Student Resources

Table of Contents

An Introduction to Security Studies – Paul D. Williams and Matt McDonald

Part 1: Theoretical Approaches

    Traditional Approaches

  1. Realisms – Colin Elman and Michael Jensen
  2. Liberalisms – Cornelia Navari
  3. Constructivisms – Matt McDonald

    4. Critical Approaches

  4. Critical Theory – Pinar Bilgin
  5. Feminisms – Sandra Whitworth
  6. Post-Structuralisms – Linda Åhäll
  7. Securitization – Jonna Nyman
  8. Post-Colonialism – Nivi Manchanda

    9. Part 2: Key Concepts

  9. Uncertainty – Ken Booth and Nicholas J. Wheeler
  10. Polarity – Barry Buzan
  11. Culture – Michael N. Barnett
  12. War – Paul D. Williams
  13. Coercion – Lawrence Freedman and Srinath Rhagavan
  14. Peace and Violence – Helen Dexter
  15. Human Security – Gunhild Hoogensen Gjørv
  16. Responsibility to Protect – Alex J. Bellamy
  17. Development – Danielle Beswick

    18. Part 3: Institutions

  18. Alliances – John Duffield
  19. Regional Institutions – Louise Fawcett
  20. The United Nations – Thomas G. Weiss and Danielle Zach Kalbacher
  21. Peace Operations – Michael Pugh
  22. The Nuclear Disarmament and Non-Proliferation Regime – W. Pal Sidhu
  23. Private Security Companies – Deborah Avant

    24. Part 4: Contemporary Challenges

  24. Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity – Adam Jones
  25. Ethnic Conflict – Stuart J. Kaufman
  26. Terrorism – Paul Rogers
  27. Counterterrorism – Paul R. Pillar
  28. Counterinsurgency – Joanna Spear
  29. Intelligence – Richard J. Aldrich
  30. Transnational Organized Crime – Phil Williams
  31. International Arms Trade – William D. Hartung
  32. Migration and Refugees – Sita Bali
  33. Energy Security – Michael T. Klare
  34. Women, Peace and Security – Aisling Swaine
  35. Environmental Change – Simon Dalby
  36. Health – Colin McInnes
  37. Cyber Security – Rhea Siers
  38. Outer Space – Audra Mitchell

Chapter 1: Realisms

Michael A. Jensen and Colin Elman

Abstract

In this chapter, students will learn about the various strands of the realist research tradition and their different approaches to security studies: classical realism, neorealism, rise and fall, neoclassical, offensive structural, and defensive structural realism. Although sharing a pessimistic outlook about the continuity of inter-group strife, each of these research programmes is rooted in different assumptions and provides different explanations for the causes and consequences of armed conflict. These differences are illustrated with reference to what the contemporary strands of realism anticipate will happen in international politics as China’s power continues to grow.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Feature films with realist themes

Keywords

Anarchy; power; security dilemma; structure; self-help; balance of power; offence/defence balance; power transition.

Essay and exam questions

  • Classical realism and variants of structural realism explain conflict with different emphases on dispositional factors (human nature) and situational ones (the security dilemma). Which of these sources of conflict do you find more convincing and why?
  • Defensive realism posits that the world is a relatively safe place. Do you agree with defensive realism’s assessment of the state of international relations? If defensive realists are right, why do wars still occur?
  • Do you agree with offensive structural realists that the best way for states to stay safe is to acquire as much power as possible?
  • Rise and fall realists generally argue that international political change is the result of differential growth. Is this dynamic universal, or does it only apply in particular time periods and/or particular places?
  • With its use of domestic-level variable, is neoclassical realism a more powerful approach than other forms of realism, such as offensive or defensive structural realism?
  • Do dynamics such as terrorism and unconventional war render realism irrelevant to the study of modern international security?
  • Drawing on at least one variant of realism, examine whether a conflict between China and the United States is inevitable.

Chapter 2: Liberalisms

Cornelia Navari

Abstract

In this chapter, students will learn about liberal approaches to security. Liberalism has been a predominant approach to thinking about security, in America since the end of the First World War and in Europe since the end of the Cold War and before among dissident groups. Often simplified as ‘democratize and secure human rights’, there are several distinct liberal traditions, which the student should be aware of. Classic liberalism, as put forward by US president Woodrow Wilson, did argue that if world order were reconstructed along the lines of the American democracy, peace would ensue, and it has been reproduced in the contemporary idea of the ‘democratic transition’. Liberal institutionalists have argued, on the contrary, that ‘internal democracy’ is not enough and that liberal states must be supported by strengthened liberal alliances and liberal international organizations, while ‘economic’ liberals argue that free trade is the key to an enduring peace.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Feature films with liberal themes

Keywords

Liberalism; Kant; douce commerce; democratic transition; liberal institutionalism; security community; intervention.

Essay and exam questions

  • How far would you say that Kant’s conditions for peace have been achieved in the contemporary world order?
  • Why are liberal democratic states more likely to prefer peace to war?
  • In your view, has NATO been successfully transformed into a ‘security community’?
  • What are the arguments for considering ‘free’ or open trade as the key to peace?
  • What is the ‘anarchical condition’, and why do liberal institutionalists insist that liberal states cannot avoid war so long as international relations are in such a condition?
  • What are the arguments behind the claim that international organizations can help in preserving peace?
  • Is military intervention inevitable in establishing a durable liberal peace?

Chapter 3: Constructivisms

Matt McDonald

Abstract

In this chapter, students will learn about constructivist approaches to security. Constructivism has become an increasingly prominent theoretical approach to International Relations since its emergence in the 1980s. Focusing on the role of ideational factors and the social construction of world politics, it is perhaps best described as a broader social theory, which then informs how we might approach the study of security. This chapter draws out key contributions of constructivist thought that have been applied to security studies. It introduces students to the idea of security as socially constructed before examining constructivist concerns with ideational factors such as norms and identity. The chapter then outlines what can be gained through understanding security as the product of processes of negotiation and contestation, and by approaching the relationship between agents and structures in the international system as mutually constitutive.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Introducing Constructivism

Feature films with Constructivist themes

Case Study: Constructing the war in Iraq

Keywords

Construction; negotiation and contestation; identity; norms; change; mutual constitution.

Essay and exam questions

  • What does it mean to define security as ‘socially constructed’?
  • What does it mean to approach security as a site of negotiation and contestation?
  • Do you agree with Alexander Wendt’s claim that structures and agents mutually constituted? How would this apply to the study of security in international relations?
  • Using examples, discuss the role of history and identity in influencing the way states view and approach national security.
  • Using examples, discuss the role of norms in influencing global security practices.
  • Did political leaders in the US, UK and Australia have to ‘sell’ military intervention in Iraq in 2003 to domestic constituencies? Were they successful?

Chapter 4: Critical theory

Pinar Bilgin

Abstract

In this chapter, students will learn about the critical approach to security studies which takes Gramscian and Frankfurt School critical theory as its guiding framework. This approach is also known as the ‘Aberystwyth School’ or ‘emancipatory realism’. The chapter begins by tracing the origins of critical security studies. It then explores the key concepts of approaches to security that have been inspired by critical theory, using empirical illustrations from regions such as the Middle East and Southern Africa, and issues such as nuclear weapons, ‘state failure’ and the post-9/11 prospects for emancipation in the Muslim world.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Interviews with critical theorists of IR

Podcasts

Documentaries with critical theory and Middle East security themes

Keywords

Emancipation; theory/practice; praxis; state failure; statism; state-centric; emancipatory realism.

