment
• Chappuis, J., & Stiggins, R. J. (2019). Classroom assessment for student learning: Doing it right – using it well. (3rd edition) Pearson.
• Gronlund, N. E., & Brookhard, S. M. (2008). Gronlund’s writing instructional objectives. (8th edition). Pearson. [The classic text on writing instructional objectives as learning outcomes; especially suited to teaching thinking, performance, and problem-solving skills. Highlights alignment of outcomes and assessments.]
• Keeley, P. D. (2015). Science formative assessment: 75 practical strategies for linking assessment, instruction, and learning. (2nd edition.) Corwin.
• Marzano, R. J. (2006). Classroom assessment and grading that work. ASCD.
• Nickelsen, L., & Dickson, M. (2018). Teaching with the instructional cha-chas: Four steps to make learning stick. Solution Tree Press. [Recommends a four-step cycle of instruction that highlights formative assessment and differentiated instruction: chunk, chew, check, and change.]
• Palloff, R. M., & Pratt, K. (2009). Assessing the online learner: Resources and strategies for faculty. Jossey-Bass.
• Panadero, E., Andrade, H., & Brookhart, S. (2018). Fusing self-regulated learning and formative assessment: A roadmap of where we are, how we got here, and where we are going. The Australian Educational Researcher, 45, 13-31. DOI: 10.1007/s13384-018-0258-y
• Shank, P. (2021). Write better multiple-choice questions to assess learning. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.
• Tomlinson, C. A., & Moon, T. R. (2013). Assessment and student success in a differentiated classroom. ASCD.

Websites, Web Articles, Videos, eBooks, e-Chapters, and Podcasts

• Assessment and Alignment
• Arizona State University. (2012). Aligning assessments with learning objectives. [While this tool for aligning assessments to objectives at each of the Bloom’s thinking skill levels features levels from the original rather than the revised Bloom’s taxonomy, it remains a very valuable aid for designing aligned assessments.]
• Carnegie Mellon University. (2021). Conduct assessments of learning and teaching. [Website with information and resources on formative and summative assessments.]
• Coleman, H. (2021). 9 ways to assess student learning online. [ispring blog article.]
• EasyLMS. (2021). What are the types of assessment? [EasyLMS blog article.]
• EdTechTeacher.org. (2021). Assessment resources. [Collection of assessment resources including assessment blog articles, webinars, and rubrics.]
• Hooker, C. (2020). Strategies for assessing students remotely. Tech & Learning. [Web article]
• Ofgang, E. (2021). Latest federal guidance on assessments: What you need to know. Tech & Learning. [Web article]
• Thalheimer, W. (2007) Measuring learning results: Creating fair and valid assessments by considering findings from fundamental learning research. [Research report]
• University of Hawaii at Manoa. (n.d.) Assessment and Curriculum Support Center featuring a wide variety of assessment-related topics, including:
  Creating and using rubrics.
  Using portfolios in program assessment.
  Develop a capstone.
• Click to view external links

• Formative Assessment
• Baleni, Z. G. (2015). Online formative assessment in higher education: Its pros and cons. Electronic Journal of e-Learning, 13(4), 228-236.
• Gikandi, J. W., Morrow, D., & Davis, N. E. (2011). Online formative assessment in higher education: A review of the literature. Computers & Education, 57, 2333-2351.
• Johnson, C. C., Sondergeld, T. A., & Walton, J. B. (2019). A study of the implementation of formative assessment in three large urban districts. American Educational Research Journal, 56(6), 2408-2438.
• Kenner, C. (2020). Beyond formative assessment: Exit tickets led me in the right direction. Educause Review.
• McTighe, J. (2021). 8 quick checks for understanding. Edutopia. [Web article]
• Spector, J. M., Ifenthaler, D., Sampson, D., Yang, L., Mukama, E., Warusavitarana, A., Dona, K. L., Eichhorn, K., Fluck, A., Huang, R., Bridges, S., Lu, J., Ren, Y., Gui, X., Deneen, C. C., San Diego, J., & Gibson, D. C. (2016). Technology enhanced formative assessment for 21st century learning. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 19(3), 58-71.
• Click to view external links

• Assessment Creation Tools and Free Assessments
• Cornell University Center for Teaching Innovation. (2021). Assessment tools. [Web article]
• Terrell, S. (2019). Formative assessment tools and apps. Tech & Learning. [Web article]
• University of Victoria, Canada. (2020). Hot Potatoes [Free software for creating assessments in six formats: multiple-choice, short-answer, jumbled-sentence, crossword, matching/ordering, and gap-fill exercises.]
• University of Victoria, Canada. (2020). Quandary [Free software for creating Action Mazes, or interactive case studies.]
• MERLOT. (n.d.) Assessments and assessment tools. [Sharable assessments from the online repository for online resources, MERLOT, Multimedia Education Resource for Learning and Online Teaching] Available by searching “assessment”
• Click to view external links

• Non-Traditional Assessment
• Swan, K., Shen, J., & Hiltz, S. R. (2006). Assessment and collaboration in online learning. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 10(1), 45-62.
• Cornell University Center for Teaching Innovation. (2021). Group work: How to evaluate it. [Web article]
• Rubistar Free Tool for Creating Rubrics
• TeacherVision (n.d.). Rubric. [Curated web resources on rubrics]
• Click to view external links

• Verification and Plagiarism
• Butler-Henderson, K., & Crawford, J. (2020). A systematic review of online examinations: A pedagogical innovation for scalable authentication and integrity. Computers & Education, 159, 104024.
• Foltýnek, T., Dlabolová, D., Anohina-Naumeca, A., et al. (2020). Testing of support tools for plagiarism detection. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 17(46).
• Indiana University. (2021). How to recognize plagiarism: Tutorials and tests – Plagiarism Certification.
• Perkins, M., Gezgin, U. B., & Roe, J. (2020). Reducing plagiarism through academic misconduct education. International Journal for Educational Integrity, 16(3). DOI
• Rodchua, S. (2017). Effective tools and strategies to promote academic integrity in e-learning. International Journal of e-Education, e-Business, e-Management and e-Learning, 7, 168-179.
• Click to view external links

• Feedback
• Thalheimer, W. (2008). Providing learners with feedback – Part 1: Research-based recommendations for training, education, and e-learning. [Research report].
• Thalheimer, W. (2008). Providing learners with feedback – Part 2: Peer-reviewed research compiled for training, education, and e-learning. [Research report].
• Click to view external links

BLOOM’S STRETCH EXERCISES & JOB AIDS

The following Bloom Stretch exercises supplement those included in Streamlined ID: Chapter 9 – Design Instructional Strategies (2nd edition).

Apply

Apply what you know to identify strategies that are aligned to your outcomes and assessments. Use this three-column table template and the example provided in Table 9.15 of Streamlined ID (2020) to design aligned instruction. List the learning outcomes for a specific unit of instruction and learner in the first column, assessments aligned to each of those outcomes in the second column, and teaching/learning strategies that are aligned to and support those outcomes and assessments in the third column.

Identify Resources to Support Your Strategies. Apply what you have learned so far about design to list the human and non-human resources that you anticipate will be required for development and implementation of a unit of instruction to include in a proposal for early stakeholder approval. Use this example of resources and the accompanying blank template to: (1) Write up a succinct description of the proposed learner, content, and learning context, (2) identify the estimated human and non-human resources required, and (3) have your key stakeholders review and approve the allocation of resources to ensure that you will have the time, resources, and support necessary to develop and implement your design.

Customize Questions for SMEs to Identify Strategies for Bloom’s Thinking Skills Levels. Customize this list of questions for each of the Bloom’s Cognitive Thinking Skills levels to help you identify whether any of the corresponding teaching and learning strategies listed would be appropriate to foster those skills in learners for your own instructional design projects.

Apply Learner Analysis Data to Inform Strategy Selection. Consider this scenario example of how learner analysis data can be used to inform and justify the selection of strategies.

Analyze

Consider the Impact of Learner Analysis Data on Strategy Selection. If carefully collected and analyzed, learner analysis data can inform and enhance your strategy selections. Study this example table showing the impact of learner analysis data on strategy selections and then use the accompanying template to consider how the learner analysis data for one of your instructional design projects might impact your teaching and learning strategy selections.

Analyze and Plan your Strategy Selections with a Graphic Organizer. Use this planning template from the 1st edition of Streamlined ID (2014) to analyze and plan strategy selections by thinking through other design elements. Start by considering your learning outcomes, then consider the assumptions about learning that are represented by your choice of theory and pedagogical approaches. Then, identify the type of interactions you must foster to support the learning outcomes (i.e., learner-to-learner, learner-to-content, etc.), and finally, identify the teaching and learning strategies that will foster those interactions.

Analyze and Build Learner Metacognitive Strategies. Metacognitive strategies are just one of several strategy types in Gagne’s “Cognitive Strategy” category of learning outcome types (see Table 5.6 in Streamlined ID, 2nd edition). Cognitive strategies are “thinking skills and strategies used by individuals to manage and regulate their own internal processes of attending, learning, remembering, and thinking” (Larson & Lockee, 2020, p. 115), and employing these strategies can support learning in other domains. The five sub-categories of cognitive strategies include rehearsal, elaboration, organizational, metacognitive, and affective strategies. Of these, metacognitive strategies allow individuals to internally control what and how they learn by intentionally applying learning strategies, being aware of their own learning processes and what strategies are personally most successful, self-monitoring, self-regulating, focusing attention, and by reflecting on their own learning. Meeting today’s intense work and academic challenges requires that individuals operate at the highest levels of Bloom’s taxonomy by analyzing, evaluating, and creating (McGuire, 2015, 2018). You can customize this creativity self-assessment for yourself or for your target learners to prompt use of metacognition strategies in analyzing and enhancing the ability to operate at the create level of Bloom’s taxonomy.

Evaluate

Evaluate the Results of Strategy Planning based on Different Theories or Pedagogical Approaches. Identify your choice of a unit of instruction and a target learner audience. Then, plan strategies for that instructional unit and learner using several of the example strategy planning tables as tools from Chapter 9 of Streamlined ID (2020) and the following blank worksheets. When done, compare and evaluate your results to determine which tool yielded the most promising results to accomplish the learning outcomes for your learner. Why do you believe that theoretical/pedagogical tool worked particularly well for your chosen content and learner?

• Use this blank Keller’s ARCS Motivation Model Worksheet and use Table 9.8 as a guide in completing it for your instruction.
• Use this blank Gagne’s Nine Events Worksheet and use Table 9.11 as a guide in completing it for your instruction.
• Use this blank BSCS 5E’s Constructivist Worksheet and use Table 9.13 as a guide in completing it for your instruction.
• Use this blank Connectivist Learning Environment Worksheet and use Table 9.14 as a guide in completing it for your instruction.
• Use this blank Scenario Planning Worksheet and use Figure 9.2 as a guide in completing it for your instruction.

Evaluate Teaching and Learning Strategies. Use this checklist from Chapter 9 of Streamlined ID (2020) to evaluate the quality of identified teaching and learning strategies for your choice of a unit of instruction.

Create

Create a Strategy Plan for a Unit of Instruction. For your choice of a unit of instruction and a target learner audience, select teaching and learning strategies that will support the identified learning outcomes and assessments. Use the following resources to support your efforts:

• A table of aligned teaching/learning strategies designed to support each of Gagne’s types of learning outcomes,
• A list of example strategies for Marzano’s nine categories of effective strategies,
• A list of strategy ideas that you can research to determine whether they might foster the type of learning outcomes identified for your learners,
• A list of strategies for each of Gagne’s 9 Instructional Events,
• Examples of ways to implement different ARCS Motivation Model strategies, and
• Examples of strategies to support both large and small groups.

• References
• McGuire, S. Y. (2015). Teach students how to learn: Strategies you can incorporate into any course to improve student metacognition, study skills, and motivation. Stylus Publishing.
• McGuire, S. Y. (2018). Teach yourself how to learn: Strategies you can use to ace any course at any level. Stylus Publishing.

DIVING DEEPER WITH RECOMMENDED READINGS ∓ WEB LINKS

Check out the additional resources listed below for more information on topics covered in Streamlined ID: Chapter 9 – Design Instructional Strategies (2nd edition).

