Section 4: National Cinemas, Global Cinema and Art House Film

Chapter 14: Contemporary British cinema

Image of the BAFTA marquee

The sign of the British Academy of Film and Television Arts headquarters at 195 Piccadilly in London, on 7 April 2016, courtesy of Shutterstock

Comedy

Looking at the three British films, Secrets and Lies (Mike Leigh, 1996), Trainspotting (Danny Boyle, 1996), and Pride (Matthew Warchus, 2014), would you identify any elements of comedy within these films? 

Activity

  • Ask yourself the questions: what is comedy and what are comedies? Brainstorm your own ideas about the nature of comedy and comedy films.
  • These films would seem to present the world to us in a particular way that enables us to recognise them as falling within a specific category, but how exactly do you see them as doing this? What is it about the nature of the subject matter and the way in which that subject matter is presented that marks them out as comedies?

In the theatre, ‘comedie’ originally simply referred to a play that was not a tragedy and did not necessarily imply the fundamental association with humour that the word tends to carry today. Aristotle saw it as referring to a play dealing with ordinary characters in ordinary situations in an amusing way.

The Greek word ‘komos’, from which we derive the word ‘comedy’, does refer to merrymaking and in this tradition these plays did have some association with fertility rites, a convention with which ‘romantic comedies’ are obviously in tune. Pride has been described as a ‘rom com’ and is frequently seen as a comedy-drama. You may be familiar with the convention found in Shakespeare’s plays that comedies should end with differences being resolved in a happy marriage. Does this apply to Pride?

Activity

  • Write a short piece of 200–300 words explaining briefly how the conclusion of Pride might be seen to conform to the usual pattern for the ending to a comedy.

However, comedy has also been used in a more serious way to satirise authority and ridicule social codes or human behaviours. Comedy in this form often depends on intricate plots and the use of surprise but can also employ exaggerated imitation, clowning, buffoonery, slapstick, and knockabout farce.

Key Term

Satire – the use of ridicule, irony, or sarcasm to expose vice or stupidity; the lampooning of self-important individuals.

Activity

  • Think about the three films listed above. Do any of them involve ridiculing, or poking fun, at certain sorts of behaviour or people in positions of authority, the use of complicated plots and unexpected events, and/or exaggerated imitations, clowning or slapstick style humour?
  • Can you see ways in which Secrets and Lies could be described as a comedy? If so, how would you describe the particular sort of comedy found in this film?
  • Can you see ways in which Trainspotting could be described as a comedy? If so, how would you describe the particular sort of comedy found in this film?

Genre

We need to consider the ways in which films ‘announce’ their genre to the audience. This will involve reflecting on the various aspects of mise en scène, cinematography, editing, and sound that are important for various genres. 

Case Study: Bend It Like Beckham (Gurinder Chadha, 2002, USA, UK, Germany)

The opening to this film would offer an interesting investigation into the ways in which a film announces its genre. The opening graphic of a football looming out of nowhere as if has been kicked and is coming out of the screen in our direction immediately makes it clear that this is not going to be a film that takes itself too seriously. And this is quickly followed by a black screen with only the soundtrack of the (in ‘footballing’ circles) iconic voice of commentator John Motson describing David Beckham (an even more iconic figure) playing in a match. This is novel and interesting; as viewers, we are unlikely to have seen anything like this before in the opening to a film. We are unsure which way this is going to go as a film and we are a little disorientated; but one thing is certain – it doesn’t feel in any way threatening. When we find the visual images of the match added to the commentary, we feel we are on familiar ground, simply watching a game on television; but then the illusion is broken as we recognise that it is a woman who is on the end of Beckham’s cross and scoring the goal. Again, we are pleasantly surprised by the joke and ‘get’ the way in which the whole thing references our knowledge of football computer games.

By the time we cut to the television studio and find ourselves with the familiar (for the time) football pundits, Gary Lineker, Alan Hansen, and John Barnes, we know the filmmakers are playing with us. And so, this means that when Mrs Bhamra (Shaheen Khan) appears, although in a way we may be further disorientated, we are also ‘in on the joke’ and therefore enjoying the humour of the surrealism. (In narrative terms, already the three key elements of structure have been introduced: our hero, Jess (Parminder Nagra), has a passion for football that her mother, as the narrative obstacle, is preventing her turning from a dream into a reality.) The look to camera from Lineker further confirms the fact that we are supposed to feel included in a knowing way (and echoes the way in which he conducts himself when hosting BBC’s long-running football programme, Match of the Day). The cut to Jess’s bedroom uses the transition to enable another appropriate visual joke to occur as Mrs Bhamra opens the door and in doing so essentially pushes ‘Beckham’ (as a poster on the back of the door) aside.