Essay and exam questions

  • What is distinctive about critical theory approaches to security?
  • What does it mean to understand security as a ‘derivative concept’? Can you think of examples of security conceptions derived from philosophies different than your own?
  • How does defining security in terms of emancipation contribute to thinking and/or practicing security critically?
  • Can you think of examples of critical theory approaches to security in world political practice?
  • Should theorists of security be concerned with changing the world for the better?

Chapter 5: Feminisms

Sandra Whitworth

Abstract

In this chapter, students will learn about a number of feminist perspectives and the kinds of questions they raise about international security. It also examines some of the empirical research conducted by feminists around questions of security, including work that focuses on the impacts of armed conflict on women, the ways in which women are actors during armed conflict, and the gendered associations of war-planning and foreign policy-making. The argument here is that, whichever feminist perspective one adopts, greater attention to gender – the prevailing ideas and meanings associated with masculinity and femininity rather than the facts of biological differences between men and women – enriches our understanding and expectations associated with international security.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Feature films and television

Talks

Keywords

Gender; femininity; masculinity; women; exclusion.

Essay and exam questions

  • What does a focus on gender bring to our understanding of international security dynamics?
  • Where are the women in dominant accounts of security in international relations?
  • How are femininity and masculinity constructed through militarism and conflict?
  • War is fought by men, for women (and children). Critically evaluate this claim.
  • In what ways are women targeted in armed conflict? Why?
  • Should women be equally able to join the armed forces and participate in combat? Why/why not?

Chapter 6: Post-structuralism

Linda Åhäll

Abstract

In this chapter, students will learn about some basic principles of poststructuralist critique as it relates to security studies. By asking what? where? and how? the chapter captures sights, sites and insights of poststructuralist interventions in security studies. The first section focuses on sights: on how security is ‘seen’ when we put poststructuralist ‘lenses’ on. This involves analysing discursive power and understanding security as a logic informing war as practice. The second section focuses on sites of security practices. Here, poststructuralist critique is situated within the broader ‘aesthetic turn’ associated with the production of knowledge in academic International Relations. The third section explores how poststructuralist insights demonstrate that security is a logic informing war as practice using illustrations from women’s visibility in war and drone warfare. The chapter demonstrates how poststructuralist security studies not only fundamentally challenge what security itself might mean, but also open up for questioning where and how security is practised.

Websites and audio-visual resources

  • Histories of Violence – A great online resource centre for rethinking the problem of violence, including videos introducing key thinkers:

https://www.historiesofviolence.com

  • ‘I am an American’ – Professor Cynthia Weber’s film project challenging post-9/11 official narratives of multiculturalism. Short films available at:

https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCO5EWEV_oZGWpT65arLia7g 

  • The Disorder of Things – Blog by IR scholars, which in their own words is “For the Relentless Criticism of All Existing Conditions Since 2010”. Available at:

https://thedisorderofthings.com

  • Warscapes – An independent online magazine reporting from and about current conflicts across the world, using fiction, non-fiction, poetry, interviews, book and film reviews, photo-essays and retrospectives of war literature from the past fifty years:

http://www.warscapes.com

  • Iraq Body Count – An ongoing project that records the violent deaths that have resulted from the 2003 military intervention in Iraq. Available at:

https://www.iraqbodycount.org

  • Watch the Mediterranean Sea – An online mapping platform to monitor the deaths and violations of migrants’ rights at the maritime borders of the EU. Available at:

http://www.watchthemed.net

  • #NotABugSplat – An art project in Pakistan visualising and thereby humanising victims of drone attacks, by ‘speaking back’ to drone operators. Available on Twitter and https://notabugsplat.com
  • #BlackLivesMatter – Movement created as a result of police violence and anti-Black racism in the USA. A useful way of thinking about what happens when those who are supposed to ensure security in reality might be a source of insecurity. Available at: http://blacklivesmatter.com

Feature films exploring relevant post-structural themes

Case study: How discourse analysis helped win a Nobel Peace Prize

Keywords

Representation; discourse; power/knowledge; security logics; critique.

Essay and exam questions

  • How does ‘security’ operate as a discourse constituting fear and insecurity?
  • How does a logic of security function in discourses on migration?
  • What is power? Discuss with reference to two current security issues.
  • How do discourses on terrorism produce a particular terrorist subject-body? What bodies are made invisible?
  • How is visual language political in understandings of security threats?
  • How does the power/knowledge nexus work in official memorializations of war? Whose war experiences are remembered/valued and whose are not?

Chapter 7: Securitization

Jonna Nyman

Abstract

In this chapter, students will learn about the concept and theory of ‘securitization’ and the major debates it has stimulated. Securitization refers to a process whereby issues are presented as security threats and, if relevant audiences accept these representations, emergency measures are enabled to deal with them. An increasingly prominent approach to the study of security in International Relations, it promises a move away from developing an abstract definition of security, instead suggesting the need to explore the process through which security is given meaning in political practice. The chapter begins by summarizing the evolution of securitization theory after the Cold War and introduces the central contributions of the approach, before drawing out the key debates within and about securitization.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Introducing securitization

Feature films with securitization themes

Case study: climate change

Keywords

Securitization; speech-act; referent object; audience; context; sectors; facilitating conditions; desecuritization.

Essay and exam questions

  • To what extent do you agree with the Copenhagen School’s claim that security is a ‘speech-act’?
  • How ‘critical’ is securitization theory?
  • Should we securitize climate change?
  • Is securitization theory Western-centric?
  • Does securitization theory lack a normative agenda?
  • Is security the opposite of politics?
  • Using an example of your own choosing, what are the implications of securitizing a particular issue?

Chapter 8: Postcolonialism

Nivi Manchanda

Abstract

In this chapter, students will learn about postcolonialism as an increasingly prominent theoretical approach to security in International Relations. Focusing on the lasting legacy of empire and the perpetuation of hierarchies between the Global North and South, postcolonialism is best understood as an approach or orientation rather than one coherent theory, or even school of thought. Postcolonial thought is inherently interdisciplinary and while there is no postcolonial school of security studies, nonetheless it provides important insights for students of security. This chapter engages postcolonial thought in the field of security by focusing on key moments in the development of postcolonial thought and the work of postcolonial thinkers. It highlights both shared assumptions and important differences between proponents while stressing the myriad ways in which postcolonialism can enrich our understanding of security through its sensitivity to questions of colonial legacies, racism and inequality.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Feature films

Documentaries

Films on the three scholars in Chapter 8

Keywords

Empire; power; race; ‘othering’; Frantz Fanon; Edward Said; Gayatri Spivak.

Essay and exam questions

  • Define postcolonialism. Can it be considered an International Relations theory?
  • ‘The security of the “self” always depends on the insecurity of the “other”.’ Discuss.
  • ‘The United States is behaving increasingly like a colonial power, especially after 9/11.’ Do you agree with this statement? Why or why not?
  • Why was Frantz Fanon such an important thinker? Are any of his insights still relevant today?
  • Why do postcolonial scholars call mainstream International Relations ‘Eurocentric’? Do you agree with their assessment?
  • Does Tarak Barkawi or Mohammed Ayoob better capture the contemporary security landscape? Elaborate with examples.
  • What is ‘intersectionality’? How is it relevant to security studies?
  • ‘Postcolonial theory is pessimistic and doesn’t offer any concrete proposals to make the world more secure.’ Is this an accurate representation of Fanon, Said and Spivak?