Books, Book Chapters, Articles

• Design of Effective Teaching and Learning Strategies, and Frameworks
• Beaubien, R., & Parrish, S. (2020). The great mental models volume 2: Physics, chemistry, and biology. Latticework Publishing Inc. [Volume 1 under Parrish, below.]
• Brown, P. C., Roediger III, H. L., & McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Make it stick: The science of successful learning. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press
• Buma, A. M. (2018). Reflections of science teachers in a professional development intervention to improve their ability to teach for the affective domain. African Journal of Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 22(1), 103-113. DOI: 10.1080/18117295.2018.1440906
• Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2012). Scenario-based e-learning: Evidence-based guidelines for online workforce learning. Pfeiffer.
• Clark, R.E., Kirschner, P.A., & Sweller, J. (2012). Putting students on the path to learning: The case for fully guided instruction. American Educator, 36(1), 6-11.
• Conole, G., Galley, R., & Culver, J. (2011). Frameworks for understanding the nature of interactions, networking, and community in a social networking site for academic practice. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 12(3), 119-138.
• Cumming, J., & Williams, S. E. (2012). The role of imagery in performance. In S. M. Murphy (Ed.), Oxford library of psychology. The Oxford handbook of sport and performance psychology (p. 213–232). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199731763.013.0011
• Gomez, C. J., & Cordrey, N. (2020). Dynamic and effective virtual training: 31 strategies to design and facilitate training in an online environment. Ridge Water Press.
• Immordino-Yang, M. H., & Damasio, A. (2007). We feel, therefore we learn: The relevance of affective and social neuroscience to education. Mind, Brain, and Education, 1(1), 3–10.
• Kapp, K. M., & Defelice, R. A. (2019). Microlearning: Short and sweet. ATD Press.
• Keller, J. M. (2010). Motivational design for learning and performance: The ARCS model approach. Springer.
• Kinzie, M. B. (2005). Instructional design strategies for health behavior change. Patient Education and Counseling, 56, 3-15. [Gagné’s 9 Events of Instruction.]
• Lynch, D. R., Russell, J. S., Evans, J. C., & Sutterer, K. G. (2009). Beyond the cognitive: The affective domain, values, and the achievement of the vision. Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice, 135(1), 47-56.
• Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D. J., & Pollock, J. E. (2001). Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. ASCD.
• McDonald, J. K. (2009). Imaginative instruction: What master storytellers can teach instructional designers. Educational Media International, 46(2), 111-122.
• McGuire, S. Y. (2015). Teach students how to learn: Strategies you can incorporate into any course to improve student metacognition, study skills, and motivation. Stylus Publishing.
• McGuire, S. Y. (2018). Teach yourself how to learn: Strategies you can use to ace any course at any level. Stylus Publishing.
• Merrill, M. D. (2002). First principles of instruction. Educational Technology Research andDevelopment, 50(3), 43 - 59.
• Palincsar, A. M., & Brown, A. L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension‐fostering and monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction, 1(2), 117‐175.
• Parrish, S., & Beaubien, R. (2019). The great mental models volume 1: General thinking concepts. Latticework Publishing Inc. [Volume 2 under Beaubien, above.]
• Shank, P. (2017). Practice and feedback for deeper learning: 26 evidence-based and easy-to-apply tactics that promote deeper learning and application. Patti Shank PhD/Learning Peaks LLC.
• Shank, P. (2017). Write and organize for deeper learning: 28 evidence-based and easy-to-apply tactics that will make your instruction better for learning. Patti Shank PhD/Learning Peaks LLC.
• Silver, H. F. (2010). Compare and contrast: Teaching comparative thinking to strengthen student learning. ASCD.
• Silver, H. F., & Strong, R. W. (2007). The strategic teacher: Selecting the right research-based strategy for every lesson. ASCD.
• Smith, P. L., & Ragan, T. J. (2005). Instructional design. (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. [Considered the bible of instructional strategies, this book is worth checking out.]
• Stobaugh, R. (2019). Fifty strategies to boost cognitive engagement: Creating a thinking culture in the classroom. Solution Tree Press.
• Torgerson, C. (2016). The microlearning guide to microlearning. Torgerson Consulting.
• Weston, C., & Cranton, P. A. (1986). Selecting instructional strategies. Journal of Higher Education, 57(3), 259-288.
• Wittwer, J., & Renkl, A. (2008). Why instructional explanations often do not work: A framework for understanding the effectiveness of instructional explanations. Educational Psychologist, 43(1), 49-64. [Includes guidelines for designing instructional explanations.]

• Strategy Design for Specific Learning Environments and Tools
• Chen, S. (2007). Instructional design strategies for intensive online courses: An objectivist-constructivist blended approach. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 6(1), 72-86.
• Gawande, A. (2010). The checklist manifesto: How to get things right. [Great background for the development of job aids.] Picador.
• Schell, J. (2008). The art of game design: A book of lenses. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers.
• Shaffer, D. W. (2006). How computer games help children learn. Palgrave/Macmillan.
• Spezzi, S. (2010). Effects of visual analogies on learner outcomes: Bridging from the known to the unknown. International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 4(2), 1-30.

• Practice, Feedback, and Motivation
• Brookhart, S. M. (2008). How to give effective feedback to your students. ASCD.
• Keller, J. M. (1987). Development and use of the ARCS model of instructional design. Journal of Instructional Development, 10(3), 1-3.

Websites, Web Articles, Videos, eBooks, e-Chapters, and Podcasts

• Teaching and Learning Strategies: General Information, Theory, Frameworks, and Models
• Boiler, S. (2021). A recipe for learning and remembering. [Tier 1 Performance blog article.]
• Bottom-Line Performance/TiER1. (2019). Using design thinking to craft better learning solutions, Parts 1, 2, and 3. [Website blog articles.]
  • Part 1
  • Part 2
  • Part 3
• Boyraz, S., & Ocak, G. (2021). Connectivism: A literature review for the new pathway of pandemic driven education. International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology, 6(3), 1122-1129.
• BSCS Science Learning. (2021). BSCS 5E instructional model. [Resources: videos, articles, more.]
• Buck Institute for Education. PBLWorks. [Project-based Learning resources]
• Bybee, R. W. (2014). The BSCS 5E instructional model: Personal reflections and contemporary implications. Science and Children, 51(8), 10-13.
• Bybee, R.W., Taylor, J. A., Gardner, A., Van Scotter, P., Powell, J. C., Westbrook, A., & Landes, N. (12 June 2006). The BSCS 5E instructional model: Origins and effectiveness. A report prepared for the Office of Science Education, National Institutes of Health.
• Ebeling, D. (1998). Adapting your teaching for any learning style. Lutheran Education, 133(4), 219-24.
• Edutopia. (2015). Modern professional learning: Connecting PLCs with PLNs. [Blog article on Connectivist strategies.]
• Edutopia. (2021). Teaching strategies. [Website of resources.]
• Edutopia. (2021). Project-based learning (PBL). [Website of resources.]
• elearninginfographics.com (2016). The periodic table of instructional design infographic. [Infographic.]
• Farmer, H. (2020). 6 models for blended synchronous and asynchronous online course delivery. Educause Review.
• Jordan, T. (2019). Content curation: A necessary skill for future instructional designers. [Blog article.]
• Keramida, M. (2015). Create effective eLearning interactions using the CCAF model. [Article summarizing Dr. Allen’s CCAF Interaction Model: Context, Challenge, Activity, Feedback.]
• Live Binders. (2021). Online binders. [Digital binders for remote sharing of instructional resources and strategies on a variety of topics. Check out this binder on Content Literacy by Rhonda Phillips
• Melrose, S., Park, C., & Perry, B. (2013). Connectivism: Learning by forming connections. [Web chapter] In S. Melrose, C. Park, & B. Perry, Teaching health professionals online: Frameworks and Strategies. AU Press
• Northern Illinois University Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. (n.d.). Instructional strategies. In Instructional guide for university faculty and teaching assistants. Licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 International license, and retrieved from: https://www.niu.edu/citl/resources/guides/instructional-guide/
• Parrish, S. (n.d.). Mental models: The best way to make intelligent decisions (~100 models explained). [FS Blog article – a great primer on mental models.]
• Parrish, S. (n.d.) The spacing effect: How to improve learning and maximize retention. [Farnam (FS) Street blog article.]
• Sentz, J., & Stefaniak, J. (2019). Instructional heuristics for the use of worked examples to manage instructional designers’ cognitive load while problem-solving. TechTrends, 63, 209–225.
• Slade, T. (n.d.). How to design performance-based eLearning interactions. [Blog article.]
• Taylor, K., & Rohrer, D. (2010). The effects of interleaved practice. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24(6), 837-848. DOI: 10.1002/acp.1598
• Thalheimer, W. (2006, 2017). People remember 10%, 20%... oh really? [Thalheimer uses research to debunk this popular myth.]
• Thalheimer, W. (2006). Spacing learning events over time: What the research says. [Research report.]
• UC Davis. (n.d.). Group work and participation: Designing and teaching for impact in online courses. [UC Davis Canvas website with resources on group work and participation.]
• University of Georgia. (2014). Cognitive apprenticeship. [Wiki page with resources.]
• Weinstein, Y., Madan, C. R., & Sumeracki, M. A. (2018). Teaching the science of learning. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications 3(2), 17 pp.
• Click to view external links

• Interactivity and Levels of Interaction
• O’Neill, L. (2020). Interactivity, learning, and elearning. [Blog article.]
• Sood, I. (2018). Interactivity in adult learning: 17 interaction design examples. [eLearning Industry blog article.]
• University of Wisconsin Madison. (n.d.). Course activities and learner interaction. [Website with resources on learner interaction.] https://designteachengage.wisc.edu/course-activities-learner-interaction/ . And related information and examples of William Horton’s Absorb-Do-Connect strategy framework at: https://designteachengage.wisc.edu/course-activities-learner-interaction-absorb-do-connect/
• Click to view external links

• Strategy Design for Specific Learning Environments and Tools
• Accredited Schools Online. (2021). The ultimate MOOC handbook. [Web resources on MOOCs.]
• Becker, K. (2018). What’s the difference between serious games, educational games, and game-based learning? [Blog article on the Becker Blog]
• Branch, J. (2012). Snow fall: The avalanche at Tunnel Creek. [Example of digital documentary storytelling at its best, from the NY Times.]
• Brown, T. (2015). All things PLC: A culture of collaboration and high expectations. [Slide set on Professional Learning Communities (PLC).]
• Buzzetto-More, N. (Ed.) (2010). The e-portfolio paradigm: Informing, educating, assessing, and managing with e-portfolios. Santa Rosa, CA: Informing Science Press. [Free Google eBook on using ePortfolios in learning]
• Check-n-click Learning and Technologies. (2020). Here is everything you wanted to know about micro-learning. [Blog article.]
• Colman, H. (2020). Content Curation: A Strategy to Deliver Learning at the Speed of Need. [Web article.]
• Consortium for School Networking (CoSN). (2020). Mobile learning for administrators.
• EdTechTeacher.org. (2021). EdTechTeacher.org provides a wealth of curated resources on a variety of strategy-related topics, including:
  • Remote learning
  • Frameworks for thinking about teaching with technology
  • Design thinking [Check out the blogs listed on the right side of this page.]
  • Project Based Learning [Check out the blogs listed on the right side of this page.]
  • Remote and Hybrid Learning
  • You can also search for many curated sites on the Internet, including those featured on sites like Pinterest and SlideShare.
• Edutopia (2021). Making project-based learning inclusive in a hybrid setting. [Blog article]
• edX. (2013). Optimal video length for student engagement. [edX blog article.]
• eSchool News. (2021). Strategies for creating a successful collaborative learning environment, virtual or in-person. [Webinar recording.]
• Fink, K. (2020). 25+ amazing educational virtual field trips.
• FITech Network University. (2019). The design book for online learning: Practical tools for designing high-quality online learning. [eBook]
• Holz, S. (2020). How to turn your face-to-face class into an online course [Part 1]. [Article on planning.]
• Holz, S. (2020). How to turn your face-to-face class into an online course [Part 2]. [Article on using ADDIE & Gagné’s 9 Events.]
• Holz, S. (2020). How to turn your face-to-face class into an online course [Part 3]. [Article on the technologies available.]
• Langone, J. (1998). The effects of technology-enhanced anchored instruction and situated learning on preservice teachers in a special education methods course: An exploratory study. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities 10, 35–54.
• Martin, F., Polly, D., & Ritzhaupt, A. (2020). Bichronous online learning: Blending asynchronous and synchronous online learning. Educause Review.
• Pugliese, L. (2016, October 17). Adaptive learning systems: Surviving the storm. Educause Review. [Blog article.]
• Ray, K. (2020). The just in time playbook for remote learning. TechLearning.com [Special report]
• Sh!ft Disruptive Learning. (2019). Conquering content curation: Best practices for instructional designers.
• University of Colorado Boulder. (2021). PhET OER Interactive Simulations. [Open source simulations designed to include accessibility features.]
• West, R. (2021). The handoff: Transitioning from synchronous to asynchronous teaching. Educause Review. [Includes examples for Charles Graham’s “Dimensions of Interaction” model for blended and online learning spaces.]
• William Horton Consulting. (2021). Messaging guide. [Guide and resources on effective collaboration and messaging.]
• Click to view external links

