Student Resources

Careers in Public Relations

Public relations is a growing field, ripe with opportunities for employment and advancement. Labor analysts predict that the demand for public relations practitioners will grow at least as fast as the general employment scene, and faster than many jobs. That’s good news for the public relations student. The job search may take a while, but it should ultimately be successful.

Public relations has a promising future. Most corporations and nonprofit organizations have public relations departments. In smaller organizations, public relations projects may be handled by employees who have additional jobs, often involving marketing, human resources, fundraising, recruitment, and other areas of contact with the public.

The Bureau of Labor Statistics, part of the U.S. Department of Labor, predicts that jobs in public relations and related fields are growing at an average or better-than-average rate, compared to most other occupations through 2024. At the same time, the bureau expects competition to be keen for entry-level jobs.

The bureau reported in 2017 that public relations and fundraising managers have an average salary of $111,280; public relations specialists earn $56,770 on average; advertising, promotions and marketing managers earn $129,380; event planners have an annual salary averaging $46,840. Income varies both by geographic region of the country and the type of organization.

The highest salaries are associated with the metropolitan areas of the District of Columbia, San Francisco, New York-New Jersey, Boston, Dallas and Houston (in order). In general, the highest salaries are reported in the states along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts.

The Public Relations Society of America reported in 2016 that professionals holding senior (vice presidential) titles in agencies earned an average of $146,233, and account supervisors and account executives earned $68,033. On the corporate side, senior levels (directors and vice presidents) earned $163,367, while managers and specialists averaged $89,350. Comparable salaries are reported for the U.K. and other English-speaking nations.

Previous PRSA studies indicate that the growth areas for jobs in public relations are in health care, pharmaceutical, consumer, and high-tech/social media fields.

Employment analysts cite increasing opportunities for women and minorities. Estimates are that women comprise 65–80 percent of public relations practitioners, though men fill the top management ranks. That is changing as women build their credentials and advance through management to executive levels.

Entry-Level Job

The PRSA Foundation, the organization’s research and education arm, looks at five levels of job categories in public relations: technician, supervisor, manager, director and executive.

Students can expect entry-level positions that emphasize technical competence in writing and related areas. Skills typically required for such positions include proficiency in various kinds of writing: preparing brochures, memos and letters, newsletter articles, news releases, materials for online newsrooms, proposals, reports, scripts and speeches. Related skills include conducting research, editing and interviewing. Additionally, virtually all entry-level job announcements call for applicants to be familiar with social media.

Look for openings with job titles such as public relations writer, public affairs or public relations specialist, media relations assistant, account assistant, or publications or web editor. Also look for generic job titles such as staff associate and associate director.

A career-minded novice in public relations should use an entry-level position as an opportunity to move toward the next level of positions. Cultivate interpersonal and problem-solving skills. Develop an expertise in a particular specialty such as public affairs, social media, research, investor relations or employee relations.

Education

The most useful advice for obtaining a job in public relations is to get the best education possible. The following categories of courses and knowledge/skill areas may help you plan your academic career.

Public Relations

A report by the Commission on Public Relations Education has recommended minimally five specific and separate courses for undergraduates in a public relations major, minor or sequence:

  1. Introduction to public relations, including theory, origin and principles.
  2. Public relations research methods.
  3. Public relations writing.
  4. Campaigns and/or case studies.
  5. Ethics.
  6. Supervised work experience in public relations or internship.

The commission recommends five additional areas of growing importance to public relations. These include business literary, content creation including audio/video production and graphic design, analytics training, digital technology and measurement/evaluation. It also cites an expectation that issues of diversity, communication technology and global implications be imbedded in public relations courses. Additionally, it cites a need for education in social media, strategic communications, campaign manament, content creation and publicity/media relations.

Writing

Employers consistently seek effective writers. Courses in public relations writing are especially useful, but don’t stop there. Look to journalism and broadcast reporting courses. Look to courses in poetry, play writing and other types of creative writing. Investigate courses in professional and technical writing.

Problem-Solving and Critical-Thinking Skills

Traditional areas such as philosophy and literature and newer areas such as creative studies offer opportunities to develop your competence in analytical skills sought by employers.

Liberal Arts

The Commission on Public Relations Education recommends that 60–75 percent of undergraduate coursework be in liberal arts, social sciences, business, and language study. The Accreditation Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications echoes this expectation for professional programs that include undergraduate public relations degrees. Employers prefer candidates who are well rounded. Expand your value to an employer by taking courses in the arts and humanities, natural and social sciences, and applied studies.

Diversity and Global Perspectives

Likewise, understanding of and appreciation for issues of diversity and inclusiveness are considered an essential part of public relations education. Similarly, public relations education should include exposure to global or international themes.

Foreign Language and Culture

Increasingly, organizations are finding themselves involved in an environment that is more global and more diverse. Public relations often is expected to lead this change. Job applicants familiar with another culture, conversant in another language, or knowledgeable about social or ethnic pluralism often catch the eye of employers. International study programs are particularly good ways to develop such cultural proficiency.

Statistics

Painful as it may be to some creative and literary types, skill in mathematics and statistics is a vital element of the education of a public relations professional. Practitioners often deal with budgets, surveys, evaluation reports, and other topics that require proficiency in mathematics.

Technology

Employers often count on the fact that college graduates may have greater computer skills than practitioners already working in the field. Expose yourself as much as possible to computer applications for word processing, research, presentation, graphic design and internet technology. Familiarity with social media and emerging communication technology is most important.

Graphic Arts

Because image counts, public relations practitioners need to have a strong artistic appreciation. Preferably, they also should have practical graphic skills in print, video and online formats.

Practical Experience

In addition to relevant courses, employers are looking for people with work experience. How do you get that before you have a job? Internships. Part-time jobs. Volunteer work. Student organizations. Internships often are available through colleges and universities, and many larger employers offer internships to graduates.

Graduate School

The minimum academic qualification for a job in public relations is a bachelor’s degree. Increasingly, competition for jobs includes people with master’s degrees. The Commission on Graduate Study in Public Relations recommends that graduate programs in public relations should include courses beyond the undergraduate level focusing on two kinds of skills: 1) basic skills in management, decision-making and planning, and 2) advanced skills in design, media selection and writing/speaking for media dissemination. Specifically the commission outlines a curriculum with multiple courses in six areas:

  1. Strategic public relations management, including organization, relationship management, public relations best practices in a digital environment, crisis and risk communication, and ethical and legal issues.
  2. Basic business practices and processes, including management, marketing, economics, finance and strategic business outcomes.
  3. Communication/public relations theory and research methods, with a particular focus on applied research techniques.
  4. Global and international influences on public relations, including regional differences in the practices of public relations, issues of geopolitics and advanced global public relations theories, as well as cross-cultural and intercultural communication influences.
  5. Courses in an area of specialization such as healthcare, social services, sports, entertainment, politics and so on.
  6. An internship or co-op experience.

Job Search

There is no easy formula for landing your first job or getting a foothold in the profession of your choice. However, some techniques have been used by many job seekers and found to be effective. Following are several suggestions for breaking into jobs in public relations.

Personal Assessment

You’ve heard it before: Life is too short to work at a job you hate, even a well-paying job. Before you plunge into the job search, give some time for a bit of soul searching. Do you like continual change or a routine and stable environment? Do you thrive on pressure or does it grind you down? Are you willing to relocate for a job with potential? These are questions you should answer before preparing any applications. Career development offices in colleges and universities can help you assess your personal interests, values, aspirations and work styles, using the information to direct your career path.

Employment Asssessment

Research the field. Learn who is hiring and where the jobs are. Investigate opportunities in other parts of the country or in other countries, and look into job possibilities in related fields such as marketing, research, advertising and technical writing. Explore possibilities in both corporate and nonprofit organizations, as well as agencies. Don’t be afraid to ask for an information interview with a senior person in the public relations profession.

Networking

Let everyone know that you are looking for a job. Ask friends to pass along your name to their friends and colleagues who may know someone looking for an eager public relations employee. Consider printing a card with your contact information and an abbreviated résumé to share with people who know people in your intended field. Join the student chapter of a professional organization such as PRSA or IABC, and transfer your membership to a professional chapter when you graduate. Try to participate in both local chapter meetings and national conferences. Build an expanding network of professional contacts through your internships, through shadowing and mentoring programs with practitioners, through visitors to your campus, and through contacts with alumni of your school who work in your areas of interest.