Chapter 9: Uncertainty

Ken Booth and Nicholas J. Wheeler

Abstract

Existential uncertainty lies at the heart of all human relations, even if it is not recognized or acknowledged. In the arena of international politics, it is manifest, most fundamentally, in the concept of the ‘security dilemma’. This chapter examines the concept’s meaning and explores its practical dynamics, giving illustrations from history and current dangers. It argues that if security studies are to fulfil their potential in the twenty-first century, understanding the security dilemma and assessing all its policy dimensions must be given a central place in the syllabus.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Key databases for tracking the strategic situation include

Feature films relevant to thinking about the security dilemma, strategic challenges, and the other minds problem

 
Some useful talks on key themes relating to uncertainty in international relations

Keywords

Uncertainty; common security; fatalist logic; fear; future; other minds problem; mitigator logic; perception/misperception; security/insecurity; security communities; security dilemma; transcender logic; trust/mistrust.

Essay and exam questions

  • What is the ‘security dilemma’ in international politics? How has it sometimes been misconceived in the relevant literature?
  • Which, in your view, is the most persuasive of the three main ‘logics’ relating to the security dilemma – the fatalist, mitigator, or transcender?  Defend it against the main criticisms likely to be employed by the other logics.
  • Is mistrust the ‘natural’ condition of humanity?
  • Does the condition of the EU and other international organizations suggest that cooperation between nation-states can only go so far?
  • If you described yourself as having a ‘transcender’ attitude to international politics, which of the various approaches to overcoming the dynamics of insecurity offers the most feasible and desirable way ahead?
  • Are there grounds for thinking that the world has never faced a more uncertain future? Or do you think that the conditions promise a future of growing peace and cooperation?
  • Could you imagine living in a world in which states have agreed to abolish nuclear weapons completely? If you can, what would it take to achieve that outcome?
  • Would a world without uncertainty be one in which you would not want to live?

Chapter 10: Polarity

Barry Buzan

Abstract

In this chapter, students will learn about the concept of polarity as it relates to security studies. It reviews the origins of the concept in neorealism, and its dependence on a distinction between great powers and all other states. It then looks at how polarity was used during the Cold War and post-Cold War debates in International Relations. Looking forward, the unipolarity debates basically set up two scenarios: either other rising powers will challenge the US as sole superpower, with a possible return to bi- or multipolarity; or the US will hang on as sole superpower, either dominating the system, or increasingly having to act as primus inter pares within a group of leading powers. The chapter questions these framings, arguing that in a truly global system, the simple distinction between superpowers and the rest does not work, and that the key distinction is among superpowers (globally operating), great powers (influential in more than one region) and regional powers (influential mainly within one region). This taxonomy opens the possibility of another scenario, a world with no superpowers, only great and regional ones.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Feature films on bipolarity and the Cold War

Talks

Keywords

Bipolarity; multipolarity; unipolarity; distribution of power; balance of power; superpower.

Essay and exam questions

  • Which constitutes a more stable international system: a unipolar, bipolar or multipolar world?
  • Why do realists generally suggest that multipolarity is likely to breed instability and conflict?
  • Can the Cold War – a period defined by bipolarity – be defined as a period of ‘long peace’? Why/why not?
  • What are the key trends in the distribution of power in the international system?
  • Are rising powers an inherent threat to international stability?
  • Is a world with no superpowers possible? Would it be safer?

Chapter 11: Culture

Michael N. Barnett

Abstract

This chapter explores the relationship between culture and security. It begins by summarizing why security scholars began to think that culture might shape processes of global and national security. One driving reason was the observation that some states were not behaving ‘rationally’ – hence culture must be getting in the way. This view of culture – as the cause of irrational or dysfunctional behaviour – limits our understanding for thinking about the relationship between culture and security processes. Instead, other definitions of culture see it as shaping who we are and what we want, as well as producing constraints on what we can do and what we think is appropriate. Culture is present in organizations, in societies and in global affairs. But the challenge is to clarify what we mean by culture and how we think it matters. Contrasting rational and cultural approaches to security, the rest of the chapter examines several important issue areas: (1) the importance of bureaucratic and organizational culture for understanding security issues such as military doctrine and evolution; (2) strategic culture; and (3) how organizational and global cultural factors influence peacekeeping operations.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Feature films with strategic culture

Talks

Case study: Culture of gender-based violence among peacekeepers

Keywords

Culture; strategic culture; rationality and irrationality; bureaucracies; strategy.

Essay and exam questions

  • What are the alternative ways of thinking about culture? Is culture another word for irrationality?
  • What is a military culture? How might it differ from a peacekeeping culture? 
  • Would the military culture be different if more women were in positions of power?
  • How do bureaucracies smother personal judgement and promote the organization’s interests? Is this good or bad for national security? 
  • Does it make sense to talk about a culture or many competing strategic cultures?
  • How can organizations change their culture?

Chapter 12: War

Paul D. Williams

Abstract

In this chapter, students will learn about the concept of war and how it continues to evolve in unpredictable ways. The chapter starts by providing an overview of different approaches to defining war before summarizing three prominent philosophies of warfare, described by Anatol Rapoport as the political, the eschatological and the cataclysmic. The chapter then examines the extent to which the processes of globalization have changed the character of warfare before briefly surveying the multiple domains in which war is now being waged. Historically, war has been waged principally by humans in particular geographical spaces. However, current trends see humans sharing these spaces and many war-related tasks with robots and forms of artificial intelligence. This is raising important questions about not just the strategies and tactics of war but also its nature and ethics. Finally, cyberspace and outer space are becoming more important domains of war as it continues to evolve.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Key databases for tracking trends in organized violence

Ten acclaimed feature films addressing key themes in war

Some useful talks on key themes in war

Some useful documentaries on key themes in war

Keywords

War; ‘new wars’; armed conflict; organized violence; armed forces; weapons; heroism; robots; cyberwar.

Essay and exam questions

  • Is war between human communities natural?
  • Can war be prevented?
  • Can war between states be prevented?
  • How should analysts measure organized violence?
  • Is organized violence worldwide in decline?
  • To what extent is Carl von Clausewitz’s thinking about warfare still relevant today?
  • To what extent has the character of armed conflict changed since the end of the Cold War?
  • In what ways are Mary Kaldor’s ‘new wars’ new?
  • How has globalization affected warfare?
  • Does cyberwar exist?

Chapter 13: Coercion

Lawrence Freedman and Srinath Rhagavan

Abstract

In this chapter, students will learn about coercion as a distinctive type of strategy, in which the intention is to use threats to put pressure on another actor to do something against their wishes (compellence) or not to do something they had planned to do (deterrence). The chapter considers the different forms coercion can take in terms of the ambition of the objective, the methods used (denial versus punishment) and the capacity of the target for counter-coercion. It also analyses how perceptions of an actor’s strategic environment are formed and the extent to which these perceptions are susceptible to targeted threats as part of another’s coercive strategy.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Coercion occurs in many international relationships and can be seen at work in a number of crises. A site that often explores the coercive aspects of these relationships (along with many other issues relevant to this volume) is War on the Rocks (https://warontherocks.com).