• Subject-Specific Strategies
• American University in Cairo. (2021). Theban mapping project: Valley of the kings. [Theban archaeological database mapping project.]
• Annenberg Learner. (2021). Classroom resources. [High-quality, searchable resources for a variety of subject matter topics for classrooms and professional development.]
• Atamian, C. (2020). Citizen science: Why scientists need your kids’ help – How families and outdoor recreationists are helping scientists understand our changing world. [ParentMap.com blog article with links to citizen scientist websites.]
• British Columbia Ministry of Education. (n.d.). Education and training. [Search for subject-specific resources and strategies by subject.]
• EdTechTeacher. (2021). Teaching history with technology. [Search for strategies for history.]
• EdTechTeacher. (2020). Best of history websites. [Web and strategy resources for history.]
• Explorersweb.com. (2021). Explorer’s Web. [Independent, non-commercial news reports about extreme adventure sports and expeditions.]
• ReadingQuest.org (2018). Reading strategies across all content areas. [Web resources.]
• Shifflett, C. (2007). Virtual Jamestown. [Digital research, teaching and learning project on the Jamestown colony, resulting from a collaboration between Virginia Tech, the University of Virginia, and the Virginia Center for Digital History at the University of Virginia.]
• Smithsonian American Art Museum. (2021). Education. [Online teaching resources for K-12, Adult Learners, Higher Ed, and Home.]
• Virginia.edu. (2007). The valley of the shadow: Two communities in the American Civil War. [Digital archive of primary sources about a Northern and Southern community during the American Civil War through Reconstruction.]
• Click to view external links

• Strategy Examples
• Check-n-click Learning and Technologies. (2020). Periodic table of instructional design. [Interactive ID strategies for each phase of ADDIE.]
• Gonzalez, J. (2021). The Cult of Pedagogy. [Blog on teaching strategies.]
• K. Patricia Cross Academy. (n.d.). Instructional Strategies. [KP Cross Academy provides many great videos and resources on teaching and learning strategies for both online and physical, synchronous and asynchronous learning environments.] Strategy videos available
• Moore, C. (2021). 14 scenario-based training activities from Cathy Moore’s blog.
• Pearson. (2021). Online Teaching Strategies and Online Course Toolkit.
• University of Michigan. GoOpen Michigan. [A searchable repository of digital classroom tools for multiple subjects and educational levels.]
• USAF. (n.d.). Air University (AU): Student learning. [Official US Air Force website for the Air University providing student learning strategies and other cognitive strategies.]
• William Horton Consulting. (2021). E-Learning examples.
• Click to view external links

• Job Aid Design and Scenario Development
• Barton, D. (2018). Designing and developing job aids. [Web resource on the National Park Service Common Learning Portal.]
• Thalheimer, W. (2009). Investigating the job aid: Not just child’s play, parts 1 and 2. [Videos.] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JkDaefAMUuU (part 1) and https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QIJFMEXroRE (part 2).
• Thalheimer, W. 2009). Using linguistically, culturally, and situationally appropriate scenarios to support real-world remembering. [Research.]
• Twine. (2021). Twine: A free tool by Chris Klimas for developing branching scenarios. Here is a collection of Twine resources and links from Cathy Moore’s blog
• Wake, W. C. (2003). Job aids job aid.
• Click to view external links

• Tools to Create Content and Learner-Created Content
• Baron, D. (2019, October 22). Are you supporting user-generated learning content? Here’s why you should be. TrainingIndustry.com [Blog article.]
• Byrne, R. (2020). Five tools for creating storyboards to plan videos and presentations. [Free Technology for Teachers blog post.]
• Dodge, B. (2017). WebQuest.org [Resource on the classic WebQuest model.]
• eLearning Brothers. (2018). The periodic table of instructional design: Elements to amp up your elearning, Part 1. [Video]
• eLearning Brothers. (2018). The periodic table of instructional design: Elements to amp up your elearning, Part 2. [Video]
• Kapuler, D. (2020). Top 10 sites for creating a digital portfolio. [Blog article on digital portfolio tools.]
• Oddcast. (2021). Sitepal. [Create a speaking avatar. Free trial.]
• Restifo, D. for Tech & Learning. (2021). Best Free Sites for Creating a Chart or Graph to visually present data.
• University of Central Florida’s Center for Distributed Learning. (2021). Materia. [A free, open source interactive widget creator.]
• University of Central Florida’s Center for Distributed Learning. (2021). Obojobo. [A multifaceted interface that is both a repository and a collaborative medium, capable of building, containing and utilizing instructional components.]
• Click to view external links

BLOOM’S STRETCH EXERCISES & JOB AIDS

The following Bloom Stretch exercises supplement those included in Streamlined ID: Chapter 10 – Design Technologies (2nd edition).

Apply

Select Technologies. Use this Technology Selection Checklist from Streamlined ID chapter 10 to apply what you know to select technologies for an instructional design project, considering the applicable logistical, organizational, resource, content, and quality factors.

Select Instructional and Delivery Technologies. Use this Aligned 4-Column Table template to identify instructional and delivery technologies that will best support the aligned learning outcomes, assessments, and teaching/learning strategies you identified for your instructional design.

Analyze

Analyze Technologies. For your choice of an instructional design project, consult this list of How Technologies Foster Learningand this Media Affordances Chart to analyze available technologies and identify those that will enable learners to master the learning outcomes by supporting the identified teaching/learning strategies and assessments.

Evaluate

Evaluate Technologies. Evaluate an online course or instructional module, carefully considering how the technologies used for delivery and content support the stated learning outcomes and experiences. Which technology affordances are leveraged to promote learning? Do the technologies used clearly support the content, the teaching/learning strategies, and the assessments in a way that aligns to the learning outcomes? Could the current technologies be used in a different way to improve the instruction? What other technologies could be used to improve the learning experience?

Evaluate Accessibility. Study the sections on Learner Analysis and Development Issues, Constraints, and Resources in this Project Scope Report Exampleand then use what you learn to evaluate the accessibility of the technology used in an online unit of instruction.

Evaluate Emerging Technologies. Use the resources listed in the Chapter 10 Web Links section, below, to search for technologies you have not yet used for instruction; for example, Artificial Intelligence (AI), Virtual Reality (VR), Augmented Reality (AR), Big Data, the Internet of Things (IoT), 3D Printing, learning analytics, gamification, social media, Personal Learning Environments, or Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT for blockchain).

Create

Create a Technology Plan. Referring to Table 10.4 from Streamlined ID (2020) as a guide, use this Technology Planning Worksheet to identify technologies to support the content, and identified learning outcomes, strategies, and assessments for a unit of instruction.

Create Instruction with New Technologies. Try a new technology! Review the list of tools provided in the Chapter 10 Web Links section, below, and select a tool that you have never used. Create a brief instructional event using that tool in order to consider its usefulness and feasibility. You may find that exploring new tools for learning can offer new insights on technologies for future instructional programs, as well as the technology selection process!

All Levels

Technology Use. Use what you’ve learned about technology selection and best practices to build your capacity at each Bloom’s level to:

Remember – What are some of the important considerations for technology selection? Based on your reading of Chapter 10, generate a list of three factors that influence technological decisions in the design of instruction.

Understand – Neidorf (2006) says thatlearner readiness dictates “the usability of a technology for a given project even more than the functionality of the technology itself” (p. 36). Provide an example of this quote to illustrate your understanding of how learner comfort and familiarity with technology influences learning.

Apply – Using a different technology with an existing teaching/learning strategy can create a novel learning experience despite the fact that you are addressing the same content as previously covered. Apply this principle by brainstorming at least three different combinations of technology to teach a single unit or topic of instruction.

Analyze - Reflect on your most recent technology-enhanced learning experience. What affordances were offered by the delivery technology? Did you leverage those affordances and did they enhance the learning experience? Did they detract from the instructional event in any way? If so, how?

Evaluate - Conduct an Internet search to find at least two different instructional units on the same topic. Compare and contrast the technologies used for each unit, highlighting the strengths and weaknesses of each treatment.

Create - Develop one technology-enhanced or distance-delivered unit of instruction to address an identified learning need. Consult the Technology Selection Checklist and the list of How Technologies Foster Learning to write a brief overview of your technology decision-making process.

• References
• Neidorf, R. (2006). Teach beyond your reach: An instructor’s guide to developing and running successful distance learning classes, workshops, training sessions and more. Information Today, Inc.

DIVING DEEPER WITH RECOMMENDED READINGS & WEB LINKS

Check out the additional resources listed below for more information on topics covered in Streamlined ID: Chapter 10 – Design Technologies (2nd edition).

Books, Book Chapters, Articles

• Media and Technology Theory, Research, Selection, and Design
• Clark, R. E. (1983). Reconsidering research on learning from media. Review of EducationalResearch, 53(4), 445-460.
• Clark, R. E. (2012). Learning from media: Arguments, analysis, and evidence (2nd ed). Information Age Publishing.
• Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2016). e-Learning and the science of instruction: Proven Guidelines for Consumers and Designers of Multimedia Learning (4th ed). John Wiley & Sons.
• Clark, R. (1983). Reconsidering research on learning from media. Review of Educational Research, 53(4), 445-459.
• Clark, R. (1994). Media will never influence learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(2), 21-29.
• Hannafin, M. J., & Rieber, L. E (1989). Psychological foundations of instructional design for emerging computer‐based instructional technologies: Part 1. Educational Technology Research and Development, 37, 91‐101.
• Head, J. T., Lockee, B. B., & Oliver, K. M. (2002). Method, media, mode: Clarifying the discussion of distance education effectiveness. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 3(3), 261-268.
• Kozma, R. (1994). Will media influence learning: Reframing the debate. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(2), 7-19.
• Levie, W. H., & Dickie, K. E. (1973). The analysis and application of media. In R. M. W. Travers (Ed.), Second handbook of research on teaching (pp. 858–882). Rand McNally.
• Pea, R. D. (1985). Beyond amplification: Using computers to reorganize human mental functioning. Educational Psychologist, 20, 167‐82.
• Salomon, G. (1974). Internalization of filmic schematic operations in interaction with learners' aptitudes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 66, 499‐511.
• Salomon, G., Perkins, D. N., & Globerson, T. (1991). Partners in cognition: Extending human intelligence with intelligent technologies. Educational Researcher, 20, I0‐16.
• Spiro, R. J. Feltovich, P. J., Jacobson, M., & Coulson, R. L (1991). Cognitive flexibility, constructivism, and hypertext: Advanced knowledge acquisition in ill‐structured domains. Educational Technology, 31(5) 24‐33.
• Taylor, D. H. (2017). Learning technologies in the workplace: How to successfully implement learning technologies in organizations. Kogan Page Limited.

• Teaching with Technology
• Bates, A. W. (Tony), & Sangra, A. (2011). Managing technology in higher education: Strategies for transforming teaching and learning. Wiley/Jossey-Bass.
• Roblyer. M. D., & Hughes, J. E. (2019). Integrating educational technology into teaching: Transforming learning across disciplines, (8th ed). Pearson.
• Cennamo, K. S., Ross, J. D., & Ertmer, P. A. (2019). Technology integration for meaningful classroom use: A standards-based approach, (3rd ed.). Cengage Learning.