Personal Dust-Up

Before putting yourself out there by applying for jobs, make sure you clear away any unnecessary baggage. Start by carefully assessing your online presence. See what a computer search of your own name reveals. What does your personal website say about you? Are there any potentially embarrassing photos or comments on your Facebook or LinkedIn site? On Twitter or Instagram, do you reveal yourself as a responsible young professional? Also, make sure you use a professional email name. Clean up your public persona before taking it to a would-be employer.

Cover Letter

The cover letter is your first introduction to a prospective employer. Make a strong first impression.

Accuracy and Professionalism

Send an original printed letter, never a photocopy. Send email only if the hiring protocol calls for online applications. Proofread this letter carefully, and make sure there are no misspellings, smudges or other imperfections. Present a professional tone that reflects you without being humorous, overly confident, cute or avant-garde.

Organizational Contact

Address the letter to a real person. This is more effective than sending it to a nameless office holder such as Personnel Director or Public Affairs Manager. A search of the organization’s website or a telephone call to the receptionist should yield the name you need.

Personal Interest

Indicate your interest in the position. State where you heard about the opening. Indicate why you are interested in this job, and express confidence that you can do it effectively. Keep the focus on what you can do for the organization rather than your need for a job.

Philosophical Approach

Briefly describe how you consider this field and your role in it. Indicate what you think about this type of work, its importance, and your commitment to it.

Qualifications

Tell how your preparation and achievements relate to the particular job for which you are applying. Pull out the two or three items from your résumé that highlight your competence for this particular position.

The Ask

End the cover letter with a specific request to obtain a response or to meet with the employer. If it is appropriate, offer to telephone for an appointment, or ask for a formal application.

Portfolio

Every applicant for a public relations job should have a comprehensive portfolio of writing samples, graphic designs and other relevant materials. Preferably, the portfolio should be available both in hard copy and online.

At a minimum, the portfolio should include several news releases of various types (both traditional releases for print and broadcast media, as well as releases for online and digital media, or perhaps a transmedia package). Ideally, it also will include a brochure, direct-mail package, feature article, blog posting, opinion piece, pitch letter and public relations advertisement. Students have found that including a planning sheet for each piece of writing provides context and often sparks discussion during an interview on the importance of planning and research.

If possible, include clippings related to news releases and fact sheets. Display the portfolio in a professional-looking binder. Make sure that the digital or online version of your portfolio can be accessed from your online résumé.

Résumé

Every job seeker needs a quality résumé, which is a listing of professional credentials and experience. This should be tightly written to highlight your strengths. Serious job seekers keep their résumés up-to-date and accessible online for all to see.

Single Page

This is sufficient for new graduates and other entry-level job seekers. One way of accomplishing this is to use résumé language that features action statements such as “edited newsletter” or “conducted research” rather than complete sentences.

Summary, Not Objective

Traditional résumé objectives focus on what you want, such as “position in public relations” or “challenging writing position with opportunity for advancement.” Instead, consider using a personal summary highlighting what you have to offer. For example: “Recent graduate and agency intern familiar with research techniques. Diverse writing skills. Able to clearly present technical material. Experience with PRSSA accounts. Degree in public relations. Business fluency in Spanish and Russian.”

Design

Aim for eye appeal with your résumé. Especially in the field of public relations, where appearance is important and where design ability is expected, would-be employers want résumés that look professional. Use quality paper. Bold or underlined section heads with bullet items can be useful. People read from the left, so use the left side of the sheet for the most important information; save details such as inclusive dates for less-prominent positions.

No Gimmicks

Neon-colored paper, personal brochures, techno typeface and bizarre graphics may be attention getters, but they often fail to generate a positive response. Stick with conventional and professional styles.

No Hype

Control the urge to call yourself “a dynamic, self-motivated go-getter” and avoid other such hyperbolic statements. Arrogance, self-praise and inflated ego have no place in a résumé, and nobody likes a smart-ass. Instead use objective words, numbers and strong verbs. Give examples of past success.

Buzzwords

Showing that you know the language can attract the attention of the person initially screening applications. Consider what is expected for the job you are applying for, and then use words to address those expectations. High on the list of most public relations employers are the following words: analyze, design, edit, evaluate, plan, research and write.

Professional Experience

Include paid employment, internships, volunteer work and military service. Indicate the company or organizational name, job title and dates (years only, or months and years) of employment. If you have many part-time or summer jobs unrelated to public relations, summarize these under one heading. List your professional experience concisely, using bullets and brief action statements. Don’t exaggerate or use minute detail. Focus on tangible tasks rather than broad job categories, and use strong action verbs. Indicate not only your work projects but also their results. For example: “Increased student agency accounts by 35 percent.” Many résumés present experience in reverse chronological order focused on jobs. An alternative is to focus on areas of skill or achievement, such as separate sections on writing, editing and research, followed by a brief work history.

Academic Achievements

Include the name of your school, major, degree, awards and special concentrations of study. Indicate your grade average if it is noteworthy (3.4 or better on a 4.0 scale). List your most recent education first. Do not list high school unless it adds a particular credential, such as Academy for Visual Arts if you are citing experience in design. If you do not have much work experience, list relevant courses with generic course titles, and don’t overlook non-major courses in business, language and other disciplines.

Professional Affiliations

Even in an entry-level job search, you can show involvements with job-relevant organizations.

Email Contact

You may have to establish a new email, if you have been relying on one provided by your college or university. It’s probably a good idea to create an email account just for the job search and other professional uses. Remember to check it often. Again, be careful about your email name. SuperKrak, Btchsbk, LilMama and StudMonkey may be okay for emails to friends, but they don’t create the professional impression you need for business purposes.

Special Skills

Language fluency, computer skills and other personal capabilities relevant to employment should be listed. List organizational and volunteer activities if they are relevant to public relations or if they show leadership experience.

Job Requirements

Address each job requirement posted by the company. If you are seeking a job that requires, say, three years’ experience in a public relations job and you have never held such a position, don’t presume that skipping over that item will get you through to an interview. Often, employers check off each important item. By not addressing that item, you could well be taking yourself out of the candidate pool before the competition even begins. Instead, try to show some credentials. You may not have had a paid full-time job with a public relations job title, but perhaps you have relevant volunteer experience or part-time summer work that included public relations responsibilities.

Personal Information

Hobbies, political involvement and religious affiliation generally have no place on a résumé, unless your hobby relates to the potential job or if the position deals with political or religious matters. Marital status and other such personal information are out of bounds in a job search.

No References

Save personal references for a separate sheet including names, postal addresses, email contacts and telephone numbers for people who have indicated their willingness to give you a good recommendation. Always ask permission to list a reference, and don’t be shy about asking if that person feels comfortable about giving you a positive recommendation. Don’t waste space on the résumé with the obvious note that references are available on request.

Interview Preparation

Employers tell of hundreds of applications submitted for a single job opening. Obviously, the cover letter and résumé are the initial screening devices. The competition is tough, but a few of the standouts make it through. If you are lucky enough to get an interview, make the most of it.

Research the Interviewer

Find out all you can about the organization: mission, reputation, activities and successes. Investigate its standing in the community, perhaps with a call to the Chamber of Commerce or the Better Business Bureau. Do an online search to see if the organization has been in the news lately. Look into the organization’s Facebook account if one exists. Check into biographical materials for information on its leaders.

Arrival

Show up early. If anyone is waiting for the interview to begin, it should be you. Learn ahead of time how to get to the interview site and how long the trip will take.

Professional Dress

This should go without saying, but many employers complain that job applicants dress in a way that suggests they aren’t taking the interview seriously. Dress as if you already have the job, and then err on the side of being more formal than may be necessary. This doesn’t mean to wear your best party dress, nor does it require purchasing an expensive business suit. But for most jobs and in most parts of the country, conservative professional attire means jacket and tie for men and parallel clothing for women.

Active Listening

During the interview, maintain eye contact, look for nonverbal cues, concentrate on the discussion and evaluate the significance of questions before you respond.