Feature films on coercion
Issues on coercion come up most regularly in films in connection with nuclear deterrence.

  • A good discussion involving many leading experts is found in On Deterrence (2017), a long documentary put together by the Sandia National Laboratories which covers the evolution of nuclear deterrence: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tQBLpJFi6f0

There have been a number of attempts to dramatize potential crises in which deterrence breaks down (often because of technical malfunction).

Current crises and coercion

Coercion has been prominent in discussions of the conflict over North Korea’s nuclear weapons and missile programme.

  • For good materials see this site of John Hopkins US-Korea Institute: http://www.38north.org/.
  • Articles include William McKinley, ‘Understanding North Korea’s Nuclear Coercion Strategy’, Foreign Affairs (March 2015).

Iran

  • For an article using Iran as an example see Robert Jervis, ‘Getting to Yes With Iran: The Challenges of Coercive Diplomacy’, Foreign Affairs, (January/February 2013).

India/Pakistan

Keywords

Coercion; deterrence; compellence; punishment and denial; reputation; nuclear weapons; terrorism.

Essay and exam questions

  • How would you describe the main difference between deterrence and compellence? Illustrate with examples.
  • With reference to a contemporary conflict discuss the alternative costs and benefits of attempting to coerce by means of either denial or punishment.
  • What do you think are the main limitations of terrorism as a coercive strategy? What are the main difficulties of deterring terrorism?
  • How important is a negotiating framework and the introduction of inducements to the success of a coercive strategy?
  • Do you think reputation is an important objective when pursuing a coercive strategy?

Chapter 14: Peace and violence

Helen Dexter

Abstract

In this chapter, students will learn about two concepts that are central to security studies and yet tend to receive little analysis in their own right: violence and peace. The chapter highlights that both concepts are complex and contested. Rather than try to settle on a definition of either, the chapter is structured around a series of questions that serve to explore the complex nature of violence and peace. As such the chapter asks: What is violence? How do we come to know it? Does violence work as a means of resistance? What does this mean for our understanding of peace? Finally, if there is no fixed definition of violence or peace – what does this mean for security studies?

Websites and audio-visual resources

Feature films that encourage critical thinking about violence

Feature films exploring themes of nonviolent resistance

Video games that encourage critical thinking about violence

  • Deus Ex (2000)
  • Far Cry 4 (2014)
  • Grand Theft Auto 5 (2013)

Keywords

Peace; violence; non-violence; security; resistance.

Essay and exam questions

  • What is violence?
  • Can there be politics without violence?
  • Is peace the opposite of war?
  • Critically explore the notion of ‘everyday violence’. In your answer, you may want to consider the theoretical, political and ethical implications of ‘everyday violence’.
  • What is peace and how might we measure it?
  • When is non-violent civil resistance likely to be successful?

Chapter 15: Human security

Gunhild Hoogensen Gjørv

Abstract

In this chapter students will learn about human security and the status of this concept in policy and research today. The popularization of human security through the UN Development Programme’s 1994 Human Development Report promised a revolutionary move in security studies, reorienting the focus on individuals rather than the states. The hopes that this concept would significantly change the course of security studies thinking did not come to fruition, at least not as some had hoped. States and international institutions adopted the concept but often for their own purposes, losing sight of individual, contextualized experiences of insecurity that were often brought about by these same states and institutions. Some critics of human security saw this development as the demise of an effective, non-state based security concept. However, other critics argue that it still has potential, and they continue to provide empirical evidence that recognizes the work non-state actors do in providing security and to influence the policy of states and international institutions. As such, the human security concept continues to be relevant to state and non-state actors alike.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Feature films on human security

Keywords

Human security; ‘everyday’ security; economic, environmental, community, personal, food, health, political security; human well-being.

Essay and exam questions

  • What role does human security play in the history of the concept of security?
  • What are the seven categories of human security identified in the 1994 United Nations Development Programme’s report?
  • What role do states play in operationalizing human security and how is this role potentially problematic?
  • What does a critical approach to human security bring to the security debate?
  • Who decides the definition of human security and why?
  • In what ways do gender/feminist security perspectives and human security coincide?
  • What human security concerns are relevant to the Arctic?

Chapter 16: The responsibility to protect

Alex J. Bellamy

Abstract

In this chapter, students will learn about the ‘responsibility to protect’ principle, which seeks to rethink the relationship between security, sovereignty and human rights. It looks at the origins of the principle, the politics behind its adoption by the UN in 2005, subsequent debates at the UN about its implementation, and its role in shaping international responses to major humanitarian crises. Key questions include whether sovereignty should entail the protection of a state’s population, whether states can be persuaded to take responsibility for protecting populations abroad, and what sorts of policies states should adopt in the face of mass atrocities.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Lectures

Feature films

  • Srebrenica – A Cry from the Grave (2011):

Trailer: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fliw801iX84
Film: http://www.srebrenica.org.uk/resources/research-resources/film-theatre/srebrenica-cry-grave/

Keywords

Genocide; war crimes; ethnic cleansing; crimes against humanity; prevention; intervention; peacebuilding.

Essay and exam questions

  • What problems was R2P meant to address?
  • Why did world leaders agree to adopt R2P despite their commitment to state sovereignty?
  • How, if at all, has the world’s response to mass atrocities changed over time?
  • What are the principal challenges associated with the implementation of R2P?
  • Can genocide and mass atrocities be prevented? If so, how?
  • Is military intervention sometimes a legitimate and effective response to genocide and mass atrocities?

Chapter 17: Development

Danielle Beswick

Abstract

In this chapter students will learn why processes of development are relevant for security studies. It first outlines the historical roots of development and summarizes the ‘Washington Consensus’, which has dominated international approaches to development since the 1980s. It then explains how development challenges have been viewed as major security threats at three broad and interrelated levels: international, state and individual (human). The chapter then analyses some of the main ways in which development and security have been linked in theory and practice. While few would disagree with development as an aim, the ways it is pursued in practice can create or compound insecurity for some of the poorest people in society. It can also increase the likelihood of violent conflict by marginalizing some groups at the expense of others, and by providing an environment in which armed groups can access funds and materials to support their campaigns, particularly through shadow economies.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Understanding poverty, security and development

Feature films which explore the relationship between security and development

Keywords

Development; poverty; human; marginalization; shadow networks.

Essay and exam questions

  • What are the implications of approaching development as a security issue?
  • To what extent is it useful to define states as developed or developing?
  • Using examples, discuss whether processes of development are inherently violent.
  • Using examples, consider whether development and security are mutually reinforcing.
  • What challenges does a ‘development–security nexus’ present for policymakers?
  • What challenges does a ‘development–security nexus’ present for development practitioners?
  • How far is it accurate to claim that a focus on development has transformed security studies?

