Notes

1. Walter Hölbling, “Thanksgiving,” a poem circulated to friends, November 2003. Used by permission of the poet.
2. Italian Americans, by and large, were not sympathetic. California, Office of the Governor, “Governor Newsom Issues Proclamation Declaring Indigenous Peoples’ Day” (October 14, 2019).
3. PBS News Hour, “Why more people are celebrating Indigenous Peoples’ Day” (October 14, 2019).
4. Roxane Dunbar-Ortiz, An Indigenous Peoples’ History of the United States (Boston: Beacon Press, 2014).
5. Lyle Campbell, American Indian Languages (New York: Oxford, 1997); Lyle Campbell and Marianne Mithun, eds., The Languages of Native America: Historical and Comparative Assessment (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979); Marianne Mithun, The Languages of Native North America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999). Here and elsewhere in this book, I have also used the expert essays in Frederick E. Hoxie, ed., Encyclopedia of North American Indians (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996), and Carl Waldman, Atlas of the North American Indian, rev. ed. (New York: Checkmark, 2000).
6. All three photographs come from Azusa Publishing, Inc. Kicks Iron was photographed by F. B. Fiske in about 1905. The photo of Tswawadi was taken by Charles H. Carpenter in 1904, and comes from the collection of the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago (Neg. #13583). Mishongnovi was photographed by A. C. Vroman in 1901 and comes to us courtesy of the Seaver Center, Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History. All are used by permission.
7. London’s population ranged from 40,000 to 50,000 between 1300 and 1500, Rome’s from 20,000 to 40,000. Tertius Chandler and Gerald Fox, 3000 Years of Urban History (New York: Academic Press, 1974) 14-15, 34-35.
8. Neal Salisbury, “The Indians’ Old World: Native Americans and the Coming of Europeans,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3d ser. 53 (1996), 435-58; Lynda Norene Shaffer, Native Americans Before 1492: The Moundbuilding Centers of the Eastern Woodlands (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharp, 1992); Alice Beck Kehoe, America Before the European Invasion (London: Longman, 2002), 163-91; Peter Nabokov with Dean Snow, “Farmers of the Woodlands,” in Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., ed., America in 1492 (New York: Vintage, 1993), 118-45; Thomas E. Emerson, Cahokia and the Archaeology of Power (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1997); Colin G. Calloway, One Vast Winter Count: The Native American West Before Lewis and Clark (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003); Stephen Warren, The Worlds the Shawnees Made: Migration and Violence in Early America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014); Michael McDonnell, Masters of Empire: Great Lakes Indians and the Making of America (New York: Hill and Wang, 2015).
9. The Hohokam in southern Arizona and the Anasazi in the Four Corners region were large, complex, agriculture-based societies like the Mississippians. They lasted several centuries but declined before the coming of the Europeans. Bruce G. Trigger and William R. Swagerty, “Entertaining Strangers: North America in the Sixteenth Century,” in The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Volume I: North America. Part 1, ed. Bruce G. Trigger and Wilcomb E. Washburn (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 325-98; Kehoe, America Before the European Invasions, 89-96, 138-62; Richard D. Daugherty, “People of the Salmon,” in Josephy, America in 1492, 48-83; Ned Blackhawk, Violence Over the Land: Indians and Empires in the Early American West (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008); Pekka Hämäläinen, Lakota America: A New History of Indigenous Power (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2019).
10. Robert Berkhofer, Jr., The White Man’s Indian: Images of the Indian from Columbus to the Present (New York: Knopf, 1978), 4.
11. Russell Thornton makes the following population estimates for various parts of the world about 1500 in American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since 1492 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987), 37.