Websites, Web Articles, Videos, eBooks, e-Chapters, and Podcasts

• Effective Application and Use of Technologies
• Adobe. (2021). Adobe eLearning Design Awards. [Annual awards for best elearning designs.]
• Long, L., Dabrowski, G., & Grant, A. (2020). 360 virtual reality to make experiential learning accessible to all. Educause Review.
• EDUCAUSE. (2021). 7 things you should know about teaching and learning with video. [From the Educause “7 Things” series.]
• Fryer, W. (2020). Modern learning in school: The 14 legs of the table. [“Moving at the Speed of Creativity” blog article on keys to successful learning with Internet-connected digital devices.]
• Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A., & Kimmons, R. (2020). The K-12 educational technology handbook. (1st ed.). Ed Tech Books. At:
• Rice, S. (n.d.). Game-based learning: Using games to increase representation, expression, and engagement. [An article on College STAR – a grant-funded project supporting transition, access, and retention at the postsecondary level for students with learning and attention differences.]
• Trust, T. (2020). Teaching with digital tools and apps. Ed Tech Books. At:
• Web Marketing Association (2021). Best Education Websites. [Annual best education websites awards based on design, ease of use, copywriting, and interactivity, use of technology, innovation, and content.]
• Click to view external links

• Evaluating and Selecting Technologies
• Capterra. (n.d.). Capterra. [Software reviews and selection metrics for making technology decisions.]
• CNET. (n.d.). CNET (Computer Network). [Product reviews, blog articles, podcasts, and videos on technology. Features region- and language-specific editions.]
• EdTechTeacher. (2021). Teaching history with technology. [Website of resources on using technology to teach history.]
• USDLA (2015). An instructional media selection guide for distance learning: Implications for blended learning (2nd ed.)
• Click to view external links

• Keeping Current with Emerging Technologies and Methods
  Check out these blogs, podcasts, and organization websites on instructional technology trends, many of which offer the option to subscribe to an emailed newsletter:
• All My Faves. (n.d.). All My Faves is an Internet gateway that features a logo-based, visual web navigation and discovery portal for accessing the top websites in each listed category.
• American Council on Education. (n.d.) Education blockchain initiative. [Website with resources, videos, etc.]
• Bersin, J. (2021). HR technology 2021: The definitive guide. [Josh Bersin’s 2021 HR Technology guide.]
• Bond Capital. (2020). Our new world: Mary Meeker’s Internet Trends Reports Archive and 2020 Report. [Archive of Mary Meeker’s influential Internet Trends reports and her 2020 special report, Our New World.] ]
• Brown, A., & Green, T. (2021). Trends & Issues in Instructional Design, Educational Technology, & Learning Sciences. [Blog, podcasts, and Flipboard magazines on the latest technology trends]
• Byrne, R. (2021). Richard Byrne’s free technology for teachers. [Web blog on technology tools.]
• Clapp, A. (2021, July 1). Toolbox tips: Check out the new video series. Association for Talent Development.
• Corbin, A., & Partnering Anthropology with Science and Technology (PAST). (2021). Learning Unboxed. [Annalies Corbin’s podcast on teaching and learning through disruption and STEM.]
• Danhoff, C. (2021). 7 augmented reality tools for the classroom: A technology integration specialist shares some ways her district uses augmented reality to boost engagement in learning. [Edutopia Blog article]
• Designing Digitally. (2018). Instructional design resources that stand out. [Blog article on Designing Digitally; search for similar recent articles.]
• EDUCAUSE publishes an annual Horizon Report® – Teaching and Learning Edition which profiles key trends and emerging technologies and practices shaping the future of higher education:https://library.educause.edu/resources/2021/2/horizon-reports and https://library.educause.edu/resources/2021/4/2021-educause-horizon-report-teaching-and-learning-edition
• EDUCAUSE highlights essential information on emerging technologies and practices, potential implications and opportunities for learning in a series entitled 7 Things You Should Know About…
• ELM Learning (2021). SCORM vs. Tin Can (xAPI) vs. AICC: What’s the difference? [Blog article]
• Golden, R. M. (2021). Learning machines 101: A gentle introduction to artificial intelligence and machine learning. [Podcast]
• Hart, J. (2021). Centre for Learning & Performance Technologies and Top tools for learning. [Jane Hart’s site supports those interested in workplace learning and development. She conducts and publishes the results of an annual survey of top tools for learning, in the categories of personal learning, workplace learning, and education): https://c4lpt.co.uk/directory-of-learning-performance-tools/ and her Top 300 Tools for Learning at: https://www.toptools4learning.com/
• Hassan, A. (2021). Virtual reality in education: Achievements and challenges. [EmergingEdTech blog article.]
• Heiss, E. (2020). 3D printing gains momentum in the online classroom. [EmergingEdTech blog article.]
• International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE). (2021). EdSurge. [Weekly podcast on edtech for K-12 and higher education).
• Jarche, H. (2021). Making sense of a networked world. [Pragmatic advice and guidance from Harold Jarche on connected leadership, social learning, communities of practice, and personal knowledge mastery (PKM)]: https://jarche.com/
• Komando.com. (2021). Kim Komando’s tech advice you can trust. [Website, podcast, tech resources.] At:
• Kuhlmann, T. (2021). The rapid e-learning blog. [Practical tips and tricks on training, instruction, and e-learning from Tom Kuhlmann and Articulate.]
• Malamed, C. (n.d.). The eLearning Coach. [Website, podcasts, technology resources.] At:
• Meola, A. (2021, Jan. 19). Applications of IoT technology in the education sector for smarter schooling. Business Insider.
• Moore, C. (2021). Action@Work. [The blog site of Cathy Moore, the creator of the “action mapping” approach to designing training.]
• Pew Research Center. (2021). Pew Research: Internet and Technology. [Research on the internet and technology.]
• Scalf, C. (2021). Introducing the Tier1 story board: A thread for book-loving leaders. [Web article announcing a social media site for discussing the latest books on people and performance.]
• Tech Guy Labs. (n.d.). The Tech Guy with Leo Laporte. [Technology advice website and recordings of Laporte’s technology radio show.]
• TED Talk. (2021). TED Talk presentations. [Videos on a variety of topics, including technology.]
• The Tech Edvocate. (2021). 6 elearning trends currently shaping the industry. [Tech Edvocate blog article.]
• The Tech Edvocate. (2021). The Tech Advocate blog and Podcast. https://www.thetechedvocate.org/ and https://www.theedadvocate.org/the-edvocate-podcast/
• The Wall Street Journal. (2021). The future of everything. [Weekly podcast on artificial intelligence and other advances in technology.]
• U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Technology. (n.d). Blockchain in Education. [Web article.]
• Click to view external links

• Technology Tools
• Adobe. (2019). Adobe Spark online timeline prototype creator. [Tool for creating timelines.]
• Advanced Distributed Learning Initiative (US government site). (n.d.). Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM®). [An “official” description of SCORM standards and related resources].
• Byrne, R. (2020). How to make timelines with Google Sheets. [Blog article on progress trackers and other timelines you can create with Google products.]
• EdTechTeacher.org. (2021). App and tool guide. [Collection of free resources searchable by learning activity, device, or grade level.]
• EdTechTeacher.org. (2021). Google guides. [Curated resources and articles on Google and Chrome apps.]
• Google Earth Outreach. (n.d.). Tutorial: Create a map or story in Google Earth web. [Web tool tutorial.]
• MindMeister. (2021). Technology mind maps. [Mind maps on the category of technology, from the MindMeister website.]
• Neagu, C. (2020). Tutorial: How to use Steps Recorder to capture steps for Windows 10 troubleshooting. [While intended as a tool for troubleshooting, the free Steps Recorder can be used to easily capture step-by-step procedures for instruction and “how-to” screenshots, including screenshots featuring the mouse cursor.]
• World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). (2021). World Wide Web Consortium. [Website for the international community collaboratively developing standards, led by Web inventor and Director Tim Berners-Less and CEO Jeffrey Jaffe.]
• Click to view external links

• Types of Technologies
  Below is a handful of technology tool categories with a brief description of how they can be used in instruction. For currently popular tools for these and other categories, search for the tool type, or visit Jane Hart’s website Top Tools for Learning and select the Categories tab.
• Annotation tools support document mark-up and commenting activities.
• Bookmarks, Favorites, & Social Bookmark tools allow you to tag and easily share content.
• Aggregators collect and compile web links related to specific content or topics.
• Audio/video conferencing tools support real-time audio and/or video communication.
• Blogs, short for “web logs,” are tools used to create and host online posting services.
• Concept mapping programs allow users to create visual representations of ideas and relationships.
• Learning Management Systems (LMS), and Content Management Systems (CMS) are course and content management platforms used to build and deliver online educational courses and events.
• Curation tools support content curation and sharing.
• Rapid authoring tools facilitate the rapid creation and maintenance of interactive digital courseware and e-learning content without requiring advanced programming knowledge.
• Search engines support the discovery of just about anything on the Internet!
• Scenario creation tools enable users to create branching scenarios (see the free tool Twine for planning branching instruction, and Cathy Moore’s information on branching scenarios).
• Social media networks allow users to connect, communicate, and share using a variety of media formats.
• Video & photo sharing sites provide both restricted and open access to personally-produced media.
• Click to view external links

BLOOM’S STRETCH EXERCISES & JOB AIDS

The following Bloom Stretch exercises supplement those included in Streamlined ID: Chapter 11 – Design Instructional Messages (2nd edition).

Apply

Use Gestalt Theory to Design Instructional Messages. Chapter 11 of Streamlined ID (2020) highlights message design principles informed by Gestalt psychology, specifically highlighting the grouping laws which are examined in terms of proximity, closure, continuity, similarity, simplicity, and figure/ground (see page 297). After reviewing this information and any of the readings and web link resources provided below on Gestalt principles, and apply one of these principles to visualize a single concept or idea. Consider how a different Gestalt principle could be applied to convey the same content. Is one approach more effective than another? Why?

Optimize Cognitive Load. Mayer and Moreno (2003) describe cognitive overload as occurring when a learner’s mental processing capacity is exceeded by the mental processing demands of multimedia instructional materials. Mayer’s (2001) Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) recommends the consideration of 10 principles based on cognitive research when designing multimedia instruction to address cognitive overload. Those 10 principles, described in chapter 11 of Streamlined ID (2020), are often grouped in three categories: ways to reduce extraneous load, ways to manage intrinsic load, and ways to foster germane load (see pages 299-300). You can use these principles to re-design an existing instructional module characterized by cognitive overload. To do so, identify a unit of instruction and apply one or more of the principles to reduce extraneous load, increase germane load, and/or manage intrinsic load. When finished, consider the principles you applied and determine whether your redesigned instruction effectively conveyed the content while also addressing cognitive overload issues.

Design Form Factors to Support Sensory Messages. Apply the information from Table 11.2, Sample Uses of Sensory Messages and Relevant Factors to Consider, from Streamlined ID (2020) and this Accessibility through Sensory Perception Worksheet (opens in a new tab or window) to identify and design form factors that will support the sensory messages for your instruction.

Analyze

Analyze Instructional Form and Flow. How learners engage in an instructional event is influenced by the way that the media environment supports the presentation of the learning experience. Use this Message Design Worksheet to analyze an existing e-learning course or module to identify the function that the instruction is intended to fulfill (e.g., to inform, to persuade, to motivate, to improve performance, to promote safe or healthy habits, to promote compliance, etc.). Then, complete the worksheet to identify the form and flow factors used to highlight key attributes of the content. Consider how these factors influenced the learning experience and the effectiveness (or ineffectiveness) of the instruction. How might a different delivery mode or a different set of form and flow factors enhance or detract from the instructional flow?

Use Design Principles from Theory to Design Messages. Alessi & Trollip (2001) emphasize that the design of multimedia instruction should be carried out using research-based principles drawn from theories of learning. They list a number of applicable principles taken from behavioral, cognitive, and constructivist theories, including “principles of reinforcement, attention, perception, encoding, memory, comprehension, active learning, motivation, locus of control, mental models, metacognition, transfer of learning, individual differences, knowledge construction, situated learning, and collaborative learning” (p. 41). In addition, Chapter 11 of Streamlined ID (2020, pp. 302-303) highlights design principles for Gagné’s 9 events of instruction and from Patti Shank’s (2018) book, Manage Memory for Deeper Learning. Select and study two or more of any of these principles. Then, analyze a unit of instruction to identify examples of the principles you selected.

Evaluate

Evaluate Message Designs. You can gain some great insights related to message design through examining the work of others. Use the Message Design Checklist, from chapter 11 of Streamlined ID (2020) to evaluate the message design for a unit of instruction. What message design aspects worked well? Which did not work well? Which message design considerations appear to be prioritized over others?

Create

Create Your Own Instructional Message. As referenced in Chapter 11, Clark and Lyons (2004) offer concrete, pragmatic strategies for organizing and presenting visual information to facilitate learning. Put your instructional design talents to work to explore the implementation of these strategies. Using Table 11.5 on page 306 of Streamlined ID (2020) and this copy of the Table 11.6 Message Design Planning Aid, select one type of learning outcome and develop a single unit of instruction to address this outcome, employing two or more of the correlating strategies identified in the table.