Chapter 18: Alliances

John S. Duffield

Abstract

In this chapter, students will learn about the concept and theories of international alliances, paying particular attention to the question of alliance persistence and disintegration. After discussing what alliances are, the chapter surveys the scholarly literature on why alliances form and fall apart. It then reviews the somewhat puzzling case of NATO, which many observers expected would not long outlive the Cold War. The chapter asks how well existing theories explain NATO’s persistence and concludes with theoretically informed observations about the alliance’s future prospects.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Alliance datasets

NATO websites

Films and videos about NATO

Keywords

Alliance; balance-of-threat theory; institutionalization; socialization; North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

Essay and exam questions

  • How should the term alliance be defined? What are the potential alternative definitions?
  • What is the best explanation of alliance formation? What alternative theories exist?
  • What factors and processes may promote alliance persistence?
  • In what ways has NATO changed – and stayed the same – since the end of the Cold War?
  • How can we best explain NATO’s persistence since the end of the Cold War?  Why might we have expected NATO not to last?
  • What does alliance theory predict about the future of NATO?

Chapter 19: Regional institutions

Louise Fawcett

Abstract

In this chapter, students will learn about the role of regional organizations in the provision of international security; the history and development of regionalism in the security sphere; and the evolving relationship between the United Nations and regional organizations. This chapter considers the conditions behind the growth and expanding remit of regional security projects, and explanations for their success and failure. As the world becomes increasingly multipolar and more states seek an active stake in the multilateral system, regional institutions are playing more important roles in a complex multilateral security architecture.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Examples of regional institutions engaged in peace and security activities

Keywords

Regional organization; peace operation; nuclear free zone; security complex; Chapter VIII; Africa, Asia, Europe, Latin America, Middle East.

Essay and exam questions

  • What explains the growth of regional security organizations?
  • Examine any one regional organization that has achieved particular success in advancing a security agenda.
  • Is security regionalism easier to achieve in some security arenas than others? Are peace operations or non-proliferation well suited to regional cooperation?
  • Is economic regionalism necessary for security regionalism?
  • What is the relationship between regional security organizations and the United Nations?
  • Do Europe and the North Atlantic area provide the best examples of security regionalism in practice?

Chapter 20: The United Nations

Thomas G. Weiss and Danielle Zach Kalbacher

Abstract

In this chapter, students learn about the principal organs of the United Nations (UN) and their role in maintaining international peace and security, the world body’s primary mandate. It provides an overview of the UN system as well as a short history of its contributions to security studies. It also addresses key threats confronting the globe in the twenty-first century – such as terrorism, mass atrocities, and weapons of mass destruction – and assesses the UN’s capacity to meet these security challenges.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Introducing the United Nations

Keywords

United Nations; principal organs; Security Council; General Assembly; US hegemony; Secretariat; Secretary-General; international peace and security.

Essay and exam questions

  • What are the implications of defining ‘security’ as more than bombs and bullets?
  • How many ‘UNs’ are there?
  • What is the difference between the UN proper and the UN system?
  • What threats to international peace and security did the founders have in mind in 1945, and how have those endured or changed since?
  • What are the most important UN bodies in maintaining international peace and security?
  • What are the UN’s major achievements since 1945?
  • How should the UN be reformed?
  • How should the UN Security Council be reformed?
  • What are the challenges under the Trump administration?

Chapter 21: Peace operations

Michael Pugh

Abstract

In this chapter students will learn about the concepts, evolution and political debates concerning peace operations. Peace operations range from small observation and monitoring missions to large peacebuilding initiatives in war-torn societies. Some commentators argue that it includes combat but falls short of outright belligerency, known as peace enforcement or ‘robust peacekeeping’. A shift in the concepts, and discourse about, peace operations has occurred since the mid-1990s. Together with UN reforms the shift is represented as an international response to the needs of human security, notably civilian protection and enlightened governance through liberal peacebuilding interventions. However, peace operations also reflect power distributions in the international system and, as a form of crisis management, serve to sustain rather than transform the global system. Reforms and revisionist debates have shifted UN peace operations into protection of civilians by force if necessary and into partnerships with regional military formations.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Official UN sites

Academic journals focused on peace operations

Other useful websites

Documentaries

Website: www.peacekeepersdoc.com/
Trailer: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YAR3SXSme6c&feature=youtu.be

  • Srebrenica – A Cry from the Grave (2011):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fliw801iX84
Film: http://www.srebrenica.org.uk/resources/research-resources/film-theatre/srebrenica-cry-grave/

Feature films with peacekeeping themes

Keywords

Peace operations; peacekeepers; peacekeeping; peace enforcement; international civilian protection; liberal peacebuilding.

Essay and exam questions

  • Why do states participate in peacekeeping?
  • What are the principles of peacekeeping and the problems associated with ‘peace enforcement’?
  • Explain the gender issues associated with peace operations.
  • To what extent do you agree that peace operations are a continuation of imperialist disciplinary control employing former colonies to do the job?
  • How have civil wars complicated the politics and roles of peace operations?
  • What is the concept of ‘peacebuilding’ and, with reference to cases, can it be said to work in practice?

Chapter 22: The nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation regime

Waheguru Pal Singh Sidhu

Abstract

In this chapter, students will learn about three contemporary challenges to the international regime for the disarmament and non-proliferation of nuclear weapons as well as efforts to overcome them. The first challenge is posed by states within the existing non-proliferation regime. The second set of challenges comes from states outside the present non-proliferation regime. The third and, perhaps, most formidable challenge comes from non-state actors. These challenges have generated at least three different approaches: first, efforts to strengthen the traditional multilateral institutional approach anchored in treaty-based regimes; second, to establish non-treaty-based multilateral approaches initiated within the UN system; and third, to build a set of ad-hoc, non-institutional, non-conventional approaches to address the immediate challenges of proliferation. These approaches, in turn, have led to several significant consequences for addressing nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation in future.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Introducing weapons of mass destruction and nuclear proliferation

Feature films on nuclear proliferation and disarmament

Keywords

Nuclear weapons; missiles; disarmament; arms control; non-proliferation; terrorism; weapons of mass destruction.

Essay and exam questions

  • What is the relationship between disarmament, arms control, non-proliferation and international security?
  • What makes nuclear weapons distinct from other weapons of mass destruction?
  • In relation to nuclear weapons are missiles a blind spot or a blind alley?
  • How has the non-proliferation regime evolved since the end of the Cold War?
  • What are the three approaches being pursued to advance nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation?
  • Does gender play a role in disarmament?
  • What could disarmament, arms control and non-proliferation look like in 25 years?

Chapter 23: Private security companies

Deborah D. Avant

Abstract

In this chapter, students will learn about the growth of private security – security allocated through the market. The chapter explains why this development is important for the control of force and outlines a debate over its costs and benefits. It also describes the current market, compares it to other markets for violence in the past, and explains its origins. The chapter encourages students to think about how the market for force poses tradeoffs to the state and non-state actors that seek to control it and how a market for force challenges some of the central assumptions in security studies.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Feature films on private security

New concerns with private security

Keywords

Private security; private military; mercenary; contractor; market for force.

Essay and exam questions

  • Why is private security important for the control of force? Illustrate with three examples.
  • How is today’s market for force similar to markets in the past? How is it different?
  • Why is private security so prevalent today?
  • Can private security be controlled? By whom?
  • Using material from the chapter predict what the market for force is likely to look like in 10 years.

Chapter 24: Genocide and crimes against humanity

Adam Jones

Abstract

This chapter will introduce students to the concepts of ‘genocide’ – the destruction of human groups – and the range of atrocities classified as ‘crimes against humanity’. Key modern instances of genocide are described, along with some central debates in the field of genocide studies, and proposals for intervention and prevention. The legal evolution of the related but much broader concept of crimes against humanity is also considered.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Genocide education and prevention

Documentaries on genocide

Feature films

Keywords

Genocide; crimes against humanity; human rights; mass violence; intervention; prevention.