Your Questions

Prepare a list of questions relevant to the prospective position, questions that show you to be a person eager to make a contribution. Indicate that you will work hard, learn fast and quickly become a contributing member of the organization. Hold questions of advancement, salary, benefits, vacations and other personal concerns until you have a job offer.

Portfolio

Bring your portfolio to the job interview so you can show your work rather than merely talking about it. Offer it early in the meeting so the interviewer can glance at it during the discussion.

Leave-Behinds

Bring photocopies of the most appropriate portfolio items to leave with the organization. Prepare these as leave-behinds, and do not ask that they be returned. Also, provide a sheet with a link to your online résumé and portfolio.

Writing Test

As part of the interview process, many employers hiring writers want to see how candidates perform under pressure. You may be given a set of facts and asked to prepare a news release. If so, do a brief planning sheet (at least in your mind) to make sure you are focusing on the appropriate publics and addressing their interests.

Current Affairs Test

Many graduates tell, often with regret, of feeling that they did poorly on a current affairs test that was administered as part of a job interview. Public relations professionals are expected to know what’s happening in their community and beyond. You should develop a habit of following the news every day. Make sure you are aware of current happenings when you go for a job interview. Focus especially on news related to the profession or industry in which you are seeking a job.

Confidence and Professionalism

Maintain eye contact with your interviewer, and control any anxiety you may have. Remind yourself that this organization thinks you are good enough to consider hiring you. Dressing professionally can be an ego boost, and knowing that you are prepared can go a long way to calm your nervousness.

Thank-You Letter

Immediately following the interview, mail a note or card that expresses appreciation for the opportunity to be considered for the position. Send a real card, not an email note. Savvy job candidates bring a card with them and, immediately after the interview, fill it in and leave it with the receptionist. Use this as another opportunity to restate your interest in the job and to reiterate your main qualifications.

Career Data and Stats

Updated Spring 2019 as a supplement to Professor Smith’s textbooks
Strategic Planning for Public Relations and Becoming a Public Relations Writer,
(Routledge/Taylor and Francis)

If you are interested in public relations, chances are you want to know about the career potential for this field. The good news is that public relations is a growing field, with a future at least as bright as most other professions, better than some other areas of communication.

Three Levels of Public Relations Work

  • Technician:
    Specialist in a technical craft (writing, photography, web design, graphics, research, etc.).
  • Tactical Manager:
    Supervisor who makes day-to-day decisions on practical matters and oversees the work of technicians.
  • Strategic Manager:
    Executive who makes decisions on management, trends, policy, issues, etc.

Who’s Hiring?

  • Public relations agencies (general or specialists).
  • Public relations sections of advertising, marketing or fund-raising agencies.
  • Public relations/marketing communications department in company: Business, manufacturing, sports, health care, entertainment, travel/hospitality, industry association.
  • Public relations/communication department in nonprofit organization (education, charity, religious, arts, professional).
  • Public Affairs unit in government or military (press secretary, public information, public affairs, communications).
  • Independent public relations/marketing communications consultants.

Public Relations Industry

US Labor Department, Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) 2018, with projections to 2028
1,454,000 working public relations, marketing communication, research, advertising, fundraising, event planning
9,900 PR agencies in US (BLS)
Largest agency 2018, Edelman; $894 million in fees, 2.1% growth, 5,000 employees
More than 50,000 public relations and advertising services/agencies/departments in US (BLS)

Median Salaries 2018 and Job Outlook through 2028 (Bureau of Labor Statistics)

Public relations specialist $60,000 6% growth
Public relations or fundraising manager $114,800 68 job growth
Advertising, promotions or marketing manager $132,620 8% job growth
Advertising sales $51,740 2% job decline
Market research $63,120 20% job growth
Fundraising specialist $55,640 15% job growth
Events planning $49,370 7% job growth
Reporter or journalist $43,490 10% job decline
Writer or author $62,170 0% job growth
Editor $59,480 3% job decline
Technical writer $71,850 8% job growth

Diversified Workforce

63% women, 37% men as public relations specialists (Bureau of Labor Statistics)
65% women, 35% men as public relations/fundraising managers

87% White, 13% minority specialist/manager in public relations

Work 34.4 hours/week (above national average of 33.6 hours)
Estimated 25% have master’s degree

Employer-sponsored PR Professional Membership

45% Business and industry
30% Government, health, education, nonprofit
25% Public relations agency

Career Issues

What’s Important to Practitioners

98% creative opportunity
96% recognition by colleagues
95% salary
92% access to technology

Career and Gender

Gender wage gap: 
$96,326 average salary for men
$70,745 average salary for women

  • Glass Ceiling
  • Velvet Ghetto

Line versus Staff Functions

Line Function

In the line of authority (VP, director, manager)
Gives orders, delegates, hires

Staff Function

Supports those in the line of authority
Makes recommendations, advises
Public Relations generally is a staff function

Levels of Organizational Influence

  • Advisory: no authority, no mandate to advise
  • Compulsory–Advisory: no authority, mandate to advise
  • Concurring Authority: yes–no authority
  • Command Authority: authority to act and order others to act

Managerial Interaction for Public Relations

  • Legal
  • Human Resources
  • Advertising
  • Marketing

Management Issues

  • Access/involvement with management
  • Outsourcing
  • Dominant coalition

Agencies versus Departments

Agency: Advantage

Objectivity
Variety of Skills
Resources and Contacts
Specialties Credibility

Agency: Disadvantage

Higher Cost
Resistance to Outsiders
Threat to Status Quo
Superficial Grasp of Organization
Part-Time Commitment

Department: Advantage

Team Members
Knowledge of Organization
Economy
Availability

Department: Disadvantage

Taken for Granted
Subservience
Lose Objectivity

Agency Management

Fees

  • Hourly with Out-of-Pocket Expenses
  • Retainer Fee
  • Fixed Project Fee

RFP = Request for Proposal

Agency Job Titles

  • Account Assistant Executive (entry-level)
  • Account Executive
  • Account Supervisor 

Components and Services of Public Relations

Community Relations
Consumer Relations
Crisis Communication (Emergency PR)
Development and Fundraising
Employee Relations
Events Management
Financial Relations
Government Relations and Lobbying
Investor/Donor Relations
Issues Management
Marketing Communication
Media Analysis
Media Relations
Media Training and Coaching
Public Affairs
Publications and Production
Relations with Special Publics
Research and Evaluation

Personal Skills and Characteristics for Success in Public Relations

Writing ability
Research ability
Planning ability
Management ability
Problem-solving ability
Understanding of media
Understanding of organizations
Understanding of communication technology
Accuracy and attention to detail
Honesty and integrity
Listening
Curiosity
Creativity
Time-management and personal organization

Ethical Standards

Public Relations Society of America (PRSA.org)

Member Code of Ethics

Approved by the PRSA Assembly (October, 2000)

Preamble

  • Professional Values
  • Principles of Conduct
  • Commitment and Compliance

This Code applies to Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) members. The Code is designed to be a useful guide for PRSA members as they carry out their ethical responsibilities. This document is designed to anticipate and accommodate, by precedent, ethical challenges that may arise. The scenarios outlined in the Code provision are actual examples of misconduct. More will be added as experience with the Code occurs.

The Public Relations Society of America is committed to ethical practices. The level of public trust PRSA members seek, as we serve the public good, means we have taken on a special obligation to operate ethically.

The value of member reputation depends upon the ethical conduct of everyone affiliated with the Public Relations Society of America. Each of us sets an example for each other—as well as other professionals—by our pursuit of excellence with powerful standards of performance, professionalism, and ethical conduct.

Emphasis on enforcement of the Code has been eliminated. But, the PRSA Board of Directors retains the right to bar from membership or expel from the Society any individual who has been or is sanctioned by a government agency or convicted in a court of law of an action that is in violation of this Code.

Ethical practice is the most important obligation of a PRSA member. We view the Member Code of Ethics as a model for other professions, organizations, and professionals.

PRSA Member Statement of Professional Values

This statement presents the core values of PRSA members and, more broadly, of the public relations profession. These values provide the foundation for the Member Code of Ethics and set the industry standard for the professional practice of public relations. These values are the fundamental beliefs that guide our behaviors and decision-making process. We believe our professional values are vital to the integrity of the profession as a whole.