Create an infographic using good message design. Refer to this Brief History of Instructional Design infographic for inspiration and then design an instructional infographic for your own topic. You can use the free version of the graphic design platform, Canva, or your choice of another online tool to design your infographic.

All Levels

Planning How to Address Learner Differences. Communicating an effective message is an essential aspect of instructional design. Good communication enhances the learning context. The Source of the message, the Message itself, and the Channel it flows through, the Receiver of the message, and the Feedback and Noise involved, all interact to influence the fidelity (and thus the success) of the instructional message. Use what you have learned about the communication process from Chapter 11 at each of Bloom’s thinking skills levels to develop your ability to analyze the contexts of instruction:

Remember – Redraw the communication model from Chapter 11 from memory, labeling all parts of the process.

Understand – Explain how “noise” can interfere with the fidelity of your message at several points in the communication process.

Apply – Apply the alternative perspectives regarding the communication process identified by Spector (2012), as cited on page 287 of chapter 11 of Streamlined ID (2020), identify alternate ways your stakeholders may be viewing the communication process for the learning experience you design. Those perspectives include: Psychological (focused on interpretation and feelings), Social constructivist (focused on the creation of internal representations and interpretations), Systemic (focused on throughput and efficiency), and Critical theory (focused on values and challenging communication practices that seek to control individuals).

Analyze – Use the description of each element of the communication model illustrated in Figure 11.1 of Streamlined ID (2020) to help you identify and analyze the key elements for your instructional design project. You can use this Communication Model worksheet as a guide.

Evaluate – Evaluate a learning experience that you feel was less-than-effective to determine whether the communication process was compromised by any of the following:

• A mismatch between the learners and those responsible for designing or funding the instruction concerning beliefs about the topic, or expectations for what the instruction will do;
• A lack of feedback or a problem with the feedback process; or
• A mismatch of social and cultural assumptions between the learners and those designing the instruction.

Create - Use what you have learned to design a learning experience for which the message is effective, fidelity is maximized, and noise and negative influences are minimized.

• References
• Alessi, S. M., & Trollip, S. R. (2001). Multimedia for learning: Methods and development. (3rd edition). Allyn & Bacon. (Chapter 2).
• Clark, R. C., & Lyons, C. (2004). Graphics for learning: Proven guidelines for planning, designing, and evaluating visuals in training materials. Pfeiffer.
• Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 43-52.

DIVING DEEPER WITH RECOMMENDED READINGS & WEB LINKS

Check out the additional resources listed below for more information on topics covered in Streamlined ID: Chapter 11 – Design Instructional Messages (2nd edition).

Books, Book Chapters, Articles

• Message Design Theories and Principles
• Alessi, S., & Trollip, S. (2000). Multimedia for learning: Methods and development (3rd ed). Pearson.
• Anderson, S. P., & Fast, K. (2020). Figure it out: Getting from information to understanding. Two Waves Books.
• Bishop, M. J., & Sonnenschein, D. (2012). Designing with sound to enhance learning: Four recommendations from the film industry. Journal of Applied Instructional Design, 2(1), 5-15.
• Cabral, J. P., & Remijn, G. B. (2019). Auditory icons: Design and physical characteristics. Applied Ergonomics, 78, 224-239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2019.02.008
• Cheon, J., & Grant, M. (2012). Examining the relationships of different cognitive load types related to user interface in web-based instruction. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 23(1), 29-55.
• Fleming, M. L., & Levie, W. H. (1993). Instructional message design: Principles from the behavioral and cognitive sciences. (2nd ed.). Educational Technology Publications.
• Lidwell, W., Holden, K., & Butler, J. (2010). Universal principles of design: 125 ways to enhance usability, influence perception, increase appeal, make better design decisions, and teach through design. Rockport Publishers, Inc.
• Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 43-52.
• Norman, D. A. (2013). The design of everyday things. (Revised and expanded edition). Basic Books.

• Click to view external links

• Visual Design, Graphic Design, Web and Interface Design
• Clark, R. C., & Lyons, C. (2010). Graphics for learning: Proven guidelines for planning, designing, and evaluating visuals in training materials. (2nd ed.). Pfeiffer.
• Eisner, W. (2008). Comics and sequential art: Principles and practices from the legendary cartoonist. W. W. Norton & Company [Note that Will Eisner coined the term “sequential art.”]
• Evergreen, S. D. H. (2017). Effective data visualization: The right chart for the right data. Sage.
• Golombisky, K., & Hagen, R. (2017). White space is not your enemy: A beginner’s guide to communicating visually through graphic, web and multimedia design. (3rd ed.) Focal Press.
• Malamed, C. (2011). Visual language for designers: Principles for creating graphics that people understand. Rockport Publishers.
• McCloud, S. (1994). Understanding comics: The invisible art. William Morrow Paperbacks.
• Robins, D., & Holmes, J. (2008). Aesthetics and credibility in web design. Information Processing and Management: An International Journal, 44(1), 386-399.
• Rogers, S. (2014). Level up! The guide to great video game design. (2nd ed.) Wiley & Sons.
• Williams, R. (2014). The non-designer’s design book (4th ed). Peach Pit Press.

• Information Design & Data Visualization
• Anderson, S. P., & Fast, K. (2020). Figure it out: Getting from information to understanding. Two Waves Books.
• Duarte, N. (2008). Slide:ology: The art and science of creating great presentations. O'Reilly Media.
• Duarte, N. (2010). Resonate: Present visual stories that transform audiences. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Duarte, N., & Sanchez, P. (2016). Illuminate: Ignite change through speeches, stories, ceremonies, and symbols. Portfolio/Penguin.
• Nilson, L. B. (2007). The graphic syllabus and the outcomes map: Communicating your course. Jossey-Bass.
• Tufte, E. R. (1990). Envisioning information. Graphics Press.
• Tufte, E. R. (1997). Visual explanations: Images and quantities, evidence and narrative. Graphics Press.
• Tufte, E. R. (2001). The visual display of quantitative information. (2nd ed.) Graphics Press.
• Tufte, E. R. (2006). Beautiful evidence. Graphics Press.

Websites, Web Articles, Videos, eBooks, e-Chapters, and Podcasts

• Message Design Theories and Principles
• Blattner, M. M., Sumikawa, D. A., & Greenberg, R. M. (1989). Earcons and icons: Their structure and common design principles. Human-Computer Interaction, 4 (1), 11-44. Available at:
• Chang, D., Dooley, L., & Tuovinen, J. E. (2002). Gestalt theory in visual screen design: A new look at an old subject. In Selected Papers from the 7th World Conference on Computers in Education (WCCE’01), Copenhagen, Computers in Education 2001: Australian Topics. Melbourne: Australian Computer Society, pp. 5–12.
• Choi, B., & Baek, Y. (2011). Exploring factors of media characteristics influencing flow in learning through virtual worlds. Computers & Education, 57, 2382-2394. DOI: 10.1016/j.compedu.2011.06.019. Available at:
• Craig, W. (n.d.) Gestalt principles applied in design. [WebFX blog article]
• Duarte, N. (2019). 3 ways to help people understand what your data means. Harvard Business Review, available at:
• Dukes, F., Emory, B., Garcia, D., Saylor, T., Spencer, M., Thull, C., & Ramlatchan, M. (ed.). (2021 and 2019). Instructional message design: Theory, research, and practice, vol. 1 & 2. Licensed as: CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0 Download chapters at:
• Golombisky, K., & Hagen, R. (2017). Design tutorial: Gestalt theory for graphic designers. [YouTube video.]
• Graham, L. (2008). Gestalt theory in interactive media design. Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 2(1). Retrieved from
• Philips, M. (2018). How to use powerful Gestalt principles in design (with infographic). [UX Collective blog article.] At:
• Seels, B., Mowery, B., O’Rourke, S., Proviano, C. J., Rothenberger, M. C., Tannehill, N., & Yasin, K. (1996). A conceptual framework and procedure for message design. (ED 397 838.) In Proceedings of Selected Research and Development Presentations, 1996 National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (18th, Indianapolis, IN).
• Sukmara, E. (2017). Principles of instructional message design. [Web article.]
• UCAR COMET® Program. (n.d.). The instructional role of illustrations. [Article on the web site for the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research.]
• User Testing. (2019). 7 Gestalt principles of visual perception: Cognitive psychology for UX. [Website blog article.] At:
• Click to view external links

• Visual Design, Graphic Design, Typography, and Data Visualization
• Bonneville, D. (2011). How to choose a font – A step-by-step guide! [Smashing magazine article.] At:
• Dalto, J. (2014). Graphic design tips for eLearning: 25 fundamental techniques. [Blog article that provides rationale and techniques.]
• Empowered by Color. (2009-2018). Cultural color: Cultural meanings of color and color symbolism. [Website article.] At:
• Information is Beautiful. (2021). Colors in Culture. At:
• Jin, S-H., & Boling, E. (2010). Instructional designer’s intentions and learner’s perceptions of the instructional functions of visuals in an e-Learning context. Journal of Visual Literacy, 29(2), 143-166. At:
• Jon. (2020). 25 must-read books for designers, typography lovers, and freelancers. [Spyre Studios web design and development magazine article.] At:
• Kuhlmann, T. (2015). Essential guide to visual thinking for e-learning. [The Rapid E-Learning Blog post.]
• Learning Solutions. (n.d.). Instructional design and visual design: The pillars of great eLearning. [Website article.] At:
• Mayer, D. (2010). What font should I use? 5 principles for choosing and using typefaces. [Smashing Magazine article.] At:
• McGuire, S. (2018). 5 essential types of visuals to elevate your eLearning content. [eLearning Industry blog article.]
• McGuire, S. (2019). What are the 9 types of infographics? (+Infographic templates). [Blog article, video and examples.]
• Sengupta, D. (2019). Why L&D professionals should know data visualization. [eLearning Industry blog article.]
• SH!FT Disruptive Learning. (2019). Graphic design tips for accidental instructional designers. [Web blog article.] At:
• Slade, T. (n.d.). The elearning designer’s academy: Visual design. [Visual design articles.]
• UX Planet. (2017). Color theory: Brief guide for designers. [Website color tutorial.] At:
• Virginia Tech University. (n.d.). EDIT 5564: Visual literacy, lesson 10 visuals and learning. [Web lesson on visuals in instruction.]
• Wasserman, E. (2016). A comprehensive guide to typography basics. [How-to tutorial from Tuts+.] At:
• Click to view external links

• User Experience (UX) Design and Web Design
• Cannon, T. (2012). An introduction to color theory for web designers. [Blog article.]
• Craig, W. (n.d.) 10 usability tips based on research studies. [WebFX blog article]
• Malviya, K. (2020). Moodboards: Bringing imagination to reality. [UX Planet article on mood boards to determine look and feel.]
• Miksovsky, J. (2005 – 2014). Flow|State. [Blog articles on usability and interface design.]
• Nielsen Norman Group. (2021). Research-based user experience: Articles, videos, reports, and books. [UX research site founded by UX leaders Jakob Nielsen and Don Norman.] https://www.nngroup.com/articles/ and https://www.nngroup.com/reports/
• Proto.io. (2020). The complete guide to UX design. [Website article.]
• Spiller, F. (n.d.). Design principles: Mobile UX design checklist. [Scroll down to this excellent video on the website of the Interaction Design Foundation; site includes other resources on design principles.]
• Springboard. (2019). Free UX design curriculum. [Information on UX design.] https://www.springboard.com/resources/learning-paths/user-experience-design/ https://www.interaction-design.org/tv/course_videos/v2/topic-definition-what-are-design-principles-480p.webm
• Trumbull, S. (2021). 5 books that every designer should add to their 2021 reading list. [Bootcamp UX website article.]
• UX Matters. (2006). Color theory for digital displays: A quick reference, Part 1. [Website article.]
• Click to view external links

BLOOM’S STRETCH EXERCISES & JOB AIDS

The following Bloom Stretch exercises supplement those included in Streamlined ID: Chapter 12 – Production (2nd edition).

Apply

Apply Knowledge of ID Production Factors. Use this Production Checklist from Streamlined ID (2020) to help you consider and plan for all applicable accessibility, universal design for learning (UDL), production, and quality control factors for your instructional design project.

Analyze

Analyze Existing Materials. Efficient ID practice involves optimizing existing instructional materials. Use the information and this Existing Resources Survey from Chapter 12 of Streamlined ID (2020) to analyze (or have your Subject Matter Experts identify) existing instruction that you could use or revise to streamline your production efforts.