Essay and exam questions

  • Discuss genocide as a ‘catalysing idea’. What are the origins of the concept, and how has its impact been evident in world politics?
  • What are some of the obstacles to humanitarian intervention in genocidal outbreaks? Discuss with reference to Bosnia/former Yugoslavia and Rwanda.
  • Discuss the concept of ‘crimes against humanity’. How does it differ from genocide? What role does it play in international law today?
  • The United Nations Secretary-General has commissioned you to redraft Article 2 of the Genocide Convention. Which changes would you propose in order to make the Convention more effective and inclusive?
  • What are some of the most promising means of genocide prevention, in your view? Discuss measures that can be taken at the international, societal and personal levels.

Chapter 25: Ethnic conflict

Stuart J. Kaufman

Abstract

Ethnic groups are ascriptive groups: most people are born into them. Ethnic divisions usually occur across lines of language, race and/or religious affiliation. These differences are not ‘natural’ or ‘primordial’; they are ‘socially constructed’, so that people are divided in different ways depending on group beliefs. Most countries are multiethnic, and most ethnic relationships are peaceful. However, some ethnic conflicts do become violent, often enough that ethnic wars represent a sizeable fraction of all wars that have occurred in the last century. Ethnic conflicts are most likely to result in serious violence when government is weak; narratives of group identity lead the groups to see each other as hostile; prejudice is widespread; group members fear for the survival of their group; and the competing sides demand political dominance over some disputed territory. Violent ethnic conflicts have important international dimensions: they are often encouraged by hardline émigré groups or foreign powers, they can cause very large flows of refugees across international borders, and they inspire international intervention ranging from diplomatic efforts to military force. While power-sharing and compromise are the internationally preferred formula for resolving ethnic conflicts, in practice most of them end only when one side wins militarily.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Feature films with ethnic conflict themes

Lectures on ethnic conflict

Websites

Case study: Yugoslavia – before the war and after

Trailer: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fliw801iX84

Film: http://www.srebrenica.org.uk/resources/research-resources/film-theatre/srebrenica-cry-grave/

Keywords

Ethnic; nationalism; civil war; constructivism; instrumentalism; psychology; Sudan; Yugoslavia.

Essay and exam questions

  • Why do experts disagree about how and why ethnic identities develop?
  • What are the main accounts of the causes of ethnic war, and why do their advocates disagree?
  • What similarities do you see in the causes of the ethnic wars in Sudan and Yugoslavia?
  • If ethnic conflicts are civil wars, internal to states, why are they important on the international stage?
  • What can outsiders do to try to help peoples in ethnic conflict to settle their differences? How effective are these measures?

Chapter 26: Terrorism

Paul Rogers

Abstract

In this chapter, readers will learn about the definitional debates surrounding the concept of terrorism and different types of terrorism, notably the difference between state terrorism and sub-state terrorism or terrorism from below. The chapter then analyses trends in state terrorism and sub-state terrorism in the context of other more substantive threats to security. It then examines the main responses to sub-state terrorism and assesses the response to the 9/11 attacks, the state of the ‘global war on terror’ after 16 years and the likelihood of a reconsideration of the nature of the response in light of the many problems arising from the conduct of the war.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Feature films that explore issues related to terrorism

Keywords

Terrorism; definitions; media; targeting; insurgency; casualties; motives.

Essay and exam questions

  • To what extent was the US response to the 9/11 attacks a product of the politics and ideology of the George W. Bush administration in 2001?
  • Critically evaluate the reasons for Tony Blair’s support for the 2003 regime termination in Iraq.
  • Relate the origins and early growth of ISIS to the Syrian Civil War.
  • What were the origins and aims of the al-Qaida movement?
  • Why was the Libyan regime terminated with NATO support in 2011?
  • Why is state terrorism subject to so little academic study?

Chapter 27: Counterterrorism

Paul R. Pillar

Abstract

In this chapter, students will learn about the different means of combating terrorism by non-state actors, including dissuading individuals from joining terrorist groups, deterring groups from using terrorism, reducing the capability of terrorist groups, erecting physical defences against terrorist attacks and mitigating the effects of attacks. Reducing terrorist capabilities in turn requires the use of several instruments – each with its own strengths and limitations – including diplomacy, intelligence, financial controls, criminal justice systems and military force. Counterterrorism unavoidably raises difficult and often controversial policy issues, including conflicts with other values such as personal liberty and privacy.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Feature films about counterterrorism

Keywords

Antiterrorism; incident management; offensive tools; rendition; targeted killing.

Essay and exam questions

  • Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the different offensive counterterrorist tools.
  • Are the measures that have been used to combat the so-called Islamic State applicable to other terrorist groups? Why or why not?
  • What are the uses of military force to counter terrorism, and how have those uses changed over time?
  • What is the role of international institutions in countering terrorism?
  • Discuss the advisability and effectiveness of assassinating terrorist leaders.
  • Discuss the tradeoffs between counterterrorism and the values of liberty and personal privacy. What determines how the balance between them is struck?

Chapter 28: Counterinsurgency

Joanna Spear

Abstract

In this chapter, students will learn about the theory and practice of counterinsurgency. This is a military strategy that has gone in and out of fashion over time. Early in this century counterinsurgency achieved new currency with the launching of military operations in Afghanistan and Iraq that were met by stiff local resistance. The difficulties of fighting enemies who hid among the people and avoided classic military confrontations led to a new generation of writings on counterinsurgency operations, which were swiftly put into practice in the field. However, in the US counterinsurgency’s star is currently waning as politicians seek to avoid long-term military interventions and the US military prioritizes planning for major wars against high-technology enemies. Nevertheless, the parallel skill sets between peacekeeping and counterinsurgency will ensure that the practice will retain relevance for many militaries. In significant contrast to other areas of security studies, counterinsurgency is an issue area where there are many scholar-practitioners, which gives their writings particular immediacy and applicability.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Feature films

Talks

Keywords

Insurgency; hearts and minds; Iraq; Afghanistan; United States; peacebuilding; guerilla warfare; media.

Essay and exam questions

  • What are the central characteristics of insurgencies? How far do they differ across time and place?
  • What roles can the military play in counterinsurgency?
  • Economic factors are more important than ideological factors in counterinsurgency. Critically discuss this statement using relevant examples.
  • What are the best ways to reduce the number of insurgents?
  • What explains the most successful examples of counterinsurgency since 1945?
  • Is winning ‘hearts and minds’ a viable approach to counterinsurgency?
  • What constitutes victory in counterinsurgency?
  • How important are disarmament, demobilization and reintegration programmes in counterinsurgency?
  • What are the key challenges of waging counterinsurgency in cyberspace?