                         

The Americas	75 million
China	100 – 150 million
Indian subcontinent	75 – 150 million
Southwest Asia	20 – 30 million
Japan	15 – 20 million
Rest of Asia except USSR	15 – 30 million
Europe except USSR	60 – 70 million
USSR	10 – 18 million
North Africa	6 – 12 million
Rest of Africa	30 – 60 million
Oceania	1 – 2 million
Total	407 – 617 million

12. These are conservative figures. Other estimates for America north of Mexico range as high as ten million. William M. Denevan, The Native Population of the Americas in 1492, 2nd ed. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992), xxviii; Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and Survival; Russell Thornton, “North American Indians and the Demography of Contact,” in Race, Discourse, and the Origin of the Americas, ed. Vera Lawrence Hyatt and Rex Nettleford (Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1995), 213-30; Thornton, “The Demography of Colonialism and ‘Old’ and ‘New’ Native Americans,” in Studying Native America, ed. Thornton (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1998), 17-39; David E. Stannard, Before the Horror: The Population of Hawai‘i on the Eve of Western Contact (Honolulu: Social Science Research Institute, University of Hawai‘i, 1989); Campbell Gibson and Kay Jung, “Historical Census Statistics on Population totals by Race, 1790 to 1990, and by Hispanic Origin, 1970 to 1990, for the United States, Regions, Divisions, and States,” Population Division, Working Paper No. 56 (Washington, DC: US Census Bureau, 2002), Table 1.
13. Kehoe, America Before the European Invasions: 8-21; Dean R. Snow, “The First Americans and the Differentiation of Hunter-Gatherer Cultures,” in Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Volume I. Part 1, ed. Trigger and Washburn, 61-124; E. James Dixon, Quest for the Origins of the First Americans (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1993); Tom D. Dillehay, The Settlement of the Americas: A New Prehistory (New York: Basic Books, 2000); David E. Stannard, American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World (New York: Oxford, 1992), 261-68; David Treuer, The Heartbeat of Wounded Knee: Native America from 1890 to the Present (New York: Riverhead, 2019): 19-44.
14. Joel W. Martin, The Land Looks After Us: A History of Native American Religion (New York: Oxford, 2001); Albert Yava, Big Falling Snow: A Tewa-Hopi Indian’s Life and Times and the History and Traditions of His People, ed. Harold Courlander (New York: Crown, 1978); Paul Spickard, James V. Spickard, and Kevin M. Cragg, World History by the World’s Historians (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998), 6-15.
15. Dennis J. Stanford and Bruce A. Bradley, Across Atlantic Ice: The Origin of America’s Clovis Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012); Ivan Van Sertima, They Came Before Columbus: The African Presence in Ancient America (New York: Random House, 1976); David H. Kelley, “An Essay on Pre-Columbian Contacts between the Americas and other Areas, with Special Reference to the Work of Ivan Van Sertima,” in Race, Discourse, and the Origin of the Americas, ed. Hyatt and Nettleford: 103-22; Ben R. Finney, Sailing in the Wake of the Ancestors: Reviving Polynesian Voyaging (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 2003); David Lewis, We, the Navigators: The Ancient Art of Landfinding in the Pacific, 2nd ed. (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1994); Annette Kolodny, In Search of First Contact: The Vikings of Vinland, the Peoples of the Dawnland, and the Anglo-American Anxiety of Discovery (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2012); Louise Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas: The Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne, 1405-1433 (New York: Oxford, 1996); Gavin Menzies, 1421: The Year China Discovered America (New York: Morrow, 2003); Rafique Ali Jairazbhoy, Ancient Egyptians and Chinese in America (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1974); C. G. Leland, Fusang: The Discovery of America by Chinese Buddhist Priests in the Fifth Century (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1973; orig. 1875); Helge M. Ingstad, Westward to Vinland (New York: St. Martin’s, 1969).
16. In like manner, Hawaiians will be treated as the original inhabitants of what is now the fiftieth state. Although their ancestors came to the islands in remembered time, they came several centuries before European and Asian incursions.
