Chapter 1
Technology and Cybercrime
Chapter 1 introduces the reader to how technology has affected all aspects of human behaviour, especially communication, and shapes how we view the world. The chapter explains that the technology-driven society has blended the physical and virtual worlds, creating a unique landscape for criminality. In particular, we will discuss the ways that technology has created a global economy for illicit transactions that generate both money and ideas that enable learning modes of offending on and off-line. In many cases, the technology (namely computers and data bases) has been the target of crime while in others it serves as the means to commit crimes, such as illicit markets operating on the Dark Web. Readers will also be introduced to the ways that technology has helped law enforcement investigate cybercrimes. The chapter concludes with a description of Wall’s (2001) typology of cybercrimes that will be detailed in length in Chapters 3 through 11.
Chapter 2
Law Enforcement, Privacy, and Security in Dealing with Cybercrime
Chapter 2 examines how all levels of law enforcement have responded to cybercrime in general. This chapter will provide much needed background information about law enforcement that will enhance the remainder of the text. Though Chapters 3 through 11 will discuss the specific agencies involved in the investigation of cybercrime, Chapter 2 will discuss law enforcement from the local to federal levels, their relationships, and the general issues inherent in the investigation of these crimes in a domestic and international context. This chapter will also discuss the lack of investigative resources, training, expertise, and evidence handling tools that local agencies face when investigating cybercrime. The value of extralegal agencies and non-governmental organizations, such as the Internet Crime Complaint Centre and Computer Emergency Response Teams, in dealing with cybercrime will also be discussed. Lastly, the inherent difficulties in investigating offenses that span multiple countries and the utility of agencies such as Interpol will be discussed in detail.
Chapter 3
Computer Hackers and Hacking
Chapter 3 is designed to present computer hackers and the act of hacking in a realistic light devoid of the glitz and flash of what may be portrayed in films. Readers will be able to define computer hacking and its impact on victims, including individuals, corporations, and governments. The various legal and ethical perspectives of hackers will be discussed in depth, along with the norms and values of the hacker subculture. The history of hacking over the last 60 years will be discussed to provide an understanding of the actions of hackers over time. The changing motives for hacking in relation to shifts in technology will also be detailed. As a result, readers will be able to consider the activities of hackers from their point of view rather than from stereotypes and media hype. The chapter ends with the legal frameworks used to prosecute these crimes as well as the efforts made by law enforcement and non-profit organizations to combat computer hackers around the world.
Chapter 4
Malware and Automated Computer Attacks
Chapter 4 focuses exclusively on malware and automated computer attacks to give the reader easy to understand definitions, explanations, and examples of malicious software. In particular, viruses, trojans, worms, ransomware, and the financial impact that these types of software have on individuals, corporations, and governments will be discussed. New platforms for attack will also be discussed, such as the role of IoT devices in establishing botnets will be discussed. Readers will understand that these programs are created by high skilled hackers and are both utilized and sold to lesser skilled individuals in on-line markets for profit. Thus, the danger of malware lies not only in the creation of programs for specific attack purposes, but also the dissemination of these tools to larger groups of individuals. Finally, the chapter covers the inherent problems in legislating against the damages caused by malware creation and use, as well as the global impact that malware creates for law enforcement to coordinate and investigate these offenses at all levels.
Chapter 5
Digital Piracy and Intellectual Property Theft
Chapter 5 examines intellectual property offenses, particularly digital piracy of music, movies, and media. The chapter covers the history of intellectual property theft, and differentiate the loss of corporate secrets, such as design plans and source code, to pirated content to help readers recognize the ways that technology compromise the protection of ideas and innovation. The chapter will also explore how technology has changed the methods of piracy over time making it possible for any individual with Internet access to commit this crime with ease. The subculture of piracy, including the technical and social support it provides to individuals to pirate greater amounts of intellectual property with less chances of detection, will be covered in-depth. The chapter also details legislation designed to criminalize and deter this behaviour, and its evolution in tandem with technological changes. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the ineffectual law enforcement response to these crimes, and the role of civil litigation by media industry organizations.
Chapter 6
Online Fraud
Chapter 6 will identify the reasons why and how fraudsters have adapted to on-line environments and detail the most common forms of fraud employed on-line, most notably through spam email. The sale of counterfeit goods through e-commerce sites, and the use of personal information acquired through phishing and data breaches. Finally, the chapter covers laws meant to protect consumers’ identities, how those laws have evolved, the agencies that are charged in enforcing those laws, and the difficulties inherent in these duties. The emergence of on-line brand protection communities will also be discussed, consisting of informal groups who provide information on the legitimacy of Internet shops and vendors offering goods and services.