Chapter 29: Intelligence

Richard J. Aldrich

Abstract

In this chapter, students will learn about intelligence, a concept which since 9/11 has rarely been off the front pages of our newspapers. Little of this coverage has been flattering and a word association game might quickly link intelligence with terms like ‘snooping’, ‘failure’ and ‘torture’. This chapter introduces students to the competing concepts of intelligence, the arguments over whether its performance can be substantially improved and whether intelligence services stabilize or disrupt the international system. It concludes that the field is dominated by an outdated concept of intelligence as a strategic process designed to produce refined information for policymakers. This traditional approach fails to capture intelligence activity elsewhere in the wider world, which is more about regime security and surveillance. It is also fundamentally unsuited for the twenty-first century wherein the very idea of intelligence is merging with information, ‘big data’ and cyber-security.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Some useful talks and documentaries on key themes in intelligence

Feature films

Keywords

Espionage; surprise; prediction; warning; oversight; secrecy; hacking; big data.

Essay and exam questions

  • What is the difference between information and intelligence?
  • Does the growth of cyber-espionage mean the era of the human spy is largely over?
  • What makes the leader of a state a good intelligence consumer?
  • Was 9/11 an intelligence failure? Or was it simply a failure of imagination?
  • In what ways has Western counter-terrorism intelligence changed in the last decade?
  • Are Edward Snowden and his journalist allies the new face of intelligence oversight?
  • Is torture during interrogation ever justified?
  • Do you agree that we need a Digital Geneva Convention to restrict hacking by states?
  • How far should the United Nations go in creating its own intelligence apparatus?
  • Are privatised intelligence services more of a problem than those owned by states?

Chapter 30: Transnational organized crime

Phil Williams

Abstract

In this chapter, students will learn about transnational organized crime, how it operates in a globalized world and how it has emerged as one of a series of threats posed to national and international security by violent non-state actors. The chapter outlines what is meant by transnational organized crime then examines the rise of the phenomenon, suggesting that its emergence is inextricably linked to globalization and the weakness of states in many parts of the world. The major transnational criminal organizations are subsequently examined, with attention given to their diversity, organizational structures and portfolios of activities. Illicit markets are also discussed. The chapter ends by considering efforts to combat transnational organized crime by the United States and then suggests that transnational organized crime will take on even greater importance in the future.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Key websites for tracking trends and developments in transnational organized crime

Feature films and television series with key themes related to transnational organized crime

TED Talks and other talks on transnational organized crime

Keywords

Transnational; organized crime; illicit economy; smuggling; trafficking; criminal enterprises; criminal networks; dark networks; corruption; impunity.

Essay and exam questions

  • How do you explain the rise of transnational organized crime?
  • What is the difference between mafia and organized crime?
  • What kinds of structures do criminal organizations develop?
  • In what ways and for what purposes do transnational criminal organizations use violence and corruption? 
  • Is transnational organized crime growing or declining?
  • What kinds of relationships exist between criminal and terrorist organizations?
  • What are the major criminal markets?
  • What evidence do you see of transnational organized crime moving into cyberspace?

Chapter 31: The international arms trade

William D. Hartung

Abstract

In this chapter, students will learn about the dynamics of the global arms trade and how they have changed substantially from the end of the Cold War to the new era marked by the 9/11 terror attacks. Sales of major combat equipment continue to pose the greatest challenge in managing relations between states. But as the proportion of intrastate armed conflicts has accelerated, small arms and light weapons have become increasingly important. In an era of asymmetric warfare, the ‘high end’ of the weapons spectrum has also become cause for increasing concern as some regional powers seek the technology to produce nuclear, chemical and biological weapons. Using shifting United States policies as a primary example, given its central role in the arms trade, this chapter traces the political, economic and strategic factors driving these three strands of the arms trade: major combat systems, small arms, and technology suited to building nuclear weapons. The chapter will also address evolving approaches to regulating the global arms trade, including the United Nations Arms Trade Treaty.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Feature films

Keywords

Arms trade; small arms and light weapons; Cold War; A. Q. Khan; weapons of mass destruction; Arms Trade Treaty; combat systems; technology; nuclear.

Essay and exam questions

  • Assess the major factors driving the global arms trade, and what weight can be assigned to each.
  • Give some major examples of the ways arms transfers impact human rights in key countries and regions.
  • Who are the biggest arms-supplying states, by value of arms transferred and types of equipment supplied? Which countries are dominant in particular regions?
  • What are the biggest arms importing countries and regions? Why?
  • How have the dynamics of the global arms trade changed since the end of the Cold War?
  • How do arms transfers support the defence industrial base of key supplying countries?
  • What have been the key international efforts to control the global arms trade, and how successful have they been?
  • How different channels of the arms trade – major conventional weapons, small arms, nuclear technology, and arms manufacturing technology – differ in terms of suppliers, driving factors, and strategic and human consequences?

Chapter 32: Migration and refugees

Sita Bali

Abstract

In this chapter, students will learn why and how migration has come to be seen as a security issue. It outlines different types of population movements and how states normally deal with them before examining the direct impact migration can have on the security of the state from war, violence and terrorism. Next, it considers the effect of population movement on security, broadly defined. This will include an assessment of the impact of migration and ethnic minority communities on host state foreign policy, particularly related to the countries of origin of its migrant communities. It will go on to consider the impact of migration on the internal social stability and cohesion of host states.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Feature films on migration/migration and security

Keywords

Migration; immigration; refugee; asylum-seeker; immigrant; terrorism; foreign policy; societal security.

Essay and exam questions

  • To what extent, and in what way does migration present a challenge to the established nation-state?
  • Why has migration become a security problem for Western states?
  • In what ways can immigration constitute a security threat to the receiving country?
  • How does immigration affect domestic politics in the host country?
  • How does immigration affect the international relationships of the receiving country?
  • Outline and analyse the seriousness of the security threat posed by immigration to the receiving country.
  • Evaluate the political role of diasporas in international relations, illustrating your arguments with examples.
  • ‘Fortress Europe’. To what extent is this an accurate description of the evolving common European policy on migration and refugees?

Chapter 33: Energy security

Michael T. Klare

Abstract

In this chapter, students will learn about the various meanings of ‘energy security’ and consider why it has attracted so much attention from both policymakers and the general public. In particular, international concern over the future availability of non-renewable energy supplies is ascribed to doubts about the ability of energy producers to keep pace with rising world demand and the vulnerability of global supply lines to terrorism, piracy and war. The task of satisfying states’ requirements for energy is being further challenged by a shift in the centre of gravity of world energy consumption from West to East, a growing reliance on remote and hard-to-reach sources of supply, and rising concern over climate change. Various strategies for enhancing energy security are also considered.

Websites and audio-visual resources

Feature films

Keywords

Energy; security; geopolitics; United States; European Union; China; India; Russia; Saudi Arabia; Iran; Iraq; Persian Gulf; South China Sea; Arctic; military force; terrorism; piracy; boundary disputes; oil; natural gas; climate change; renewable energy.

Essay and exam questions

  • What are the various meanings of the term ‘energy security’? How has the meaning of this term changed over time?
  • How is concern over climate change altering the discussion of energy security?
  • How has concern over energy security shaped US policy toward the Persian Gulf region? How has growing energy self-sufficiency in the United States altered US policy toward the Persian Gulf region (if at all)?
  • How has the rise of China (and/or India) altered the global energy security equation?
  • How is China addressing its energy security dilemma? What challenges does this pose for the United States?
  • What role does energy play in the territorial disputes in the South China Sea? In the Eastern Mediterranean? In the Arctic?