17. Matthew Restall, ”Black Conquistadors: Armed Africans in Early Spanish America.” The Americas, Vol. 57, No. 2, The African Experience in Early Spanish America (Oct. 2000), pp. 171-205; Matthew Restall, Maya Conquistador (Boston: Beacon press, 1999); Matthew Restall, Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004); Laura E. Matthew, ed., and Michel R. Oudijk, Indian Conquistadors: Indigenous Allies in the Conquest of Mesoamerica (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2012); Laura E. Matthew, Memories of Conquest: Becoming Mexicano in Colonial Guatemala (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014).
18. Waldman, Atlas of the North American Indian, 190.
19. Sherburne F. Cook and Woodrow Borah, “The Aboriginal Population of Hispaniola,” in Cook and Borah, Essays in Population History. Volume 1. Mexico and the Caribbean, 1600-1860 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973), 376-410; Stannard, American Holocaust, 58-146; Ida Altman, Sarah Cline, and Juan Javier Pescador, The Early History of Greater Mexico (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2003), 53-113; Catherine M. Cameron, et al., eds., Beyond Germs: Native Depopulation in North America (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2015).
20. Altman, Cline, and Pescador, Early History of Greater Mexico, 185-201; David J. Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1992), 60-91; Weber, ed., What Caused the Pueblo Revolt of 1680? (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 1999); Weber, ed., New Spain’s Far Northern Frontier (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1979); Blackhawk, Violence Over the Land; Robbie Ethridge, From Chicaza to Chickasaw: The European Invasion and the Transformation of the Mississippian World, 1540-1715 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010).
21. W. J. Eccles, The French in North America, 1500-1783, rev. ed. (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1998); Eccles, France in America (New York: Harper and Row, 1972); Russell Shorto, Island at the Center of the World: The Epic Story of Dutch Manhattan, the Forgotten Colony that Shaped America (New York: Doubleday, 2004). Here and elsewhere in this chapter I have had occasion to rely also on Gary B. Nash, Red, White, and Black: The Peoples of Early America (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1974).
22. Chrestien LeClerq, New Relation of Gaspesia, with the Customs and Religion of the Gaspesian Indians, trans. and ed. William F. Ganong (Toronto: Champlain Society, 1910), 104-06, quoted in Colin G. Galloway, ed., The World Turned Upside Down: Indian Voices from Early America (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 1994), 50-52.
23. Berkhofer, White Man’s Indian, 28.
24. Stannard, American Holocaust, 247; see also Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (New York: Norton, 1976).
25. Nash, Red, White, and Black, 34-43.
26. Cornelius J. Jaenen, “Amerindian Views of French Culture in the Seventeenth Century,” Canadian Historical Review, 55 (1974), 261-91.
27. Nancy Shoemaker, A Strange Likeness: Becoming Red and White in Eighteenth-Century North America (New York: Oxford, 2004); Kathleen DuVal, The Native Ground: Indians and Colonists in the Heart of the Continent (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007); Jace Weaver, The Red Atlantic: American Indigenes and the Making of the Modern World, 1000-1927 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014): 1-85.
28. Charlotte J. Erickson, “English,” in Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980), 319-36. I have used various of the essays in this encyclopedia in this chapter and throughout the book. For population figures for the entire incipient United States, see Appendix, Table 1.
29. David Beers Quinn, Set Fair for Roanoke: Voyages and Colonies, 1584-1606 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985).
30. Ibid.
31. Except where otherwise noted, information on the Jamestown encounter with Powhatan’s people is taken from: Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York: Norton, 1975), 44-91; David Price, Love and Hate in Jamestown: John Smith, Pocahontas, and the Heart of a New Nation (New York: Knopf, 2003); Helen C. Rountree, ed., Powhatan Foreign Relations (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1993); Frederic W. Gleach, Powhatan’s World and Colonial Virginia (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997); Wesley Frank Craven, White, Red, and Black: The Seventeenth-Century Virginian (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1971), 39-71; Philip L. Barbour, Pocahontas and Her World (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970); Frances Mossiker, Pocahontas: The Life and the Legend (New York: Knopf, 1976); Helen C. Rountree, “Pocahontas: The Hostage Who Became Famous,” in Sifters: Native American Women’s Lives, ed. Theda Perdue (New York: Oxford, 2001), 14-28.