Advocacy

  • We serve the public interest by acting as responsible advocates for those we represent.
  • We provide a voice in the marketplace of ideas, facts, and viewpoints to aid informed public debate.

Honesty

  • We adhere to the highest standards of accuracy and truth in advancing the interests of those we represent and in communicating with the public.

Expertise

  • We acquire and responsibly use specialized knowledge and experience.
  • We advance the profession through continued professional development, research, and education.
  • We build mutual understanding, credibility, and relationships among a wide array of institutions and audiences.

Independence

  • We provide objective counsel to those we represent.
  • We are accountable for our actions.

Loyalty

  • We are faithful to those we represent, while honoring our obligation to serve the public interest.

Fairness

  • We deal fairly with clients, employers, competitors, peers, vendors, the media, and the general public.
  • We respect all opinions and support the right of free expression.

PRSA Code Provisions

Free Flow of Information

Core Principle: Protecting and advancing the free flow of accurate and truthful information is essential to serving the public interest and contributing to informed decision making in a democratic society.

Intent:

  • To maintain the integrity of relationships with the media, government officials, and the public
  • To aid informed decision making

Guidelines: A member shall:

  • Preserve the integrity of the process of communication
  • Be honest and accurate in all communications
  • Act promptly to correct erroneous communications for which the practitioner is responsible
  • Preserve the free flow of unprejudiced information when giving or receiving gifts by ensuring that gifts are nominal, legal, and infrequent

Examples of Improper Conduct Under This Provision:

  • A member representing a ski manufacturer gives a pair of expensive racing skis to a sports magazine columnist, to influence the columnist to write favorable articles about the product.
  • A member entertains a government official beyond legal limits and/or in violation of government reporting requirements.

Competition

Core Principle: Promoting healthy and fair competition among professionals preserves an ethical climate while fostering a robust business environment.

Intent:

  • To promote respect and fair competition among public relations professionals
  • To serve the public interest by providing the widest choice of practitioner options

Guidelines: A member shall:

  • Follow ethical hiring practices designed to respect free and open competition without deliberately undermining a competitor
  • Preserve intellectual property rights in the marketplace

Examples of Improper Conduct Under This Provision:

  • A member employed by a “client organization” shares helpful information with a counseling firm that is competing with others for the organization’s business.
  • A member spreads malicious and unfounded rumors about a competitor in order to alienate the competitor’s clients and employees in a ploy to recruit people and business.

Disclosure of Information

Core Principle: Open communication fosters informed decision making in a democratic society.
Intent:

  • To build trust with the public by revealing all information needed for responsible decision making

Guidelines: A member shall:

  • Be honest and accurate in all communications
  • Act promptly to correct erroneous communications for which the member is responsible
  • Investigate the truthfulness and accuracy of information released on behalf of those represented
  • Reveal the sponsors for causes and interests represented
  • Disclose financial interest (such as stock ownership) in a client’s organization
  • Avoid deceptive practices

Examples of Improper Conduct Under This Provision:

  • Front groups: A member implements “grass roots” campaigns or letter-writing campaigns to legislators on behalf of undisclosed interest groups.
  • Lying by omission: A practitioner for a corporation knowingly fails to release financial information, giving a misleading impression of the corporation’s performance.
  • A member discovers inaccurate information disseminated via a website or media kit and does not correct the information.
  • A member deceives the public by employing people to pose as volunteers to speak at public hearings and participate in “grass roots” campaigns.

Safeguarding Confidences

Core Principle: Client trust requires appropriate protection of confidential and private information.
Intent:

  • To protect the privacy rights of clients, organizations, and individuals by safeguarding confidential information

Guidelines: A member shall:

  • Safeguard the confidences and privacy rights of present, former, and prospective clients and employees
  • Protect privileged, confidential, or insider information gained from a client or organization
  • Immediately advise an appropriate authority if a member discovers that confidential information is being divulged by an employee of a client company or organization

Examples of Improper Conduct Under This Provision:

  • A member changes jobs, takes confidential information, and uses that information in the new position to the detriment of the former employer.
  • A member intentionally leaks proprietary information to the detriment of some other party.

Conflicts of Interest

Core Principle: Avoiding real, potential or perceived conflicts of interest builds the trust of clients, employers, and the publics.
Intent:

  • To earn trust and mutual respect with clients or employers
  • To build trust with the public by avoiding or ending situations that put one’s personal or professional interests in conflict with society’s interests

Guidelines: A member shall:

  • Act in the best interests of the client or employer, even subordinating the member’s personal interests
  • Avoid actions and circumstances that may appear to compromise good business judgment or create a conflict between personal and professional interests
  • Disclose promptly any existing or potential conflict of interest to affected clients or organizations
  • Encourage clients and customers to determine if a conflict exists after notifying all affected parties

Examples of Improper Conduct Under This Provision:

  • The member fails to disclose that he or she has a strong financial interest in a client’s chief competitor.
  • The member represents a “competitor company” or a “conflicting interest” without informing a prospective client.

Enhancing the Profession

Core Principle: Public relations professionals work constantly to strengthen the public’s trust in the profession.
Intent:

  • To build respect and credibility with the public for the profession of public relations
  • To improve, adapt, and expand professional practices

Guidelines: A member shall:

  • Acknowledge that there is an obligation to protect and enhance the profession
  • Keep informed and educated about practices in the profession to ensure ethical conduct
  • Actively pursue personal professional development
  • Decline representation of clients or organizations that urge or require actions contrary to this Code
  • Accurately define what public relations activities can accomplish
  • Counsel subordinates in proper ethical decision making
  • Require that subordinates adhere to the ethical requirements of the Code
  • Report ethical violations, whether committed by PRSA members or not, to the appropriate authority

Examples of Improper Conduct Under This Provision:

  • A PRSA member declares publicly that a product the client sells is safe, without disclosing evidence to the contrary.
  • A member initially assigns some questionable client work to a non-member practitioner to avoid the ethical obligation of PRSA membership.

PRSA Member Code of Ethics Pledge

I pledge:

  • To conduct myself professionally, with truth, accuracy, fairness, and responsibility to the public;
  • To improve my individual competence and advance the knowledge and proficiency of the profession through continuing research and education;
  • And to adhere to the articles of the Member Code of Ethics 2000 for the practice of public relations as adopted by the governing Assembly of the Public Relations Society of America.

I understand and accept that there is a consequence for misconduct, up to and including membership revocation.
And, I understand that those who have been or are sanctioned by a government agency or convicted in a court of law of an action that is in violation of this Code may be barred from membership or expelled from the Society.

Canadian Public Relations Society (CPRS.ca)

Declaration of Principles

Members of the Canadian Public Relations Society are pledged to maintain the spirit and ideals of the following stated principles of conduct, and to consider these essential to the practice of public relations.

  1. A member shall practice public relations according to the highest professional standards. Members shall conduct their professional lives in a manner that does not conflict with the public interest and the dignity of the individual, with respect for the rights of the public as contained in the Constitution of Canada and the Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
  2. A member shall deal fairly and honestly with the communications media and the public. Members shall neither propose nor act to improperly influence the communications media, government bodies or the legislative process. Improper influence may include conferring gifts, privileges or benefits to influence decisions.
  3. A member shall practice the highest standards of honesty, accuracy, integrity and truth, and shall not knowingly disseminate false or misleading information. Members shall not make extravagant claims or unfair comparisons, nor assume credit for ideas and words not their own. Members shall not engage in professional or personal conduct that will bring discredit to themselves, the Society or the practice of public relations.
  4. A member shall deal fairly with past or present employers/clients, fellow practitioners and members of other professions. Members shall not intentionally damage another practitioner’s practice or professional reputation. Members shall understand, respect and abide by the ethical codes of other professions with whose members they may work from time to time.
  5. Members shall be prepared to disclose the names of their employers or clients for whom public communications are made and refrain from associating themselves with anyone who would not respect such policy. Members shall be prepared to disclose publicly the names of their employers or clients on whose behalf public communications are made. Members shall not associate themselves with anyone claiming to represent one interest, or professing to be independent or unbiased, but who actually serves another or an undisclosed interest.
  6. A member shall protect the confidences of present, former and prospective employers/clients. Members shall not use or disclose confidential information obtained from past or present employers/clients without the expressed permission of the employers/clients or an order of a court of law.
  7. A member shall not represent conflicting or competing interests without the expressed consent of those concerned, given after a full disclosure of the facts. Members shall not permit personal or other professional interests to conflict with those of an employer/client without fully disclosing such interests to everyone involved.
  8. A member shall not guarantee specified results beyond the member’s capacity to achieve.
  9. Members shall personally accept no fees, commissions, gifts or any other considerations for professional services from anyone except employers or clients for whom the services were specifically performed.