Chapter 34: Women, peace and security

Aisling Swaine

Abstract

In this chapter, students will learn about the women, peace and security agenda (WPS). Consisting of eight resolutions adopted by the UN Security Council since 2000, this framework addresses the entrenched gendered bias within the realm of international peace and security, and seeks to advance women’s concerns, rights and interests across all aspects of conflict prevention, management and response. Since its adoption, scholars and activists have broadly critiqued the gaps that remain in implementing these resolutions by UN member states and entities of the UN system. This chapter provides an overview of the adoption of the WPS agenda and its broad-reaching aims to advance gendered approaches to peace and security. It sets out some of the key areas of controversy and critique and highlights some of the gaps in implementation of the agenda to date.

Websites and audio-visual resources

  • PeaceWomen is a programme of the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom. The program website houses up-to-date information on implementation of the WPS agenda globally. The “Who Implements” page on member states, provides an overview of the adoption of National Action Plans globally: www.peacewomen.org/member-states
  • The Sexual Violence Research Initiative brings together academic and policy researchers to advance research on conflict-related sexual violence: www.svri.org
  • UN Women (the United Nations’ Entity on Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women) leads UN system-wide implementation of the WPS agenda. Updates on global policy and programming is available at: www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/peace-and-security

    • Documentaries

    Website: www.peacekeepersdoc.com/
    Trailer: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YAR3SXSme6c&feature=youtu.be

    Feature films

    Case study

    Keywords

    Women; peace; security; United Nations; feminism; equality; gender; sexual violence; armed conflict; women’s rights; human rights.

    Essay and exam questions

    • What factors explain the emergence and institutionalization of the Women, Peace and Security agenda?
    • Critically discuss the relevance and significance of the Women, Peace and Security agenda in respect to approaches to understanding war and peace.
    • Critically discuss the opportunities and challenges presented through the “securitization of women’s rights.”
    • Provide a critical appraisal of the reasons for the gaps in implementation of the Women, Peace and Security agenda.
    • Provide an overview of the issue of conflict-related sexual violence in a chosen case study context and a critical overview of how the Women, Peace and Security agenda relates to the way that violence took place in that context.

    Chapter 35: Environmental change

    Simon Dalby

    Abstract

    In this chapter, students will learn about the Anthropocene and how humanity has become a force shaping the planetary system with major consequences for the theory and practice of security. It analyses how changes in climate security are prompting armed forces around the world to prepare for new circumstances and roles, and how far international treaties such as the 2015 Paris Agreement can curb the negative consequences of climate change. It also discusses whether new thinking about global resilience and transition strategies to more ecologically benign modes of living, including by developing post-fossil fuel economies, offer a solution.

    Websites and audio-visual resources

    Feature films and documentaries

    Keywords

    Anthropocene; climate security; conflict catalyst; Earth system; ecosystems; great acceleration; environmentalism; resilience; Paris Agreement; safe operating system.

    Exam and essay questions

    • Climate change is the greatest threat to global security. Discuss.
    • Is an effective response to transnational environmental challenges possible in a world of states?
    • Which earth system boundaries are most important for security and why?
    • How might a global resilience agenda facilitate international security?
    • What role should the United Nations play in providing climate security?
    • Why is migration understood to be a security issue related to climate change?

    Chapter 36: Health

    Colin McInnes

    Abstract

    In this chapter, students will learn why health has not traditionally been seen as a security issue and why this has changed. It will look at the main health issues on the security agenda: the fear of infectious diseases; the impact of the HIV epidemic; and the risk of bioterrorism. Questions that arise include whether some of these risks have been overstated, over whose interests are being served by securitizing health, and whether health should be a concern for security policy or development policy.

    Websites and audio-visual resources

    Feature films, books, board- and videogames
    There are of course a variety of films dealing with health related topics, including major Hollywood features. Most of these concern disease outbreaks, though some focus on other areas. See for example:

    Films and books about ‘Zombies’ may also be read as metaphors for the social risks and alienation effects caused by infectious disease.

    Health has also featured in a number of board and video games. Perhaps the best known is ‘Pandemic’, for which an overview is provided at: https://boardgamegeek.com/boardgame/30549/pandemic

    Keywords

    HIV/AIDS; infectious disease; bio-terrorism; Ebola.

    Essay and exam questions

    • Is health a [national] security issue?
    • Which health issues are security issues and why?
    • What are the risks involved in securitizing disease?
    • Why was HIV/AIDS considered such a risk to security?
    • Has the threat of bio-terrorism been overstated?

    Chapter 37: Cybersecurity

    Rhea Siers

    Abstract

    In this chapter, students will learn how cybersecurity has become a key issue in global security. Once the primary domain of military and intelligence activities, cyber attacks and intrusions have had a broad impact, from the attacks against Georgia and Estonia to Stuxnet to the disruption against Sony Pictures Entertainment. Cyber capabilities are no longer solely the province of states. Non-state actors, such as criminals, terrorists and ‘hacktivists’, have adapted cyber power for their own purposes. Private businesses find themselves on the frontline of cyber conflict every day. Rapidly evolving computer technology is a considerable challenge to standard strategies of conflict and deterrence as well as to the creation of norms.

    Websites and audio-visual resources

    • Krebs on Security – an outstanding review of latest cyber security news and in-depth analysis: https://krebsonsecurity.com/
    • The Cipher Brief – current analysis and assessment of cybersecurity issues in both the public and private sectors: https://www.thecipherbrief.com/
    • The InfoSec Institute – a collection of useful information and explanations of cybersecurity terms including videos explaining different types of attacks and intrusions: http://resources.infosecinstitute.com/

    Feature films on cyber security

    Keywords

    Cyber security; cyberspace; computer network exploitation; cyber attack; active defence.

    Essay and exam questions

    • How would you describe and distinguish between the separate components of Computer Network Operations?
    • How does deterrence theory apply in the cyber domain?
    • What is the major impact of the Tallinn Manuals?
    • What are the key lessons learned from the SONY attack?
    • What are the greatest challenges in creating international norms in cyber space?
    • Why are the cyber attacks against Estonia considered important events in the history of cyber hostilities?

    Chapter 38: Outer space

    Audra Mitchell

    Abstract

    In this chapter students will learn about space as a site of security. While concerns with the relationship between space and security in the past focused on space as a new arena of great power conflict (for example US President Reagan’s Strategic Defence Initiative), or representations of humanity’s future in popular culture (for example, Star Trek), this chapter focuses more specifically on the security implications of plans for resource extraction and future colonization of space. It asks how these activities may challenge existing international law and norms regarding the use of outer space, spark conflict over valuable territories or resources and promote colonial strategies. Plans to colonize outer space also have important implications for human security. In particular, the visions outlined by ‘NewSpace’ entrepreneurs may have profound impacts in terms of gender, race, the vulnerability of migrants and workers, and the rights of Indigenous peoples. By critically examining this new mode of colonization, this chapter explores the wide range of security implications of plans to annex outer space.

    Websites and audio-visual resources

    Feature films

    Keywords

    Colonization; NewSpace; human security; Indigenous rights; Outer Space Treaty; Moon Treaty; SPACE Act 2015; Res communis/global commons.

    Essay and exam questions

    • Should outer space be considered a ‘global commons’? Why or why not?
    • Does the potential colonization of outer space enhance or threaten human security?
    • How should different claims to the use of outer space by private actors, the UN and Indigenous peoples be addressed?
    • How does the potential colonization of outer space challenge existing concepts of sovereignty in international law?