32. Philip L. Barbour, ed., The Complete Works of Captain John Smith (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986), 1:247.
33. Vaughan, Puritan Frontier, 64-92; Nash, Red, White, and Black, 76-80; Francis J. Bremer, The Puritan Experiment: New England Society from Bradford to Edwards (New York: St. Martin’s, 1976), 42-56.
34. Vaughan, loc. cit.; Neal Salisbury, Manitou and Providence: Indians and Europeans in the Making of New England, 1500-1643 (New York: Oxford, 1982); Salisbury, “Squanto: Last of the Patuxets,” in Struggle and Survival in Colonial America, ed. David G. Sweet and Gary B. Nash (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981), 228-46
35. Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and Survival, 60-90; David E. Stannard, Before the Horror: The Population of Hawai‘i on the Eve of Western Contact (Honolulu: Social Science Research Institute, University of Hawai‘i, 1989); Stannard, American Holocaust, 95; Susan Sleeper Smith, “Encounter and Trade in the Early Atlantic World,” in Why You Can’t Teach United States History without American Indians, ed. Susan Sleeper-Smith, et al. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015): 26-42; Cameron, et al., Beyond Germs.
36. John Winthrop, “Generall Considerations for the Plantation in New England . . .” (1629), in Winthrop Papers, 5 vols., ed. Allyn B. Forbes (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1929-47), 2:118; quoted in Nash, Red, White, and Black, 80.
37. Gleach, Powhatan’s World.
38. Vaughan, New England Frontier, 123-54; Richard Drinnon, Facing West: The Metaphysics of Indian-Hating and Empire-Building (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997), 35-61.
39. Russell Bourne, The Red King’s Rebellion: Racial Politics in New England, 1675-1678 (New York: Atheneum, 1990); Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Knopf, 1998).
40. Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975), 146-70; Stannard, American Holocaust, 118-19. Among the many analyses of Serbian genocide in Bosnia is Genocide in Bosnia: The Policy of Ethnic Cleansing, by Norman Cigar and Stjepan G. Mestrovic (College Station: Texas A & M Press, 1995); DuVal, Native Ground; Ethridge, Chikaza.
41. Ramón Gutierrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away: Marriage, Sexuality, and Power in New Mexico, 1500-1846 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1991), 130-40; Jack D. Forbes, Apache, Navaho, and Spaniard (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994; orig. 1960), 200-49; David J. Weber, ed., What Caused the Pueblo Revolt of 1680? (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 1999); Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1992), 133-45; Pekka Hämäläinen, “The Rise and Fall of Plains Indian Horse Cultures,” Journal of American History (December 2003), 833-62; Pekka Hämäläinen, The Comanche Empire (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008).
42. Matthew Dennis, Cultivating a Landscape of Peace: Iroquois-European Encounters in Seventeenth-Century America (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1993); Nash, Red, White, and Black, 17-25, 239-75; Theda Perdue, “Mixed Blood” Indians: Racial Construction in the Early South (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2003); Amy Turner Bushnell, “Ruling ‘The Republic of Indians’ in Seventeenth-Century Florida,” in Powhatan’s Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast, ed. Peter H. Wood, Gregory A. Waselkov, and M. Thomas Hatley (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989), 134-50.
43. James Axtell, “The White Indians of Colonial America,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, 32 (1975), 55-88.
44. Perdue, “Mixed Blood” Indians; Robbie Ethridge, Creek Country: The Creek Indians and Their World (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); Rebecca Anne Goetz, The Baptism of Early Virginia: How Christianity Created Race (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012).