International Public Relations Association (ipra.org)

IPRA Code of Conduct

Adopted in 2011, the IPRA Code of Conduct is an affirmation of professional and ethical conduct by members of the International Public Relations Association and recommended to public relations practitioners worldwide. The Code consolidates the 1961 Code of Venice, the 1965 Code of Athens and the 2007 Code of Brussels.

  • RECALLING the Charter of the United Nations which determines “to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, and in the dignity and worth of the human person”;
  • RECALLING the 1948 “Universal Declaration of Human Rights” and especially recalling Article 19;
  • RECALLING that public relations, by fostering the free flow of information, contributes to the interests of all stakeholders;
  • RECALLING that the conduct of public relations and public affairs provides essential democratic representation to public authorities;
  • RECALLING that public relations practitioners through their wide-reaching communication skills possess a means of influence that should be restrained by the observance of a code of professional and ethical conduct;
  • RECALLING that channels of communication, such as the Internet and other digital media, are channels where erroneous or misleading information may be widely disseminated and remain unchallenged, and therefore demand special attention from public relations practitioners to maintain trust and credibility;
  • Recalling that the Internet and other digital media demand special care with respect to the personal privacy of individuals, clients, employers and colleagues;

In the conduct of public affairs, practitioners shall:

  1. Observance. Observe the principles of the UN Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights;
  2. Integrity. Act with honesty and integrity at all times so as to secure the confidence of those with whom the practitioner comes into contact;
  3. Dialogue. Seek to establish the moral, cultural and intellectual conditions for dialogue, and recognise the rights of all parties involved to state their case and express their views;
  4. Transparency. Be open and transparent in declaring their name, organisation and the interest they represent;
  5. Conflict. Avoid any professional conflicts of interest and to disclose such conflicts to affected parties when they occur;
  6. Confidentiality. Honour confidential information provided to them;
  7. Accuracy. Take all reasonable steps to ensure the truth and accuracy of all information provided to public authorities;
  8. Falsehood. Not intentionally disseminate false or misleading information, and shall exercise proper care to avoid doing so unintentionally and correct any such act promptly;
  9. Deception. Not obtain information from public authorities by deceptive or dishonest means;
  10. Disclosure. Not create or use any organization to serve an announced cause but which actually serves an undisclosed interest;
  11. Profit. Not sell for profit to third parties copies of documents obtained from public authorities;
  12. Remuneration. Whilst providing professional services, not accept any form of payment in connection with those services from anyone other than the principal;
  13. Inducement. Neither directly nor indirectly offer nor give any financial or other inducement to members of public authorities or public representatives;
  14. Influence. Neither propose nor undertake any action which would constitute an improper influence on public authorities;
  15. Competitors. Not intentionally injure the professional reputation of another practitioner;
  16. Poaching. Not seek to secure another practitioner’s client by deceptive means;
  17. Employment. Only employ personnel from public authorities subject to the rules and confidentiality requirements of those authorities.
  18. Colleagues. Observe this Code with respect to fellow IPRA members and public relations practitioners worldwide.

IPRA members shall, in upholding this Code, and agree to abide by and help enforce the disciplinary procedures of the International Public Relations Association in regard to any breaching of this Code.

Chartered Institute for Public Relations (cipr.co.uk)

CIPR Code of Conduct

The Chartered Institute for Public Relatons in the United Kingdom was founded in 1948 as the Institute for Public Relations. In 2005 it received a Royal Charter after the Privy Council ruled that the organization operates within the public good. It is the largest professional association for public relations practitioners outside of North America. Its bylaws were last updated in 2015.
The official summary is printed here. The full Code of Conduct is available at cipr.co.uk.

In summary:
All members of the CIPR are bound by the Code of Conduct. They make the commitment on joining and renew this annually when they renew their membership.
Under the principles of the Code, members of the Chartered Institute of Public Relations agree to:

  • maintain the highest standards of professional endeavour, integrity, confidentiality, financial propriety and personal conduct;
  • deal honestly and fairly in business with employers, employees, clients, fellow professionals, other professions and the public;
  • respect, in their dealings with other people, the legal and regulatory frameworks and codes of all countries where they practise;
  • uphold the reputation of, and do nothing that would bring into disrepute, the public relations profession or the Chartered Institute of Public Relations;
  • respect and abide by this Code and related Notes of Guidance issued by the Chartered Institute of Public Relations and ensure that others who are accountable to them (e.g. subordinates and sub-contractors) do the same;
  • encourage professional training and development among members of the profession in order to raise and maintain professional standards generally.

American Marketing Association (MarketingPower.com)

Statement of Ethics

(Adopted 2008)

Preamble

The American Marketing Association commits itself to promoting the highest standard of professional ethical norms and values for its members (practitioners, academics and students). Norms are established standards of conduct that are expected and maintained by society and/or professional organizations. Values represent the collective conception of what communities find desirable, important and morally proper. Values also serve as the criteria for evaluating our own personal actions and the actions of others. As marketers, we recognize that we not only serve our organizations but also act as stewards of society in creating, facilitating and executing the transactions that are part of the greater economy. In this role, marketers are expected to embrace the highest professional ethical norms and the ethical values implied by our responsibility toward multiple stakeholders (e.g., customers, employees, investors, peers, channel members, regulators and the host community).

Ethical Norms

As Marketers, we must:

  • Do no harm. This means consciously avoiding harmful actions or omissions by embodying high ethical standards and adhering to all applicable laws and regulations in the choices we make.
  • Foster trust in the marketing system. This means striving for good faith and fair dealing so as to contribute toward the efficacy of the exchange process as well as avoiding deception in product design, pricing, communication and delivery of distribution.

Embrace ethical values. This means building relationships and enhancing consumer confidence in the integrity of marketing by affirming these core values: honesty, responsibility, fairness, respect, transparency and citizenship.

Ethical Values

Honesty — to be forthright in dealings with customers and stakeholders. To this end, we will:

  • Strive to be truthful in all situations and at all times.
  • Offer products of value that do what we claim in our communications.
  • Stand behind our products if they fail to deliver their claimed benefits.
  • Honor our explicit and implicit commitments and promises.

Responsibility — to accept the consequences of our marketing decisions and strategies. To this end, we will:

  • Strive to serve the needs of customers.
  • Avoid using coercion with all stakeholders.
  • Acknowledge the social obligations to stakeholders that come with increased marketing and economic power.
  • Recognize our special commitments to vulnerable market segments such as children, seniors, the economically impoverished, market illiterates and others who may be substantially disadvantaged.
  • Consider environmental stewardship in our decision-making.

Fairness — to balance justly the needs of the buyer with the interests of the seller. To this end, we will:

  • Represent products in a clear way in selling, advertising and other forms of communication; this includes the avoidance of false, misleading and deceptive promotion.
  • Reject manipulations and sales tactics that harm customer trust.
  • Refuse to engage in price fixing, predatory pricing, price gouging or “bait-and-switch” tactics.
  • Avoid knowing participation in conflicts of interest.
  • Seek to protect the private information of customers, employees and partners.

Respect — to acknowledge the basic human dignity of all stakeholders. To this end, we will:

  • Value individual differences and avoid stereotyping customers or depicting demographic groups (e.g., gender, race, sexual orientation) in a negative or dehumanizing way.
  • Listen to the needs of customers and make all reasonable efforts to monitor and improve their satisfaction on an ongoing basis.
  • Make every effort to understand and respectfully treat buyers, suppliers, intermediaries and distributors from all cultures.
  • Acknowledge the contributions of others, such as consultants, employees and coworkers, to marketing endeavors.
  • Treat everyone, including our competitors, as we would wish to be treated.