Evaluate

Evaluate Usability. As noted in Chapter 12 of Streamlined ID (2nd edition), testing the usability of a learning product involves determining whether the instruction can easily be operated and navigated by learners, whether learners can perceive its purpose and intuit the logic of the design, and whether the function of the instructional product makes sense and operates as anticipated by the learner. In ISO 9241-11:2018, the International Organization for Standardization defines usability as the “extent to which a system, product or service can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction in a specified context of use” (section 3.1.1).

Evaluating a product for usability involves consideration of multiple factors, including things like ease of use and navigation, efficiency of the page and/or screen design, organization of the content and logic of its progression, memorability of the content, whether the interaction required of the learner is intuitive, and whether the design is compelling, engaging, and aesthetically satisfying. Some of this can be determined by logging quantitative data like the frequency and severity of errors during tests of the instruction by members of the target learner population. Other factors must be determined through analysis of qualitative responses of test participants who either use a “talk aloud” protocol during testing or answer questions concerning the instruction following testing. As a designer, you can and should provide input into what factors will be evaluated and the measures used to evaluate them. The earlier this is determined in the product lifecycle, the better. This is because, if you don’t know what quality specifications you’re targeting, it will be hard to measure your success.

For your choice of a given instructional product, identify the factors to be evaluated through usability testing, the evaluation measures to be used to determine quality and success, and the criteria or parameters that will be used to judge that quality and/or success. In addition to the information in Chapter 12, you can consult the usability websites and Steve Krug’s book on usability testing, Don’t Make Me Think (3rd edition), cited above. Then, customize the information in this usability testing job aid and use it to evaluate the usability of a unit of the instruction. If possible, obtain test subjects who represent the target audience for which the instruction has been designed.

Create

Create a Learning Interaction Catalog. You can develop and use a catalog or collection of interactions (also known as pattern libraries or interactive eLearning templates) to more effectively address the schedule and budget constraints that typically plague instructional design projects, while also ensuring that accessibility and consistency are addressed in your design. Kevin Gumienny’s article Creativity within Constraints: When Cost, Resource Scarcity, or Deadlines Make Effective eLearning Seem Out of Reach (for Microassist, November 2, 2018) provides ideas on options for creating a set of design templates to minimize the impact of project constraints.

Create Production Specifications. Use this Production Specification Worksheet to define and gather all production parameters for your instructional design project.

DIVING DEEPER WITH RECOMMENDED READINGS & WEB LINKS

Check out the additional resources listed below for more information on topics covered in Streamlined ID: Chapter 12 – Production

Books, Book Chapters, Articles

• Copyright, Fair Use, and Open Educational Resources (OER)
• Bartrom, L. (2009). Fair use guidelines. TechTrends, 53(5), 14-15.
• DuBoff, L. D., & King, C. O. (2009). Introduction to copyright. TechTrends, 53(5), 8-9.
• Nelson, E. (2009) Copyright and distance education: The impact of the technology, education, and copyright harmonization act. AACEJ, 17(2), 83-101.
• Prabhala, A. (2010). Copyright and open educational resources. Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada: Commonwealth of Learning.

• Essential Skills for IDs
• Brill, J. M., Bishop, M. J., & Walker, A. E. (2006). The competencies and characteristics required of an effective project manager: A web-based Delphi study. Educational Technology Research & Development, 54(2), 115-140.

• Multimedia Theory and Design
• Dabbagh, N., & Kitsantas, A. (2012). Personal learning environments, social media, and self-regulated learning: A natural formula for connecting formal and informal learning. Internet and Higher Education, 15, 3-8.
• Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 43-52.

• Production, Production Costs and Estimates, Quality Control, and Consulting
  Note that the technology tools used by IDs to produce instruction change so quickly these days, that it is rare that someone attempts to write a book specifically dedicated to production tools, methods, and processes. However, some of the older books on the topic still have valuable information that can be applied to today’s production processes and tools.
• Bell, M., & Schraff, L. B. (2008). The creation and refinement of a sustainable multimedia process in a higher education environment. Journal of the Research Center for Educational Technology, 4(2), 83-95.
• Connellan, J. (June, 1986). How do you develop a training program on an unfamiliar topic? Training and Development Journal, 22-25.
• Felder, L. (2011). Writing for the web: Creating compelling web content using words, pictures, and sound. New Riders.
• Garrand, T. (2006). Writing for multimedia and the web: A practical guide to content development for interactive media. (3rd ed.). Focal Press.
• Hartt, D. C., & Rossett, A. (2000). When instructional design students consult with the real world. Performance Improvement, 39(7), 36-43.
• Michels, B. J. (2005). A rubric for comparing dissimilar text materials. TechTrends, 49(1), 69-70.
• Nixon, E. K., & Lee, D. (2001). Rapid prototyping in the instructional design process. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 14(3), 95-116.
• Norman, D. (2013). The design of everyday things: Revised and expanded. Basic Books.
• Phillips, J. J. (2011). Return on investment in training and performance improvement programs. (2nd ed.). NY: Routledge.
• Valai, A., Schmidt-Crawford, D. A., & Moore, K. J. (2019). Quality indicators for distance learning: A literature review in learners’ perceptions. International Journal on E-Learning, 18(1), 103-124.

• Universal Design for Learning
• Black, J., & Moore, E. J. (2019). UDL navigators in higher education: A field guide. Wakefield, MA: CAST, Inc.
• Chardin, M., & Novak, K. R. (2020). Equity by design: Delivering on the power and promise of UDL. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
• Elias, T. (2011). Universal instructional design principles for mobile learning. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 12(2), 143-156.
• Novak, K., & Thibodeau, T. (2016). UDL in the cloud! How to design and deliver online education using Universal Design for Learning. Wakefield, MA: CAST, Inc.

• Usability Testing
• Krug, S. (2014). Don’t make me think, revisited: A common sense approach to web and mobile usability. (3rd ed.) New Riders/Pearson Education.

Websites, Web Articles, Videos, eBooks, e-Chapters, and Podcasts

• Accessibility and 508 Compliance
• 4 Syllables. (n.d.). Text alternatives – a decision tree. [Decision tree to help you write better alt text for images.]
• Accessible Web. (2021). WCAG Color Contrast Checker.
• ADA National Network. (2021). Federal agencies and resources. [List of federal agencies charged with assisting with and enforcing the Americans with Disabilities Act. The ADA National Network consists of 10 regional ADA centers in the US to meet needs throughout the country.]
• ADA National Network. (2021). Accessibility: How to change text size. [Directions on how to change the size of text in different browsers.]
• ADA Site Compliance. (2021). Compliance contrast checker.
• Adobe.com. (2021). Adobe’s site on color accessibility.
• Burgstahler, S. (2021). 20 tips for teaching an accessible online course. [Web article.]
• GitHub.io. (n.d.). Accessible color palette builder. [GitHub’s tool for accessible web colors.]
• Guru99. (2021). 15 best music (audio) visualizer software and app in 2021. [Web resources for music visualizers, or software that can generate animated imagery that follows loudness, frequency spectrum, and rhythm of audio music.]
• Koopersmith, D., & Miner. W. (2019). Designing accessible color systems. [Stripe blog article.]
• Louisiana State University. (2021). Accessibility: Running accessibility checker on Microsoft Word (Mac). [Informational article with success tips.]
• Mozilla Developer Site. (2005-2021). HTML: A good basis for accessibility. [The Mozilla.org site for accessible HTML web content.]
• National Center on Accessible Educational Materials for Learning (AEM) at CAST.org. (n.d.). AEM center resources. [Website with a broad range of educational information and resources on accessibility.]
• NC State University. (2021). aXe WordPress accessibility helper. [Well-designed WordPress plugin that checks WordPress sites for accessibility and offers suggested fixes.] Download
• Spagnola, W. (2020). Making online learning accessible for deaf students. [Web article on HearingLikeMe.com.]
• TopTal. (2010-2020). Colorblind web page filter.
• U.S. Government Sites:
  • Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). (2020).HHS policy for section 508 compliance and accessibility of information and communications technology (ICT). Version 2.0.
  • Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). (2021). Accessibility compliance checklists. [Resources for Section 508 compliance.]
  • Department of Justice/Civil Rights Division. (n.d.) Information and Technical Assistance on the Americans with Disabilities Act. [US government resource site providing guidance to Federal agency staff who play a role in IT accessibility.]
  • General Services Administration. (n.d.). GSA Government-wide IT Accessibility Program.
  • General Services Administration. (n.d.). Resources for Americans with Disabilities. [The U.S. GSA’s resource site.]
  • Johnson, A., & Castro, D. (2021). Improving accessibility of federal government websites. [Information Technology & Innovation Foundation website article.]
  • Social Security Administration. (2021). Accessibility resources for developers, document authors, and contractors. [Accessibility resources from the Social Security Administration.]
• University of California, San Francisco. (2021). Accessible color. [UCSF web article on digitally accessible color.]
• University of Washington. (n.d.). Creating accessible videos. [UW provides links to directions for adding captions to videos in YouTube, on web pages, in Panopto, in Canvas LMS, in Zoom, and in Facebook.]
• Verou, L. (2021). Text-to-background contrast ratio checker. [A well-designed contrast ratio checker based on WCAG 2.1, by Lea Verou for GitHub.]
• WebAIM. (2021). Accessibility evaluation tools. [Website article.]
• WebAIM. (2021). Contrast checker. [WebAIM’s foreground and background color contrast checker.]
• WebAIM. (2021). WAVE web accessibility evaluation tool. [WebAIM WAVE tool.]
• World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)/Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI). (2021). Accessibility fundamentals overview. [The W3C’s overview on accessibility of web pages.]
• World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)/Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI). (2021). Easy checks: A first review of web accessibility. [The W3C’s information and tools for assessing the accessibility of web pages.]
• World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)/Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI). (2021). How to meet WCAG (Quick Reference). [The W3C’s quick reference guide on the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, WCAG.]
• Click to view external links

• Best Practices in ID and Production
• Gutierrez, K. (2018). Why you should use content curation in your L&D strategy? (And how to do it). [SH!FT Disruptive Learning blog article.]
• Keengwe, J., & Kidd, T. (2010). Towards best practices in online learning and teaching in higher education. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 6(2), 533–541.
• Namahoe, K. (Dec. 13, 2012). New survey highlights best practices for online learning programs. THE Journal.
• The National Education Association’s (NEA) Higher Education. (2021). Thriving in academe guides.
• Wilson, B.G. (2004). Broadening our foundation for instructional design: Four pillars of practice.
• Click to view external links

• Copyright, Fair Use, and Open Educational Resources (OER)
• Affordable Learning Georgia. (n.d.). Help. [Tutorials and videos on OER and related topics.] Tutorial 1: Finding free and open resources, and Tutorial 2: Creating and modifying open educational resources
• American Library Association. (2020). Is it protected by copyright? Copyright checker. (For works published in the U.S.A.)
• Brigham Young University (2019). Fair use checklist. [Fillable PDF providing guidance on Fair Use.]
• Brigham Young University. (2021). FUEL: Fair Use Evaluation Log tool. [Interactive Fair Use Guide tool.]
• CK-12 Foundation. (2021). CK-12 teachers’ site. [Website with free, fully customizable teaching resources for K-12 educators, including online textbooks, videos, exercises, flashcards, and real world simulations aligned to state curriculum standards.]
• Creative Commons. (n.d.). Creative commons. [Website with resources and an OER image search engine.]
• Creative Commons. (n.d.). Creative commons: About the licenses. [CC website explaining the CC licenses.]
• Creative Commons Australia. (2009). Licensing flowchart.
• Hobbs, R., Braman, S., & Donnelly, K. (n.d.). Copyright and fair use lesson plans. [Lessons on copyright and fair use from the Media Education Lab at the University of Rhode Island.]
• Mays, E. (Ed.) (2017). A guide to making open textbooks with students. [OER handbook for faculty on open pedagogy. CC BY licensed.]
• Open Education Database. (2021). 80 Open Education Resource (OER) tools for publishing and development initiatives.
• TinEye. (n.d.) Reverse image search. [Search images to determine origin, use, modifications, and versions.]
• Click to view external links