45. That is, if one does not regard Africans as a single group. See the next section, “Out of Africa,” for that issue.
46. David Hackett Fischer, Albion’s Seed: Four British Folkways in America (New York: Oxford, 1989). For a broader view of European migration to the Americas, in terms of both the origins and the destinations of migrants, see Eric Hinderaker and Rebecca Horn, European Emigration to the Americas, 1492 to Independence: A Hemispheric View (New York: Oxford, 2020).
47. Bernard Bailyn, The Peopling of British North America (New York: Knopf, 1986), 25, 40; Bernard Bailyn, The Barbarous Years: The Peopling of British North America: The Conflict of Civilizations, 1600-1675 (New York: Knopf, 2012); Carl Bridenbaugh, Vexed and Troubled Englishmen, 1590-1642 (New York: Oxford, 1968), 203-08. Contra Bailyn, it is worth remembering that North America was already peopled before the first British migrant left shore.
48. Walter Woodward, “Jamestown Estates,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 47 (1991), 116-17.
49. Sources on the Puritans include Francis Bremer, The Puritan Experiment: New England Society from Bradford to Edwards (New York: St. Martin’s, 1976); Alan Simpson, Puritanism in Old and New England (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1955); Edmund S. Morgan, The Puritan Dilemma: The Story of John Winthrop (Boston: Little, Brown, 1958); Fischer, Albion’s Seed: 13-205; John Demos, A Little Commonwealth: Family Life in Plymouth Colony (New York: Oxford, 1970); William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation (New York: Knopf, 1952); Edmund S. Morgan, Visible Saints: The History of a Puritan Idea (New York: New York University Press, 1963); Carol F. Karlsen, The Devil in the Shape of a Woman: Witchcraft in Colonial New England (New York: Norton, 1987); John Demos, Entertaining Satan: Witchcraft and the Culture of Early New England (New York: Oxford, 1982).
50. On the Halfway Covenant, see Edmund S. Morgan, Visible Saints: The History of a Puritan Idea (New York: New York University Press, 1963), 113-38.
51. Fischer, Albion’s Seed: 207. The material for this section is taken from Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, and Fischer, Albion’s Seed, 207-418.
52. On indentured servitude, see Abbot Emerson Smith, Colonists in Bondage: White Servitude and Convict Labor in America, 1607-1776 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1947); P. C. Emmer, ed., Colonialism and Migration: Indentured Labour Before and After Slavery (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1986); David W. Galenson, White Servitude in Colonial America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).
53. On Bacon’s Rebellion, see varying interpretations in Wilcomb E. Washburn, The Governor and the Rebel: A History of Bacon’s Rebellion in Virginia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1957); Thomas J. Wertenbaker, Bacon’s Rebellion, 1676 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1957); Nash, Red, White, and Black, 127-34; Ronald Takaki, A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (Boston: Little, Brown, 1993), 60-68; Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, 215-70; Theodore W. Allen, The Invention of the White Race: The Origin of Racial Oppression in Anglo-America (London: Verso, 1997).
54. Fischer, Albion’s Seed, 419-603; Joseph E. Illick, Colonial Pennsylvania (New York: Scribner’s, 1976); Sally Schwartz, “A Mixed Multitude”: The Struggle for Toleration in Colonial Pennsylvania (New York: New York University Press, 1988).
55. It also encouraged migration by Africans, but as slaves rather than servants or free laborers; see below.
56. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, 94, 171-73, 405-06.
57. Michael LeMay and Elliott Robert Barkan, eds., U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Laws and Issues: A Documentary History (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1999), 6-9.
58. Jacob Van Hinte, Netherlanders in America, ed. Robert P. Swierenga, trans. Adriaan de Wit (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Book House, 1985), 3-51; Shorto, Island at the Center of the World.