Transparency— to create a spirit of openness in marketing operations. To this end, we will:

  • Strive to communicate clearly with all constituencies.
  • Accept constructive criticism from customers and other stakeholders.
  • Explain and take appropriate action regarding significant product or service risks, component substitutions or other foreseeable eventualities that could affect customers or their perception of the purchase decision.
  • Disclose list prices and terms of financing as well as available price deals and adjustments.

Citizenship — to fulfill the economic, legal, philanthropic and societal responsibilities that serve stakeholders. To this end, we will:

  • Strive to protect the ecological environment in the execution of marketing campaigns.
  • Give back to the community through volunteerism and charitable donations.
  • Contribute to the overall betterment of marketing and its reputation.
  • Urge supply chain members to ensure that trade is fair for all participants, including producers in developing countries.

Implementation

We expect AMA members to be courageous and proactive in leading and/or aiding their organizations in the fulfillment of the explicit and implicit promises made to those stakeholders. We recognize that every industry sector and marketing sub-discipline (e.g., marketing research, e-commerce, Internet selling, direct marketing, and advertising) has its own specific ethical issues that require policies and commentary. An array of such codes can be accessed through links on the AMA website. Consistent with the principle of subsidiarity (solving issues at the level where the expertise resides), we encourage all such groups to develop and/or refine their industry and discipline-specific codes of ethics to supplement these guiding ethical norms and values.

Professional Organizations (with links)

CIPR — Chartered Institute of Public Relations (12 regional chapters, 1 group for independent professionals and 11 sector groups) cipr.co.uk

CPRS — Canadian Public Relations Society (2,000 members in 14 provincial societies) cprs.ca

HPRA — Hispanic Public Relations Society (4 chapters) hpra-usa.org

IABC — International Association of Business Communicators (13,500 members, 86 chapters) iabc.com

IPRA — International Public Relations Association (organizations in 60 countries) ipra.org (Note: The IPRA website is a gateway to links with 79 international public relations groups.)

NBPRS — National Black Public Relations Society (7 chapters) nbprs.org

NCA - National Communications Association (public relations division) natcom.org

NIRI — National Investor Relations Institute (3,300 members, 25 chapters) niri.org

CASE — Council for Advancement and Support of Education (3,600 colleges and independent schools) case.org

NSPRA — National School Public Relations Association (1,800 members, 30 chapters) nspra.org

PRIA — Public Relations Institute of Australia pria.com.au

PRSA — Public Relations Society of America (21,000 members, 125 chapters, 14 professional interest sections) prsa.org

PRSSA — Public Relations Student Society of America (10,000 student members, 300 schools) prssa.org

RCC — Religion Communicators Council (4 chapters) religioncommunicators.org

Writing Boot Camp: Noun-Pronoun

Ronald D. Smith APR

Noun: person, place, thing

Pronoun: word that replaces a noun (its antecedent)

Noun and pronouns must agree …
… agree in number
If a student joins a sorority, she is assigned a Big Sister. (not they)
A can of red beets sits on its shelf in the pantry. (not their shelf)

… agree in person
When a student joins a sorority, she is assigned a Big Sister. (not you are assigned)

… agree in gender
Fred’s father is proud of his son, but the new wife thinks her stepson is not working up to his potential.

… agree in case
Pronouns as subjects: I, you, he, she, it, we, they, who
Bob and I share a ride. (not Bob and me)
He and I have been best friends since middle school. (not him and me)

Pronouns as objects: me, him, her, us, them, whom
She picked up the book at the library for Mary and me.(not Mary and I)
The money is for me. The money is for Sam and me. The money is for him and me.

Pronouns that show possession: my, mine, your, yours, its, our, their, whose

Personal (Definite) Pronoun

Must have an antecedent (noun it is replacing): I, he, she, it, they; him, her, them; his, hers, theirs; himself, herself, themselves
Gustavo is studying for his test. (his = pronoun, replacing noun Gustavo)
He is worried because he missed the review session. (He = pronoun, replacing noun Gustavo)

Confusion re: each and every (which require a singular pronoun)
The quarterback and his coach registered for their tournament photos. (or photo)
Each quarterback and coach registered for his tournament photo.
Every quarterback and coach registered for his tournament photo.

Indefinite Pronouns

Usually are singular: everybody, everything, someone, nothing, anybody
Everything has its purpose.
Anybody can apply himself and succeed in this class.

Writing Inclusively
Everybody must take his seat. Everybody must take his or her seat.
All students must take their seats.

Sometime indefinite pronouns are plural: most, some, all, any
Most people want their vote to remain confidential.
All of us want our lunch as quickly as possible.

Confusion: Some pronouns can be singular or plural, depending on use: all, some, none
Some of it is. None of them are.

Be careful collective nouns as antecedents.
The jury read its verdict. The jury members were asked to announce their votes.
The United States cherishes its freedoms.

Avoid pronouns with ambiguous antecedents.
When the car hit the tree, it was not damaged.
I don’t think they should show violence on TV.
If you put this handout in your notebook, you can refer to it later.

Quiz

  1. Us / We men like our new coach.
  2. Marty and me / myself / I like to work out together.
  3. When someone joins the football team, he is / they are given a work-out schedule.
  4. If you have any questions, email Marian or me / myself / I.
  5. Neither of the women gave her / their homework to the professor.
  6. The department made its / their decision about the scholarship.
  7. If a student wants to be successful in this class, you / they / he or she must turn in the work on time.
  8. The media will report what it wants / they want to report.
  9. This is between me / myself / I and Marilyn, so butt out.
  10. Somebody left their / his or her book on the shelf.
  11. The student delegation asked to meet with the department chair so it / they can complain about Professor Smith.
  12. Neither my mother nor yours will give her / their permission for us to go backpacking this weekend.
  13. If anybody doesn’t like the music I’m playing, he / they / he or she / you can go elsewhere.
  14. One of my friends can bring his / his or her / their DJ setup to my party this weekend.
  15. Maxwell doesn’t see himself / hisself / themself / themselves reflected in the teacher’s criticism.

Answers

1 We.

2 I.

3 he is.

4 me.

5 her.

6 its.

7 he or she.

8 they want.

9 me.

10 his or her.

11 it.

12 her.

13 he or she.

14 his or her.

15 himself.

Online Resources

D’Youville
Oxford University Press
ProProfs
Empire State

Writing Boot Camp: Subject-Verb

Ronald D. Smith APR

Quick Quiz: Subject

  1. My car is a piece of junk.
    What’s the subject? car, junk, is, piece
     
  2. The cars my parents drive are also pretty crappy.
    What’s the subject? cars, drive, crappy, drive, parents
     
  3. The man in the tan jacket is waiting for the bus.
    What’s the subject? bus, jacket, man, waiting
     
  4. At last evening’s basketball game, the Buff State team won.
    What’s the subject? basketball, evening, game, team
     
  5. On TV, an interesting report said next month will be warmer and drier than usual. What’s the subject? month, report, TV, usual

Answers

1. car.

2. cars.

3. man.

4. team.

5. report.

Subject

Names who/what the sentence is about
Noun or pronoun
Ignore adjectives, phrases, etc.

Verb

Action part of sentence; what is being done

  • Used with or without an object (noun or pronoun)
  • Linking part of sentence; what something is (is, are, was, were)

Simple Subject

The teacher will grade the exam.
Two coaches will coordinate the practice schedule.
They want to go to the store.

Compound Subject

John and Mark will work together on the project.
The principal and her staff are at the conference.
Sheila, Maria, and she will go to the store.

Singular Nouns

Usually do not end with s: toy, ball, algebra, Martin, college, book, friend
Don’t be confused by exceptions: ethics, politics, athletics, measles, darts, bus, news, Jones, Maris

Plural Nouns

Usually end in s or es: toys, balls, colleges, books, friends
Don’t be confused by exceptions: children, women, men, alumni, media, criteria, feet, teeth, mice

Don’t be confused by word pairs with and that have a singular meaning:
Ham and eggs is my favorite breakfast.
My drawing and painting class is cancelled tomorrow.