Chapter 7
Pornography, Image-Based Sexual Abuse, and Prostitution
Chapter 7 explains the wide spectrum of sexually-oriented cyberdeviance and crime that is engendered by technology. The chapter explains how technology has revolutionized the creation of pornography and the ability to access these materials in the privacy of one's home. A discussion on the rise of camming and its ties to real world sex work, such as stripping and camming will be included to help illustrate the ways that technology bridges the virtual and real worlds. The chapter also discusses how the Internet is used to facilitate sex work globally. The recent growth of "revenge porn," where individuals post nude or sexual images of others without their permission, will be discussed along with breaches of nude photos of celebrities such as "The Fappening." The chapter discusses the evolution of laws that have been created to prosecute these offenses, and the failure of broader legislation to filter and block various forms of adult. This chapter also includes details on the recent FOSTA and SESTA laws implemented in the US to crack down on human trafficking and sex work facilitated by technology. There is also a discussion of the extra-legal agencies designed to affect offender behaviours implemented by search engines and the pornography industry to understand the difficulties in policing sexuality on-line.
Chapter 8
Child Sexual Exploitation Material Offenses
Chapter 8 begins with a discussion of the nature of child pornography and its association to child sexual exploitation crimes in the real world. The effect of technology on the creation and distribution of child porn will be examined in depth, including its role in grooming and victimizing youth in the real world. The emergence of a pedophile subculture that provides technical and social support to offenders is discussed, as are typologies that are used to classify individuals who obtain and use images of child pornography. A discussion on the role of the Dark Web in the distribution of child porn will also be included to highlight changing practices of offenders online. The chapter discusses the current laws used to prosecute child pornography use and creation, as well as the efforts of select non-profit groups to minimize youth victimization. The various local, national, and global strategies employed by both government and corporate entities to detect offending and arrest offenders will be addressed in detail.
Chapter 9
Cyberbullying, Online Harassment, and Cyberstalking
Chapter 9 considers cyberbullying, on-line harassment, and cyberstalking. The chapter begins with common and accepted definitions for each offense, estimates of victimization and offending rates, and the emotional impact these offenses have on victims. The chapter focuses on both predictors of both offending and victimization, regardless of bullying or harassment. We will also discuss the inherent legal challenges that have developed and the existing statutes that can be used to prosecute these offenses. Finally, the chapter will explore the agencies and groups involved in the investigation of these offenses. In the end, readers will have a greatly expanded appreciation for the overlap of bullying, harassment, and stalking, and the general threats these technologies pose to all Internet users.
Chapter 10
Online Extremism and Cyberterror
Chapter 10 addresses the challenge extremist groups pose to the operation of the Internet. This chapter considers whether cyberterror be defined or viewed differently from traditional acts of terror. To address these questions in a systematic fashion, the chapter will define crime, terror, cyberterror, and the nature of hacktivism. In addition, the way in which extremist groups and terror organizations utilize the Internet to support their activities or engage in attacks will be explored in detail. We will also consider the ways that extremist group subcultures have been splintered by the rise of unique social media, such as Gab for the Far Right, and encrypted communications platforms like Telegram. Finally, the legislative efforts in place to deal with terrorism and coordinate the response to extremist activities from industry and extra-legal organizations will be discussed.
Chapter 11
Cyberwarfare and Information Operations Online
Chapter 11 will introduce readers to the concept of cyberwarfare and the difficulty in defining cyberspace as an operational theatre for military action. This chapter provides an overview of the military and legal doctrines that guide action in online spaces compared to physical space. We also explain the reasons why military actions in cyberspace that are tied to nation-states may also be routed through civilians or non-nation-state entities to hide the cause and reasons for the attack. The use of cybersecurity and hacking techniques to engage in offensive and defensive actions are discussed, along with the threats posed by information warfare campaigns online. In particular, we examine the range of disinformation strategies run by Russia and other nations through social media platforms to affect social relationships and elections. Lastly, we discuss the military and government organizations tasked with providing policy and practical actions related to cyberwar.