Activity

  • Watch the next four minutes of Bend It Like Beckham (to the point where we see the close-up of Beckham’s poster on Jess’s bedroom wall) and write your own analysis of how this section of the film continues to announce its genre (400–500 words).
  • Watch the opening few minutes of either, Secrets and Lies (Mike Leigh, 1996), Trainspotting (Danny Boyle, 1996), or Pride (Matthew Warchus, 2014), and write an analysis of how this section of the film announces its genre (400–500 words).

Chapter 15: European film

The Cabinet of Doctor Caligari Film Poster

The Cabinet of Doctor Caligari (Germany 1920) aka Das Kabinett des Doktor Caligari, Directed by Robert Wiene, courtesy of Photofest

Case Study: Das Cabinet des Dr Caligari/The Cabinet of Dr Caligari (Robert Wiene, 1920, Germany)

 

Watching The Cabinet of Dr Caligari the audience, confined in the world of someone classified as insane, sees what the madman sees: distorted perspectives, eerie lights and shadows, an angular world of fears and apprehension. Expressionist sets are employed in order to convey the asylum patient's thoughts, intensify the emotions of the characters, and emphasize potential psychological depths behind the action. Holstenwall is a bizarre, nightmare-like place, filled with jagged roads, buildings with pointed rooftops, misshapen windows and doors, and drapes that appear to hang above characters as barely concealed threats. The whole town seems about to fall in on itself and engulf the residents (White 2014).

Activity

  • Research German Expressionism within film in more detail. Were there many other expressionist films made during this period in Germany? Was Caligari the first such film?

Activity

  • Working with one other person, if possible, see what you can find out about Expressionism as a movement in art and the theatre in Germany during this period. What were the features of the style? How was it employed? Why was it used? (Perhaps you will be able to come up with your own theories as to why it might have been a favoured style of the period.)

Case Study: À bout de souffle/Breathless (Jean-Luc Godard, 1960, France)

In terms of story content, this film is very straightforward; we simply view the last few days in the life of a small-time criminal in Paris; but the narrative with which we are presented is rather fragmented and disjointed, certainly it lacks the lean narrative-drive and the meticulously mapped plot structure of a Hollywood production. The viewer feels she is observing something more like a simple, slice of life. A scene in a small studio flat between Patricia and Michel meanders its way between the light horseplay of lovers and deeper philosophical musings with little or no sense of drama or heightened urgency. When we reach the ending, it is conclusive and yet inconclusive, things remain ambiguous and uncertain rather than finally resolved. À bout de souffle is, therefore, particularly in the context of the period in which it was made, a challenge to both the individual reader and the mainstream cinema establishment (White 2014).

Activity

  • Compare the representation of women in À bout de souffle, Cléo from 5 to 7/Cléo de 5 à 7 (Agnes Varda, 1962) and Les Mistons/The Brats (François Truffaut, 1957). Be sure to assess not only the events that take place, the actions of characters, and dialogue but also elements of film construction such as mise en scène and cinematography.
  • (You might also like to consider Godard’s early short films, Une femme coquette/A Flirtatious Woman (1955) and Charlotte et Véronique, ou Tous les garçons s’appellent Patrick/All Boys are Called Patrick (1957). The second of these films was written by Éric Rohmer.)

Activity

  • List the different genres that you see as having potentially influenced À bout de souffle.
  • Give evidence for each suggestion; this may be found in the filmmaking style, the nature of the story, character types, or maybe in some other aspect of the film.
  • Compare your list with those produced by other people. Discuss differences and similarities between the lists you have arrived at.

Case Study: Pan’s Labyrinth (Guillermo del Toro, 2006, Spain)

Activity

  • Watch the whole of this film once more, and then, with a group of others, if possible, choose one sequence of about six minutes to analyse in detail.
  • Spend time discussing how your chosen sequence works in terms of its use of mise en scène, cinematography, and editing.
  • Individually write a commentary (1,000–1,200 words) discussing the ways in which one or two of these areas of film construction work to create meaning and generate audience response in your chosen sequence.
  • Exchange your finished pieces with each other and read as many responses from other people as possible noting similarities and differences to your own work.

References

White, J., 2014. ‘Das Kabinett des Dr Caligari/The Cabinet of Dr Caligari (1919)’. In S. Haenni, S. Barrow, and J. White (eds), The Routledge Encyclopedia of Films. London: Routledge.
White, J., 2014. ‘À bout de soufflé/Breathless (1960)’. In S. Haenni, S. Barrow, and J. White (eds), The Routledge Encyclopedia of Films. London: Routledge.