But sometimes the meaning is plural:
Ham and eggs are key ingredients in this omelet.

Placement of Subjects

Usually the subject comes before the verb.
The premise of the book is that politics is inherently divisive.

Exception: In a question, the subject is placed after the verb.
What is the purpose of this assignment?
When will you study for the exam?

Exception: The subject follows the verb in sentences beginning with there is or there are.
There are three reasons why this isn’t a good idea.
There are several possible answers.

Exception: After an introductory phrase, the subject may follow the verb.
On top of the hill is a monument to military veterans.

Quick Quiz: Subject

Identify the subject in each phrase:

  1. The dog is chasing the squirrel.
  2. The car careened over the cliff.
  3. A file of test papers is on the teacher’s desk.
  4. Harvey ate all the pizza.
  5. Pat and Chris make a cute couple.
  6. Either Toyota or Nissan imports the most cars to North America.
  7. Of special interest is the link between media and culture.
  8. Joe and Bill will drive the van.
  9. Does the coach think the tournament is important?
  10. There is no quick route to Summerville.
  11. When the alarm goes off, you will have 20 minutes to get to class.

Answers

1. dog.

2. car.

3. file.

4. Harvey.

5. Pat and Chris.

6. Toyota, Nissan.

7. link.

8. Joe and Bill.

9. coach.

10. route.

11. you.

Subject-Verb Agreement

Verbs must agree with the subject in both number and person

  • Number (singular or plural; she is, they are)
  • Person (first, second, third; I talk, you talk, they talk)

The boy chases the ball. The boys chase the ball.
I like spaghetti. She likes spaghetti.

Ignore adverbs, which are words that tweak the meaning of verbs (and adjectives) but are not part of the verb.
The boy is not chasing the ball. (is chasing = verb; not = adverb)
She always prefers homemade pizza. (prefers = verb; always = adverb)
Marissa seldom studies in the library because her room is quiet. (studies = verb; seldom = adverb)

Confusion re: Subjects with Phrases

The subject is never part of a prepositional phrase (at, in, with, by, among, from, to plus noun/pronoun/gerund/clause).

Don’t make the verb agree with words in a phrase between the subject and verb.
The books in the library are new. (subject = books, not library)
The large number of cars on the road makes the drive home tedious. (subject = number, not cars or road)
One of my best friends is from India. (subject = one, not friends)
The sale of puppies by pet stores has declined because of new laws on animal care. (subject = sale, not puppies or stores)

Confusion re: Compound Subjects
The connecting word and usually makes a subject plural.
The principal and her assistants are at the conference. (compound subject, principal / staff; verb = are)

The connecting word or/nor makes either a singular or plural subject (depends on which word is closer to the verb).
Either the principal or her assistant is at the conference. (just one person is at the conference)
Neither the superintendent nor the principal is at the conference. (just one person is skipping the conference)
Either the principal or her assistants were at the meeting. (with both a singular and plural subject, the verb agrees with the closer subject)
Neither the assistants nor the principal was at the meeting.

Confusion re: Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases
Phrases introduced by prepositions such as together with and as well as do not make a singular subject plural.
The principal as well as her assistant was at the conference. (subject is principal)

Singular Pronoun

Most pronouns that do not refer to specific persons or things are singular: anybody, each, everyone, nobody, something, anything
Everyone in the department likes the new instructor.
Anything you say now is probably wrong.

Collective Nouns

A collective noun refers to a group of individuals or things, taken as a whole.
Most collective nouns are singular: department, jury, media, audience, family, team, council, staff, team, crowd, pride (of lions)
Because the home team is winning, the crowd is energized.
The family of five is going on vacation next week.

Numerical expressions usually are singular:
Half the class has voted.
I think $2,000 is a lot of money.

Compound Nouns

Two nouns acting as one concept: bus stop, egg rolls, toothpaste
Adjective and noun as one concept: high school, full moon, self-esteem, blackboard
Verb and noun as one concept: washing machine, swimming pool, tanning booth, sunrise
Noun and preposition or prepositional phrase: check-up, mother-in-law

Quick Quiz: Subject-Verb Agreement

  1. The news reporter is / are new in town.
  2. The first chapter in the book is / are really just an introduction.
  3. The final chapter in both books is / are confusing.
  4. On top of the desk is / are the handouts.
  5. A flotilla of sailboats is / are moving down the river.
  6. Neither of these boys want / wants to see that movie.
  7. A driver’s license or a credit card is / are required.
  8. A driver’s license or two credit cards is / are required.
  9. Twelve inches of snow is / are not unusual in Buffalo.
  10. The board of directors is / are meeting next week.
  11. The board of directors meet / meets next week.
  12. The department have / has appointed a task force to study the problem

Answers

1. is.

2. is.

3. is.

4. are.

5. is.

6. wants.

7. is.

8. are.

9. is.

10. is.

11. meets.

12. has.

Writing Boot Camp: Punctuation

Ronald D. Smith APR

Listing Comma 

Comma to separate elements in a series of words, phrases, or independent clauses.
We had a big meal of salad, soup, pasta, and ice cream.
She hit the ball, dropped the bat, and ran to first base.
Jane will bring the pizza, Mark will bring the beer, and I will make some snacks.

Comma with Clauses

Use a comma between two independent clauses in one sentence; with equal elements.
He walked home. He shut the door. (two sentences. OK)
He walked home, and he shut the door. (compound sentence with two independent clauses. OK)
He walked home and shut the door. (single subject with compound verb. OK)
He walked home, he shut the door. (run-on sentence, NOT OK)

Place comma before the conjunction (and, or, but, for, nor, yet, so)
She hit the ball, and then she ran to first base.
Mike drove to the concert, but he was stopped at the gate because he had forgotten to bring his ticket.
Zelda’s car was out of gas, so she had to walk to school.

But no comma in a sentence with a single subject and compound verb.
She hit the ball and then ran to first base.
Mike drove to the concert but was stopped at the gate because he had forgotten to bring his ticket.

No comma for restrictive clauses (information essential to understanding the sentence).
The students who are majoring in journalism are eager to work on the campus newspaper. (not all students; just journalism majors)
Books that are rented usually are returned in good condition. (That always introduces a restrictive clause, thus no comma)

Use comma with nonrestrictive clauses (nice-to-know but nonessential information).
These two books, which are rented, were returned in good condition. (which introduces a nonrestrictive clause, so use comma)
Joe’s class, which meets in Ketchum, is required for seniors.

Context is important in identifying restrictive versus nonrestrictive clauses.
The book that has black-and-white photos is used in class. (Tells readers which of more than one book, but only one with BW photos)
The book, which has black-and-white photos, is used in class. (Simply adds information about the book)

Comma with Adjectives

Comma to separate adjectives to replace and when the order of the adjectives is interchangeable (coordinate adjective).
I want a cup of hot, rich coffee. I want a cup of rich, hot coffee.
Who is the tall, beautiful blonde who just came in? Who is the beautiful, tall blonde who just came in?
Her poetry focuses on ethnic pride, intercultural understanding, and personal growth.
Daily training involves running 10 miles before breakfast, swimming an hour before lunch, and working out for an hour in the gym.

But no comma if the adjectives would not use and (cumulative adjective).
I ordered a warm cherry cheesecake for desert.
He drives an old blue Ford.
My grandmother is the typical little old lady.

Comma with Introductory Elements

Comma after introductory phrase (which describe when, where, why, how, under what conditions)
Beside the car, two people sit on the bench.
To Martin, French is a useful language to know.
Between now and the end of the semester, I have a lot of work to do.
In the documentary, racial justice is seen as the goal.
In fact, nurses earn more than teachers.

Comma after introductory clause
When I go to the store, I ty to bring my own recycle bags.
While I was taking the test, I realized I should have studied more.
Although I was tired, I finished the paper before the deadline.

Comma after introductory adverb
Quickly, I ran to the scene of the accident.
Unfortunately, she didn’t pass the test.
However, we still went to the party.
Exception. The comma is optional with a short adverb clause or phrase.
Later I moved to the suburbs.

Comma with Parenthetical Elements
Parenthetical = can be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence.
The Peace Bridge, which connects Canada and the U.S., is a toll bridge.
Mel’s best friend, Frank, plans to attend summer school.