• Sources for Open Education Resources
• OER Search Engines:
  • Internet Archive
  • Mason OER Metafinder (MOM) (from George Mason University)
  • MERLOT Teaching and Learning Repository
  • OASIS – Openly Available Sources Integrated Search (from SUNY, State University of New York)
  • OER Commons
• OER Sources of Images, Audio, and Video
  • ccMixter audio
  • Community Audio (from the Internet Archive)
  • Cool Infographics
  • Cool Symbols & Fonts
  • Creative Commons Image Search
  • Flickr Explore Creative Commons
  • Free Music Archive
  • Free Vector World & Country Maps
  • IMSLP – International Music Score Library Project (or Petrucci Music Library)
  • Moving Image Archive
  • Musopen – free recordings, sheet music, and textbooks
  • Open Clip Art
  • PD Info – Public Domain Information Project for music
  • Pexels
  • PhotoPin
  • Pixabay
  • Search Engine Journal’s
  • soundsnap – low cost but also offers free educational subscriptions (see site for details)
  • The Noun Project
  • The Open Video Project
  • Unsplash
  • Vimeo Creative Commons
    To access CC videos from the main Vimeo site:
    • 1. Enter desired topic in the search box and hit Enter key.
    • 2. Enter search filter restrictions in left-hand menu, using the “More filters” link to display the Licensing filters.
    • 3. Try selecting one of these license filters: “CC BY”, “CC BY-NC”, or “CC BY-NC-SA.”
  • WP Beginner’s 16 Sources for Free Public Domain and CC0 Images
  • YouTube Creative Commons:
    • 1. Enter desired topic in the search box and hit Enter key.
    • 2. Select the “FILTER” link at top left of results.
    • 3. Select “Creative Commons” filter under the “Features” heading.
  • YouTube Audio Library
• OER Simulations
  • Arthur Lakes Library, Colorado School of Mines provides an extensive list of free simulations and virtual labs.
  • GeoGebra dynamic mathematics and STEM education software and simulations (scroll for featured resources; explore the site for more)
  • GeoGebra Statistics simulations
  • Free offline GeoGebra apps
  • Univ. of Colorado PhET Interactive Simulations for Science & Math.
• Open Software
  • Audacity audio recording and editing software.
  • Blender 3D graphics and animation tool.
  • Gimp image Editor.
  • Inkscape vector graphics editor.
  • Open Broadcaster Software OBS Studio< video recording and live streaming software.
  • PHP software development language for websites and other digital platforms.
  • Python programming and scripting language.
  • Shotcut video and audio editor.
  • VLC Media Player.
• Open Textbooks and Books
  • BCcampus OpenEd Textbook Collection
  • HathiTrust Digital Library
  • Open Book Publishers
  • Open Course Library
  • Open Textbook Library at the University of Minnesota
  • openstax™ at Rice University
  • Project Gutenberg

• Essential Skills for IDs
• DiFranza, A. (2021). 11 top instructional design skills. Northeastern University Graduate Programs. [Northeastern Univ. graduate blog providing both practical and soft skills.]
• Larson, M. B., & Lockee, B. B. (2009). Preparing instructional designers for different career environments: A case study. Educational Technology Research and Development, 57(1), 1-24.
• Stefaniak, J., Maddrell, J., Earnshaw, Y., & Hale, P. (2018). The evolution of designing e-service-learning projects: A look at the development of instructional designers. International Journal of Designs for Learning, 9(1), 122-134.
• Click to view external links

• Evaluating Existing Resources and Web Resources
  As an instructional designer, part of your job involves judging the authority, credibility and value of web resources. Most university libraries have links to material on how to evaluate web resources. Here are two excellent sites to get you started:
• Northern Michigan University’s Evaluating Internet Sources resource guide. (2018)
• Spoof site for use in illustrating website authority
• Virginia Tech’s OER Information Skills resources
• Click to view external links

• Gathering and Writing Content
• Enslen, S. (2021). Ten best practices for technical writing and editing. PerfectIt
• Maladmed, C. (n.d.). Supercharge your writing for instructional design. The eLearning Coach blog.
• Plain English Campaign. (2021). Plain English campaign. [Website for the organization with a wealth of helpful resources for writing.]
• Simon, M. (2018). 6 tech writing tips for instructional designers. [eLearning Industry blog article.]
• U.S. General Services Administration. (n.d.). The Plain Language Action and Information Network (PLAIN). [U.S. government website with guidelines and resources for clear communication in government writing.]
• Click to view external links

• Interactivity and Levels of Interaction
• Schone, B. J. (2012). Engaging interactions for eLearning: 25 ways to keep learners awake and intrigued.
• Volika, S. (2017). Schone’s engaging interactions for eLearning: A review. [Web review and summary of previous resource.]
• Click to view external links

• Multimedia Theory and Design
• Dukes, F., Emory, B., Garcia, D., Saylor, T., Spencer, M., Thull, C., Ramlatchan, M. (ed.). (2021 and 2019). Instructional message design: Theory, research, and practice, vol. 1 & 2.Licensed as:CC-BY-NC-ND 3.0. Download chapters at: https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/instructional_message_design/
• Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 43-52.
• Click to view external links

• Production Methods and Job Aids
• Abd-Hamid, N. H., & Walkner, L. (2017). Evidence-based best practices in designing and developing quality eLearning for the public health and health care workforce. Pedagogy in Health Promotion, 3(1S), 35S–39S.
• Adobe. (2021). Adobe color wheel and color palette generator.
• Baron, D. (2019). Are you supporting user-generated learning content? Here’s why you should be. [Web article from Training Industry.]
• Blake, A. (2020). How to screen record on a Mac. [Techradar.com article.]
• George, A, & Parrish, K. (2021). How to record your computer screen. [Digital Trends web article with options for Windows 10, MacOS and Chrome OS.]
• Lynch & Horton (2016). Web style guide. 4th ed. New Haven, CT: Yale University. Available
• Jones, M. G. & Harris, L. (2021). Audio and video production for instructional design professionals. In J. K. McDonald & R. E. West (Eds.), Design for learning: Principles, processes, and praxis. EdTech Books.
• Kehrli, J. (2017). Periodic table of agile principles and practices. [Blog article with additional links.]
• Kuhlmann, T. (2011). 7 secrets to getting the graphics you need for rapid e-learning.
• Kuhlmann, T. (2021). Understanding effective e-learning.
• Laukkonen, J. (2021). How to make a podcast. [Web tutorial.]
• Ludington, J. (2008). DIY portable recording studio. [YouTube do-it-yourself video on a simple audio recording studio design.]
• Ohio State. (n.d.). Storyboard resources. [Web article.]
• Pilgrim, M. (2021). Dive into HTML5. [Web tutorial licensed under CC-BY-3.0] At: http://diveintohtml5.info/
• Smashing Magazine. (n.d.). Smashing Magazine. [Website and eBook publisher that is one of the largest and most active publishers of web design and development resources.]
• Click to view external links

• Sources of Free Production Tools and Templates (or instructions for using common software to create content)
• Articulate. (n.d.). 18 e-learning storyboard templates and examples #251. [Articulate community recap of design challenge #251.]
• Audacity Open Source audio editing software.
• Byrne, R. (2020). Five tools for creating storyboards to plan videos and presentations. [Free Technology for Teachers blog post.]
• Diagram Designer. (2018). Free flowchart and diagram vector graphics editor.
• Emojipedia. (n.d.). Home of emoji. [Emoji reference website.]
• Instructure. (n.d.). Canvas ready-made template suite. [Explore examples of course templates available for Canvas LMS.]
• Kapuler, D. (2020). Top 10 sites for creating a digital portfolio. [Blog article on digital portfolio tools.]
• Kingslien, S. & Austin, N. (2020). Microsoft Sway: Build interactive and how-to presentations that don’t require a presenter! [Video how-to; ~33 minutes.]
• Malamed, C. (n.d.). Multimedia. [Connie Malamed’s eLearning Coach website listing and links to articles on developing multimedia.]
• Moore, C. (n.d.). Twine: Free editor for planning branching scenarios. [Web article and download links.]
• Open Studio from Open Broadcaster Software (OBS) – open source software for video recording, editing, and live streaming.
• Oddcast. (2021). Sitepal. [Create a speaking avatar. Free trial.]
• Online file conversion tools: ZAMZAR and FileWiggler
• Pappas, C. (2012). Ulimate list of free storyboard templates for eLearning. [eLearning Industry blog article.]
• QR Code Monkey – Free QR code generator.
• Restifo, D. for Tech & Learning. (2021). Best Free Sites for Creating a Chart or Graph to visually present data.
• Slideteam.net. (2021). Free presentations, other templates, and blog articles.
• SourceForge open source software.
• Teleprompter Mirror. (2021). Best Windows teleprompter software (for 2021). [Web article and videos on resources.]
• University of Central Florida’s Center for Distributed Learning. (2021). Materia. [A free, open source interactive widget creator.] Available at: https://materia.ucf.edu/ and GitHub’s Materia materials at: https://github.com/ucfopen/Materia
• University of Central Florida’s Center for Distributed Learning. (2021). Obojobo. [A multifaceted interface that is both a repository and a collaborative medium, capable of building, containing and utilizing instructional components.]
• Click to view external links

• Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
• CAST.org (2021). Universal design for learning (UDL) interactive guidelines.
• Moore, E. (2021). Innospire education. [Blog by well-known UDL advocate, Eric Moore.]
• University of Tennessee, Knoxville. (2021). Incorporating Universal Design for Learning (UDL) into Canvas courses. [Video providing specific examples of how to incorporate the UDL checkpoints into instruction.]
• Click to view external links

• Usability and Other Testing
• Craig, W. (n.d.) 10 usability tips based on research studies. [WebFX blog article]
• Instone, K. (n.d.). Keith Instone’s navigation stress test.
• Nielsen, J. (1994; updated 2020). 10 usability heuristics for user interface design. [Jakob Nielsen’s classic list of principles for interaction design, on the Nielsen Norman Group website.]
• U.S. General Services Administration. (2021). Usability.gov: Improving the user experience. [U.S. Government site on usability] At: https://www.usability.gov/ AND https://www.usability.gov/how-to-and-tools/methods/usability-testing.html
• Click to view external links

BLOOM’S STRETCH EXERCISES & JOB AIDS

The following Bloom Stretch exercises supplement those included in Streamlined ID: Chapter 13 – Implementation (2nd edition).

Apply

Apply Project Management Knowledge to Plan for Team Collaboration and Communication. Apply what you have learned about effective project management and teamwork from Chapter 13 of Streamlined ID to identify a collaboration and communication plan for a team working on an instructional design project. Use this example of a project Gantt schedule and these teamwork collaboration and communication instructions to guide the development of your plan.

Analyze

Analyze implementation for face-to-face versus hybrid instruction. Review the information on implementation in Chapter 13 of Streamlined ID (2020) and then analyze this example of an implementation guide and template for a face-to-face unit of instruction on a technical topic. Suppose your supervisor has just asked you to analyze the feasibility of offering the training via a hybrid (face-to-face AND online) delivery. Identify the content that could be offered online and the content that must continue to be treated in a face-to-face environment. Then, identify which portions of the implementation guide would be retained if the instruction was delivered in a hybrid mode, and which additional elements should be added to the guide to address the online portions of the training.

Evaluate

Evaluate Your Readiness for Implementation. You can use the Implementation Checklist from Chapter 13 of Streamlined ID (2020) to evaluate the readiness of your instruction for implementation. Go through the checklist to determine whether you have considered and planned for all applicable schedule factors, technical and instructional support needs, promotion of adoption, guidelines and resources for those implementing and supporting the deployment, communication plans, facilitator training needs, and all logistical arrangements.

Create

Create a Project Scope or Design Document. Seeking stakeholder approval of your design and production plans in advance of starting the production process can save time and money in the long run. Use this project scope report example and this design plan checklist from Chapter 13 of Streamlined ID (2020) for guidance, and then create your own scope/design document for stakeholder review for your instructional design project.

DIVING DEEPER WITH RECOMMENDED READINGS & WEB LINKS

Check out the additional resources listed below for more information on topics covered in Streamlined ID: Chapter 13 – Implementation

Books, Book Chapters, Articles

• Implementation Best Practices
• Tobin, T. J., Mandernach, B. J., & Taylor, A. H. (2015). Evaluating online teaching: Implementing best practices. Jossey-Bass/John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Fisher, D., Frey, N., & Hattie, J. (2016). Visible learning for literacy: Implementing the practices that work best to accelerate student learning. (Grades K-12). Corwin.
• Gawande, A. (2010). The checklist manifesto: How to get things right. Picador.
• Hanna, D. E. (2000). 147 practical tips for teaching online groups: Essentials of web-based education. Atwood.
• Ko, S., & Rossen, S. (2017). Teaching online: A practical guide. (4th ed.). Routledge.
• Lehman, R. M., & Berg, R. A. (2007). 147 practical tips for synchronous and blended technology teaching and learning. Atwood.
• Pallogg, R. M., & Pratt, K. (2007). Building online learning communities. Jossey-Bass.
• Taylor, D. H. (2017). Learning technologies in the workplace: How to successfully implement learning technologies in organizations. Kogan Page Limited.
• Vai, M., & Sosulski, K. (2015). Essentials of online course design: A standards-based guide. (2nd ed.) Routledge.