Chapter 12
Illicit Market Operations Online
Chapter 12 provides readers with an understanding of the range of illicit markets operating on the Open and Dark Web, and the similarities they share to traditional open and closed economically-motivated markets for illicit goods and services in the real world. We examine the evolution of market operations, from barter systems in the hacker community of the 1980s and 90s to the rise of Dark Web markets in the last decade. We then consider differences in the processes and practices of vendors offering physical products such as drugs and firearms on the Dark Web, to those selling digital products, including hacking tools and PII. We also examine the social dynamics and practices that shape the relationships between market actors, whether as buyers, sellers, or forum operators. Lastly, this chapter discusses the myths surrounding some of the goods and services available in online markets, such as hitman services and human trafficking operations.
Chapter 13
Cybercrime and Criminological Theories
Chapter 13 discusses how leading criminological theories have been used to explain cybercrime offending and victimization. The chapter describes the most commonly applied criminological theories and explains how they may be applied to both simpler forms of cybercrime (e.g., online harassment, digital piracy) and more complex forms, such as computer hacking and malware dissemination. Particular attention is paid to empirical research which directly tests these theories’ propositions. The chapter concludes with a discussion of whether new theories need to be created to better understand cybercrime offending and victimization or whether extant criminological theories are sufficient. Newer cybercrime-specific theories are discussed and critiqued on their contributions to our knowledge of cybercrime.
Chapter 14
Evolution of Digital Forensics
Chapter 14 begins with a discussion of the history and formation of the digital forensics discipline. When compared to the other fields of forensic science, digital forensics is in its infancy. For example, the Digital and Multimedia Sciences' section of the American Academy of Forensic Science was recently added in 2008 and is the first section added in 28 years. Next, the four-step process for digital forensics investigations is discussed: (1) acquisition; (2) identification; (3) evaluation; and (4) presentation. Through its growth, digital forensics has become an important science in both criminal and civil court cases. With every court case, digital evidence continues to expand and change with technology. Law enforcement must be able to identity which technological devices may provide digital forensic evidence, and as technology changes, the tools used to extract digital evidence often must change as well (such as mobile devices). Finally, the importance of evidence integrity is discussed with regards to forensic soundness and authentication. Readers will understand the importance of verifying and validating all electronic evidence to ensure that it meets the various legal standards of admissibility in court.
Chapter 15
Acquisition and Examination of Forensic Evidence
Chapter 15 begins with a discussion of the investigative tools used by law enforcement during digital forensic examinations. This chapter includes a discussion of Encase, FTK, OS-Triage, and Internet Evidence Finder. In addition, the readers will gain an appreciation for the process of preserving electronic evidence in order for it to be admissible in courts. Overall, analysis of forensic evidence is guided by the information recovered from the electronic devices leading to objectivity in the officer's final report. The process of uncovering digital evidence must follow certain steps: (1) data preservation; (2) duplication (imaging); and (3) verification (hash values). The techniques involved in digital forensic examination and data recovery, such as file carving, to obtain information from deleted files are discussed in detail.
Chapter 16
Legal Challenges in Digital Forensic Investigations
Chapter 16 focuses on the legal issues surrounding digital forensic evidence in the courtroom. First, there are several constitutional rights issues, such as whether it is possible to compel a suspect to provide the encryption key to a computer device when it is in the suspect’s best interest to avoid self-incrimination. In addition, the electronic evidence must be searched, seized, and collected in a manner that meets the scientific standards for evidence admissibility. The readers will gain an appreciation for whether electronic evidence is direct or circumstantial in a court case. Finally, the chapter concludes with a discussion of the certifications and standards for digital forensic examiners providing expert testimony in the courtroom. It is often necessary for the digital forensic expert to not only educate the jury, but the prosecutor (or defence attorney) and judge as well. Readers will be able to understand these issues in detail.
Chapter 17
The Future of Cybercrime, Terror, and Policy
Chapter 17 considers the future and possibilities for all aspects that were previously studied in the text. This chapter examines what cybercrime may look like in the future, how new technologies will influence how crime is committed, and the impact that new technology will have on our society. Within this discussion, we return to the important issue of how to balance privacy and security in a more technologically advanced world. Chapter 17 also discusses the value of traditional criminological theories and the need for new cyber-specific criminological theories. The steps that law enforcement needs to take in the near and distant future to address crimes that are influenced by emerging technology are also detailed. This chapter also evaluates the current digital forensic techniques used by law enforcement and suggest improvements and changes that may expand their capability. The chapter considers policy suggestions at state, federal, and international levels to address cybercrime across the globe.