Comma with appositive
Marian’s goal, to graduate next December, seems unlikely now.
Her boyfriend, Marvin, can’t seem to hold a job.
Matilda Smith, a professor of communication, is leading this workshop.

Beyoncé’s video “Formation” has received many positive reviews. (more than one video, so name must be included)
Beyoncé’s first video, “I Got That,” is still one of my favorites. (only one first video, so name is optional)

I’ll give the book to my brother Mark. (more than one brother, so name must be included with no comma)
But: I’ll give the book to my brother, Mark.(only one brother, so name is optional with comma)

Miscellaneous uses for comma

With city and state/country.
Buffalo, New York, is an interesting city.
Paris, France, is called “The City of Lights.”

With interjection or tag.
Yes, Juanita, I know you are hungry.
This, of course, will be on the exam.
I would like to buy this ring, please.
That concert was pretty dull, wasn’t it?

With dates.
We leave on June 16, 2016, at 6 a.m.
But no comma without specific date.
We will arrive sometime in June 2016 and stay through August.

To prevent confusion.
To err is human; to forgive, divine.
During a snowstorm, students who can, come to class even if they are late.

Do not use a comma after such as or like
Food such as chili and pineapple give me heartburn.

Comma with Quotes

Use comma to set off quoted material.
Place a comma or period before the closing quotation mark.
The brochure says, “Communication is the largest department on campus.”
“The purpose of this assignment,” explained the professor, “is to learn how to research a topic.”
“Barbara is the best player on the team,” said the coach.

But no comma with the word that without a direct quote.
The brochure said that Communication is the largest department on campus.

Alternative: Use a colon to introduce a lengthy section of quoted material.
The brochure says: “Communication is the largest department on campus. In fact, it is one of the largest departments at any of the 13 SUNY colleges and four university centers.”

Don’t double up on punctuation by using a comma with a quote that includes a question mark or exclamation mark.
“When will this skirt go sale?” asked the customer. (no comma because question mark is stronger)
“Barbara is the greatest!” said the coach. (no comma because exclamation mark is stronger)

Other Punctuation

Quotation Marks

Use full quotation marks around TV episodes, book chapters, music videos, and other works of art.
I just watched the latest episode of “Scandal.”
Use full quotation marks around quoted sentences, with single quotation marks around works of art mentioned within the quote.
“Did you see the latest episode of ‘Scandal’ last week?” she asked.

Hyphen

Use a hyphen with a compound adjective.
She’s a real back-seat driver.
William has this I-don’t-care attitude that drives me nuts.

Colon

Use a colon to introduce a list.
The recipe calls for the following: eggs, milk, cinnamon, parsley, and cheese.
But no colon with a listing that is part of the sentence.
The recipe calls for eggs, milk, cinnamon, parley, and cheese.

Semicolon

Use a semicolon in place of a period to connect two short independent clauses without a conjunction.
Matt came home late; Martha was furious.

Apostrophe

Use an apostrophe to indicate missing letters, as in a contraction.
We should not argue. We shouldn’t argue.
It’s going to rain tomorrow.
They’re going to see their new friends in the park over there.
Use an apostrophe to show possession.
This is Marvin’s new car.
Texas’s weather is varied. Will you bring the boss’s briefcase that she forgot?
John and Mary’s new car is a Honda.
The dog’s leash is stuck in the fence. The dogs’ vaccination papers are in the desk.

Self Quiz: Punctuation

  1. My password includes my address so its easy to remember. (2)
  2. I cant seem to remember whos on the teams roster. (3)
  3. Thursday May 5 2016 is my last class ever. (3)
  4. She said you guys need to be on time from now on. (2)
  5. No Harvey you cant always trust what you see in the rear view mirror. (4)
  6. Wherever you go people seem to recognize you. (1)
  7. My best friend who also is Joes brother in law is having some problems with his girlfriend. (5)
  8. I asked my friend Fernando did you really ask for your ring back. (4)
  9. Martin my friend from Erie Pennsylvania wont be joining us. (4)
  10. Nguyen said shes been studying over the break so she isnt worried about the exam. (3)
  11. The most up to date production houses are in Nashville Tennessee and Atlanta Georgia. (5)
  12. Community colleges which didnt exist before the 1950s are very popular. (3)
  13. He called his boss to say hes not feeling well today but she didnt answer so he left a message. (3)
  14. Anyhow I wont be attending the party with you Mark and James. (3)
  15. The road that goes across Grand Island is being repaired this summer. (0)
  16. She has taken several required courses speech, intro, writing and internship. (1)
  17. MediaWriting is the title of the textbook in Professor Jones class. (1)
  18. Because Im not feeling well Im staying home this morning. (3)

Answers

1. address,/it’s/.

2. can’t/who’s/team’s/.

3. Thursday,/May 5,/2016,/.

4. “you/on.”/.

5. No,/Harvey,/can’t/rear-view/.

6. go,/.

7. friend,/Joe’s/brother-/in-/law,/.

8. Fernando,/“did/back?/”/.

9. Martin,/Erie,/Pennsylvania,/won’t/.

10. she’s/break,/isn’t/.

11. up-/to-date/Nashville,/Tennessee,/Atlanta,/.

12. colleges,/didn’t/1950s,/.

13. he’s/today,/didn’t/.

14. Anyhow,/won’t/you,/.

15. Correct.

16. courses:/.

17. Jones’/.

18. I’m/well,/I’m/.

Online Resources

Purdue Online Writing Lab
GrammarBook
Northern Illinois University
Georgia State

Writing Boot Camp: Word Choice

Ronald D. Smith APR

Confusing Word Pairs

  1. accept / except
  2. advice / advise
  3. affect / effect
  4. allot / a lot / alot
  5. allusion / illusion
  6. aloud / allowed
  7. amoral / immoral
  8. amount / number
  9. apart / a part
  10. bazaar / bizarre
  11. beside / besides
  12. between / among
  13. blond / blonde
  14. breath / breathe
  15. capital / capitol
  16. censor / censure / sensor / censer
  17. cereal / serial
  18. compliment / complement
  19. consecutive / successive
  20. copyright / copywrite
  21. council / counsel
  22. defuse / diffuse
  23. disinterested / uninterested
  24. eminent / imminent
  25. ensure / insure / assure
  26. farther / further
  27. fewer / less
  28. good / well
  29. historic / historical
  30. imply / infer
  31. its / it’s
  32. literally/ figuratively
  33. lose / loose
  34. me / I / myself
  35. past / passed
  36. pole / poll
  37. pour / poor / pore
  38. precede / proceed
  39. principal / principle
  40. raise / rise
  41. refurbish / renovate / refurnish
  42. renown / renowned
  43. role / roll
  44. sight / site / cite
  45. smooth / smoothe
  46. suppose / supposed
  47. than / then
  48. they’re / their / there
  49. threw / through / though
  50. vain / vane / vein
  51. who / that
  52. who / whom
  53. your / you’re

Redundant Words

  1. absolutely essential
  2. actual fact
  3. added bonus
  4. advance planning
  5. altogether eliminate
  6. armed gunman
  7. ask a question
  8. best ever
  9. close proximity
  10. completely destroy / filled
  11. consensus of opinion
  12. each and every
  13. empty hole
  14. end result
  15. fall down
  16. filled to capacity
  17. final outcome
  18. foreign imports
  19. free gift
  20. gather together
  21. invited guests
  22. kitty cat
  23. kneel down
  24. new innovation
  25. old adage / custom / proverb
  26. past experience / record / memory / history
  27. plan ahead
  28. protest against
  29. puppy dog
  30. reason is because
  31. refer back
  32. rice paddy
  33. sand dune
  34. still remains
  35. suddenly exploded
  36. surrounded on all sides
  37. temper tantrum
  38. tuna fish
  39. unexpected surprise
  40. very unique / pregnant / first
  41. written down

ATM machine
CNN news network
HPV virus
PIN number
SAT test
UPC code
VIN number

Miscellaneous

among versus amongst
and also
could care less
couldn’t hardly wait
for all intents and purposes
former
irregardless
like versus such as
whether or not
worthwhile