• Strategies for Differentiation, Universal Design for Learning, and Accessibility
• Black, J., & Moore, E. J. (2019). UDL navigators in higher education: A field guide. CAST.org.
• Tomlinson, C. A. (2017). How to differentiate instruction in academically diverse classrooms. (3rd edition). Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

• Classroom Management
• Fay, J., & Fay, C. (2016). Teaching with love and logic: Taking control of the classroom. (2nd edition). Love and Logic Institute, Inc.
• Marzano, R. J., Marzano, J. S., & Pickering, D. (2003). Classroom management that works: Research-based strategies for every teacher. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
• Wong, H. K., Wong, R. Z., Jondahl, S. F., & Ferguson, O. F. (2018). THE first days of school: How to be an effective teacher. (5th edition). Harry K. Wong Publications.
• Wong, H. K., Wong, R. Z., Jondahl, S. F., & Ferguson, O. F. (2018). THE classroom management book. (2nd edition). Harry K. Wong Publications.

• Project Management and Teamwork
• Abdous, M. & He, W. (2008). Streamlining the online course development process by using project management tools. The Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 9(2), 181-188.
• Allen, M. W. (2012). Leaving ADDIE for SAM: An agile model for developing the best learning experiences. ASTD.
• Allen, S., & Hardin, P.C. (2008). Developing instructional technology products using effective project management practices. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 19(2), 72-97.
• Greer, M. (2011). The project management minimalist: Just enough PM to rock your projects! (2nd ed.) Michael Greer's PM Resources.
• Martins, L. L., Gilson, L. L., & Maynard, M. T. (2004). Virtual teams: What do we know and where do we go from here? Journal of Management, 30(6), 805–835.
• Torrance, M. (2019). Agile for instructional designers: Iterative project management to achieve results. ATD.

Websites, Web Articles, Videos, eBooks, e-Chapters, and Podcasts

• Implementation and Implementation Planning
• Abhishek, G., & Senthilkumar, C. B. (2016). Effective training delivery methodology for corporate employees. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, 7(3), 46-50.
• Alang, N. (2019, April 23). The lure of learning analytics. University Affairs. [blog article] At:
• Carnegie Mellon University Eberly Center. (2021). Teaching principles. [Website on effective teaching principles.]
• EDUCAUSE. (n.d.). Learning analytics at:
• Iowa State University. (2020). Course delivery modes. [Job aid for selecting a course delivery mode.]
• Moskal, P., Carter, D., & Johnson, D. (2017). 7 things you should know about adaptive learning. EDUCAUSE. At:
• Nash, S. S. (2021). E-Learning corgi. [Edu-blog on e-learning and appropriate uses of emerging technologies] At:
• Penn State University Online Faculty Engagement Subcommittee. (2011). Faculty competencies for online teaching. [Web resource on pedagogical, technical, and administrative competencies for online teaching.]
• University of Minnesota. (2018). Guidelines for online teaching and design. [Open source book developed by TeachingSupport@UMN.edu and Faculty Development for Online Teaching task group; licensed as CC BY-SA 4.0.] Available at:https://pressbooks.umn.edu/guidelinesforonlineteaching/
• University of Tennessee, Knoxville. (n.d.). Online instructor toolkit: Delivery online course. [Fourth section of web resources on designing online courses.]
• Click to view external links

• Implementation Challenges
• Bailenson, J. N. (2021). Nonverbal overload: A theoretical argument for the causes of Zoom fatigue. Technology, Mind, and Behavior, 2(1). DOI 10.1037/tmb0000030
• Martin, M. M. (2021). The bamboo project. [Blog on building resilience personally and in organizations.]
• Ramachandran, V. (2021). Stanford researchers identify four causes for ‘Zoom fatigue’ and their simple fixes. [Stanford News article.]
• Thalheimer, W. (2016). Instructional designers’ serenity prayer. [Web article on things IDs can change, those they cannot change, and wisdom to know the difference.]
• Click to view external links

• Project Management, Teamwork, and Productivity Tools
• Galbraith, D. D., & Webb, F. L. (2013). Teams that work: Preparing student teams for the workplace. American Journal of Business Education, 6(2), 223-234.
• Gaul, P. (2019). 5 critical ISD challenges – and how you can address them. [Web article on the ATD site.]
• Larmore, S. (2011). Subject matter expert: Working toward ensuring value in a project organization. Master of Science thesis in Organizational Dynamics, University of Pennsylvania.
• Innovative Learner. (2020). How to make a Gantt chart in Excel. [YouTube tutorial on using Excel to create a Gantt chart schedule.]
• Vertex42. (2020). How to create a Gantt chart in Google Sheets. [YouTube tutorial on using Google Sheets to create a Gantt chart schedule.]
• Wiley, D., et al. (2012). Project management for instructional designers (PM4ID). (2nd ed.) [Open source textbook for instructional design project management; licensed as CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 .] Available at: https://pm4id.org/ AND https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/project-management-for-instructional-designers
• Workflow Designer. Free workflow chart creation tool – for Windows only.
• Click to view external links

BLOOM’S STRETCH EXERCISES & JOB AIDS

The following Bloom Stretch exercises supplement those included in Streamlined ID: Chapter 14 – Implementation (2nd edition).

Apply

Customize Your Level 1 (Reaction) Evaluation Measure. The value of post-instruction Level 1 (learner reaction) surveys have been hotly debated by some in the field (Thalheimer, 2016). Collecting reaction data from learners is considered self-report data, and its accuracy is therefore questionable (due to the risk of learners telling you what they think you want to know). If collected anonymously, however, it can sometimes provide information that you can use in your revision process. You can customize this Level 1 Evaluation Checklist from Chapter 14 of Streamlined ID (2020) to obtain feedback from your target audience on specific features of your instruction.

Analyze

Analyze Learning Experiences to Identify Evaluation Criteria. Prior to designing successful instruction that accomplishes its purpose, it’s important to mindfully consider exactly what makes instruction effective. You can begin the process of defining what constitutes effective instruction by considering the learning experiences you’ve had across your lifespan. This analysis exercise on Successful Learning Experiences can help you start that process.

Evaluate

Evaluate Instruction by Calculating ROI. Calculating the Return on Investment (ROI) for training and instruction can be done in several ways. Your organization may have a preferred method, but if not, educate yourself on the options by using any of the web resources provided below under ROI and then try your hand at calculating the ROI of a real or hypothetical instructional development project. When completing a cost-benefit analysis or ROI for training, answer these questions:

1. What are the direct costs for everyone involved in all phases of the design and delivery of the instructional project?
2. What are the indirect costs (e.g., loss of sales or production, travel and accommodations for the training or instruction, etc.)?
3. What bottom-line benefits have been realized for similar programs in your organization?
4. What are the forecasted benefits of the instructional or training program?

Create

Create Your Own Evaluation Plan. Take a shot at planning for continuous improvement by planning for the evaluation of your instructional designs as early as possible in the process. You can learn more about continuous improvement methods and evaluation metrics by checking out the web resources listed below (such as those listed for the ASQ website). Then, use Tables 14.1 and 14.3 from Streamlined ID (2020) as guidance and this blank Kirkpatrick’s Four Level Evaluation Template to design an evaluation plan for your own unit of instruction, identifying the key questions your evaluation measures should address and the measures you will implement for the different Kirkpatrick levels.

DIVING DEEPER WITH RECOMMENDED READINGS & WEB LINKS

Check out the additional resources listed below for more information on topics covered in Streamlined ID: Chapter 14 – Evaluation

Books, Book Chapters, Articles

• Evaluation Measurement Tools, Models, and Job Aids
• Doerr, J. (2018). Measure what matters: How Google, Bono, and the Gates Foundation rock the world with OKRs. Portfolio/Penguin Random House LLC.
• Kaufman, R., Guerra, I., & Platt, W. A. (2006). Practical evaluation for educators: Finding what works and what doesn′t. Corwin Press.
• Kirkpatrick, D. L., & Kirkpatrick, J. D. (2006). Evaluating training programs: The four levels. (3rd ed.). Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
• Kirkpatrick, J. D., & Kirkpatrick, W. K. (2016). Kirkpatrick’s four levels of training evaluation. ATD.
• Preskill, H., & Russ-Eft, D. (2005). Building evaluation capacity: 72 activities for teaching and training. Sage.
• Russ-Eft, D., & Preskill, H. (2009). Evaluation in organizations: A systematic approach to enhancing learning, performance and change. (2nd ed.). Basic Books.
• Thalheimer, W. (2016). Performance-focused smile sheets: A radical rethinking of a dangerous art form. Work-Learning Press.

• Quality Assurance/Quality Control
• Valai, A., Schmidt-Crawford, D. A., & Moore, K. J. (2019). Quality indicators for distance learning: A literature review in learners’ perceptions. International Journal on E-Learning, 18(1), 103-124.

• Return on Investment (ROI)
• Phillips, J. J. (2003). Return on investment in training and performance improvement programs. (2nd ed.). Routledge.

Websites, Web Articles, Videos, eBooks, e-Chapters, and Podcasts

• Evaluation Measurement Tools and Job Aids
• Means, B., Toyama, Y., Murphy, R., Bakia, M., & Jones, K. (2010). Evaluation of evidence-based practices in online learning: A meta-analysis and review of online learning studies. U.S. DOE.
• Scriven, M. (1996). Types of evaluation and types of evaluator. Evaluation Practice, 17(2), 151-161.
• Thalheimer, W. (2018). The learning-transfer evaluation model: Sending messages to enable learning effectiveness.
• Thalheimer, W. (n.d.). Resources and learning. [Will Thalheimer provides a wealth of evaluation-related research-to-practice reports, job aids, articles, chapters, podcasts, videos, etc.]
• Thalheimer, W. at Learning Technologies 2019 Conference. (2019). Learning evaluation. [Video, 1:10:23 length]
• Thalheimer, W. (2021). Work-learning research. [Blog on research-based learning evaluation.]
• Click to view external links

• Course and Instructional Materials Evaluation
• Online Learning Consortium (OLC). OLC quality scorecard suite. [Scorecards for online instruction and programs.]
• State University of New York (SUNY). (n.d.). OSCQR: SUNY online course quality review rubric. [Open source course evaluation rubric licensed as CC BY 4.0.] Available at: https://oscqr.suny.edu/
• Virginia Tech. (2019). Course material evaluation worksheet. [Evaluation worksheet in Excel format.]
• Click to view external links

• Quality Assurance/Quality Control
• ASQ. (n.d.). ASQ website. [The American Society for Quality, ASQ, is a global quality-focused organization that had its roots in efforts to sustain quality of manufacturing during World War II. The site provides a wealth of resources on the topic.]
• An essential aspect of quality assurance and quality control is the concept of continuous improvement, one of the five streamlining principles promoted in Streamlined ID (2020). You can glean a wealth of information and guidance on ASQ’s continuous improvement page, where there are also links to information and resources on the related topics of: leadership, Lean (management practices to promote efficiency and effectiveness), the Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) cycle, Six Sigma (a set of techniques and tools for process improvement), Statistical Process Control (SPC), and Total Quality Management (TQM).
• Quality Matters. (n.d.). QM – Quality Matters website. [Quality Matters is a global organization that establishes standards, guidelines, and resources for quality assurance in online and innovative digital teaching and learning environments.]
• Click to view external links

• Return on Investment (ROI)
• Check-n-click Learning and Technologies. (2020). ROI calculator for training investment. [Web tool.]
• Schueler, J., & Loveder, P. (2020). Understanding the return on investment from TVET: A practical guide. [Final deliverable from a multi-year research collaboration between the National Center for Vocational Education Research in Australia and UNESCO-UNEVOC’s International Center for Technical and Vocational Education).
• Negi, G. S. (2013). How to measure ROI (Return on Investment) of training programs in your organization? [Web article providing a comprehensive yet concise introduction to the topic and methods of ROI.]
• ROI Institute. (2021). ROI Institute Consulting website. [ROIT guru Jack Phillip’s institute providing resources and services.]
• Click to view external links