Chapter 16: Global film

Ten Film Poster

Ten (2002, Iran), Directed by Abbas Kiarostami, courtesy of Photofest

Iranian cinema

In order to understand the films made in any country it is useful to have some understanding of both the historical background and the contemporary situation in that country.

INFORMATION – Iranian History

The following is a brief overview; for a more detailed historical background go to the BBC news website at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14542438

Political history

1906: Constitutional monarchy founded with the Shah as head of state (ends in 1979).
1935: Persia is renamed Iran.
1941: Muhammad Reza Pahlavi installed as Shah (with British backing). He rules until the revolution in 1979.
1951: Iran is a wealthy country due to oil. The parliament votes to nationalise the oil industry, removing control from British oil companies. Britain imposes an embargo on Iran, which damages the economy and leads to a power struggle: the Shah flees the country.
1953: The Shah is reinstated after a coup and is backed by British and US intelligence agencies – this reliance on Western power will have great implications for the future of Iran.
1960s: The ‘White Revolution’ – the move to modernise and Westernise the country. This becomes tyrannical, reliant on the secret police to quell dissent.
1970s: The Shah’s policies alienate the clergy and his authoritarian rule leads to riots, strikes, and mass demonstrations. Martial law imposed.
1979: The Islamic fundamentalist, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, returns to Iran following exile in Iraq and France to take up his position as the Spiritual Leader, or wali faqih,making the country a theocracy. Iran declared an Islamic Republic.
1980-88: Iran–Iraq war.
1989: Ayatollah Khomeini issues a religious edict (fatwa) ordering Muslims to kill Salman Rushdie, for his novel, The Satanic Verses, considered blasphemous to Islam.
1990: Earthquake strikes Iran, killing approximately 40,000 people.
1990: Iraq invades Kuwait – Iran remains neutral in the First Gulf War.
1997: Mohammad Khatami a reforming, liberal politician wins the presidential election with 70 per cent of the vote, beating the conservative ruling elite.
1999: Pro-democracy students at Tehran University demonstrate. Clashes with security forces lead to six days of rioting and the arrest of more than 1,000 students.
2002: US President George Bush describes Iraq, Iran, and North Korea as an ‘axis of evil’.
2003: Thousands attend student-led protests in Tehran against clerical establishment.
2004: Conservatives regain control of parliament in elections. Before the polls, thousands of reformist candidates are disqualified by the hardline Council of Guardians.
2005: Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, an ultra-conservative politician becomes president; many of the previous liberal reforms are overturned.
2008: UN accuses Iran of withholding information on its nuclear capabilities – sanctions threatened.

Film history

1900–1930: Early film production in Iran is nonfiction. The Iranian film industry is largely private, with films sponsored and viewed by the Iranian royal family. Commercial cinemas show foreign imports.
1930: First non-fiction feature film made in Iran is Abi and Rabi (Avanes Ohanian, 1930). (Like today, during this period, many Iranian films are made outside Iran by a Western-educated elite).
1948: First sound film made in Iran. National cinema becomes increasingly popular, partly due to the increased censorship of foreign imports.
1950s: US government aides Iranian film production for propaganda purposes (Iran is a key territory in the Cold War).
Socially conscious Iranian films censored or banned.
1960s: As part of the Westernisation project, private television networks are set up with the backing of US television companies – showing imported NBC TV shows and MGM films.
Popular Iranian cinema is dominated by melodramas, comedy, and luti (tough-guy or gangster) films.
1969: Iranian New Wave: Gav/The Cow (Dariush Mehrjui) and Qaisar/Caesar (Masoud Kimiai). A new style of filmmaking dealing with contemporary and controversial issues in Iran.
1970s: Development of a complex film culture: film festivals and student film societies, and founding of the Ministry of Culture and Arts (MCA) which sponsored (but also banned) Iranian films.
Cinema (Iranian and foreign) seen as supporting the Shah and therefore an ‘agent of cultural colonisation’. The burning of cinemas is part of the strategy of dismantling the Shah’s regime. By 1979, 180 cinemas have been destroyed.
The Islamic revolution means many filmmakers go into exile, creating an ‘exile genre’ of cinema.
‘Purification’ of cinema leads to women being absent from the screen.
1982: Clerics draw up a series of regulations to ensure cinema is used ‘properly’.
1983–1986: Film production increases, with 57 films produced in 1986. These were high quality films with filmmakers such as Mohsen Makhmalbaf emerging as controversial figures.
Women film directors emerge and more women are represented on screen.
1990: Abbas Kiarostami writes, directs, and edits Close Up, commonly seen as one of the greatest films of all time.
A Time to Love (Makhmalbaf, 1991) is indicative of a new openness in Iranian cinema dealing with the forbidden subject of a love triangle (the film was not shown in public in Iran but was debated in the press).
1997: Kiarostami is awarded the Palme d’Or at Cannes for Taste of Cherry.
1999: The book, Life and Art: The New Iranian Cinema, is published at the same time as a programme of Iranian films is showcased at the National Film Theatre.
2000s: Crisis in film production and distribution in Iran – few cinemas left, equipment crumbling. Situation made worse by competition from satellite TV and pirate DVD market.
Internet access available (to middle class Iranians), proxy servers are used to bypass the blocking of sites by the government.
2008: Shirin, an Abbas Kiarostami film about Iranian passion plays, is shown at the Edinburgh Film Festival. For the first time in ten years, the Iranian government wants to show his latest film but the director has refused permission.

Case Study: Ten/10 (Abbas Kiarostami, 2002)

 

The following case study will further develop your understanding of Iranian film style. The film focuses on the life of a middle-class, divorced Iranian mother. It is structured around her conversations with her various passengers, creating ten chapters.

Activity

The first time you watch 10 make a note of the following:

  • A brief outline of each chapter’s content – noting who is in the car, what they discuss etc.
  • The predominant film style – type of shots (length, angle, distance), mise en scène, use of sound etc.

Making 10: Film Realism

Some information about Kiarostami’s working methods on 10 helps to inform the discussion of the film’s style:

  • The driver and the passengers in the car are ‘acting’ but are not professional actors.
  • The actors were cast after auditions with Kiarostami in which they discussed their lives and experiences.
  • Kiarostami prepared the script after long discussions with the cast, choosing what he wanted them to talk about in the film, often based on their real experiences.
  • Some of the chapters were more tightly controlled and scripted than others – we have no way of knowing for certain which these are.
  • The ‘actors’ are actually in the moving car together, with the camera in a fixed position on the dashboard. Kiarostami was not usually present during the filming, leaving the actors to work without interruption or direction.
  • 23 hours of footage was completed – edited down to 90 minutes.

Kiarostami himself has said, ‘I personally can’t define the difference between a documentary and a narrative film’ (Saeed-Vafa and Rosenbaum 2003, 116). This method of preparation – using ordinary people, developing a script from discussion with the cast – can be seen as similar to the work of British realist directors such as Ken Loach, Mike Leigh, and Shane Meadows.

Case Study: Persepolis (Marjane Satrapi and Vincent Paronnaud, 2007) – Cinema of Exile

 

Persepolis is a French/US co-production co-directed and based on the graphic novel by Satrapi, a French-Iranian. It is very helpful in providing an insight into the history of Iran and the experience of people living there.

Persepolis was a critical and commercial (within the context of arthouse cinema) hit in the USA and France (and to a lesser extent the UK). It won the Jury Prize at the Cannes Film Festival and was nominated for the Oscar for Best Animated Feature.

The film is based on Satrapi’s early life in Tehran and shows the repression under the Shah’s regime. It also portrays the social restrictions, arrests and executions that followed the Islamic revolution. The film has been condemned by President Ahmadinejad’s government as ‘Islamophobic’ and ‘anti-Iranian’, and has not been shown at mainstream cinemas in Iran.

There have however been some screenings of the film in cultural centres in Tehran as reported by the Agence France-Presse (an international news agency):

Around 70 people crammed into a small hall in a Tehran cultural centre on Thursday to watch the animated film in a rare chance for Iranians to see the film legally and in public.

A similar screening of the film, which graphically shows its young heroine’s brushes with the authorities in the early days of the Islamic revolution in the 1980s, also took place at the Rasaneh Cultural Centre in Tehran on Tuesday.

‘The aim of this screening is to end the delusions surrounding the film which have been created by the media,’ said the centre’s public relations chief, Mahmoud Babareza.

‘When a film is not shown people make all sorts of misconceptions. Cinema is cinema, after all, and it should not be put into a limited political context,’ he told AFP.

The film shown, a DVD copy with Farsi subtitles, was censored of half a dozen scenes mainly of a sexual nature before being deemed acceptable, but the screening took place with the full permission of the cultural authorities.
(ABC 2008)

References

ABC. 2008. ‘Rare Iran Screening for Controversial Film Persepolis’. 16 February. Available at: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2008-02-16/rare-iran-screening-for-controversial-film/1044548 (accessed 18 September 2019).
Issa, R. and Whitaker, S. (eds) 1999. Life and Art: The New Iranian Cinema. London: BFI.
Saeed-Vafa, M. and Rosenbaum, J. (eds) 2003. Abbas Kiarostami. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.