59. Aaron Spencer Fogleman, Hopeful Journeys: German Immigration, Settlement, and Political Culture in Colonial America, 1717-1775 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996); A. G. Roeber, “ ‘The Origin of Whatever Is Not English among Us’: The Dutch-speaking and the German-speaking Peoples of Colonial British America,” in Strangers within the Realm: Cultural Margins of the First British Empire, ed. Bernard Bailyn and Philip D. Morgan (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), 220-83; Don Heinrich Tolzmann, The German-American Experience (Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus, 2000), 21-94.
60. Sources on German immigration in this period include Steven M. Nolt, Foreigners in Their Own Land: Pennsylvania Germans in the Early Republic (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2002); A. G. Roeber, Palatines, Liberty, and Property: German Lutherans in Colonial British America, rev. ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998); Aaron Spencer Fogleman, Hopeful Journeys: German Immigration, Settlement, and Political Culture in Colonial America, 1717-1775 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1996); Sally Schwartz, “A Mixed Multitude”: The Struggle for Toleration in Colonial Pennsylvania (New York: New York University Press, 1987), 81-119; Joseph E. Illick, Colonial Pennsylvania (New York: Scribner’s 1976), 113-36; Philip Otterness, Becoming German: The 1709 Palatine Migration to New York (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2004). One highly visible German immigrant was Baron Friedrich von Steuben, an openly gay Prussian military officer who trained American troops in the war for independence from Britain. See Paul Lockhart, Drillmaster of Valley Forge: The Baron de Steuben and the Making of the American Army (New York: HarperCollins, 2008); William Benemann, Male-Male Intimacy in Early America: Beyond Romantic Friendships ({Philadelphia: Haworth Press, 2006).
61. Fogleman, Hopeful Journeys, esp. 80-86, 131-35, 149-53.
62. Maldwyn Jones, “Scotch-Irish,” in Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, 895-908. Other sources for this section include Fischer, Albion’s Seed, 605-782; James G. Leyburn, The Scotch-Irish (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1963); Carl Bridenbaugh, Myths and Realities: Societies of the Colonial South (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1952), 119-96; Patrick Griffin, The People with No Name: Ireland’s Ulster Scots, America’s Scots Irish, and the Creation of a British Atlantic World, 1689-1764 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001); Maldwyn A. Jones, “The Scotch-Irish in British America,” in Strangers within the Realm, 284-313; J. P. MacLean, An Historical Account of the Settlements of Scotch Highlanders in America Prior to the Peace of 1783 (Cleveland, 1900); David Dobson, The Scottish Emigration to Colonial America, 1607-1785 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1994); Tyler Blethen and Curtis W. Wood, Ulster and North America: Transatlantic Perspectives on the Scotch-Irish (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1997).
63. Samuel Johnson, A Journey to the Western Isles of Scotland, ed. Mary Lascelles (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1971; orig. 1775), 95.
64. James Boswell, Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides, ed. Frederick A. Pottle and Charles H. Bennett (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1936; orig. 1773), 242-43; italics added.
65. Gottlieb Mittelberger, Journey to Pennsylvania, ed. and trans. Oscar Handlin and John Clive (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960), 12-13.
66. Ibid., 17-19.
67. Richard Hofstadter, America at 1750: A Social Portrait (New York: Knopf, 1971), 22-65.
68. Mittelberger, Journey to Pennsylvania, 21.
69. Kariann Akemi Yokota, Unbecoming British: How Revolutionary America Became a Post-Colonial Nation (New York: Oxford, 2011); Benjamin Franklin, The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin, ed. Louis P. Masur (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 1993); Walter Isaacson, Benjamin Franklin (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2003); Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, trans. Talcott Parsons (New York: Scribner, 1958), 79-92; Richard L. Bushman, From Puritan to Yankee: Character and the Social Order in Connecticut, 1690-1765 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1967), ix; Philip J. Greven, Jr., Four Generations: Population, Land, and Family in Colonial Andover, Massachusetts (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1970).
70. David Brion Davis, In the Image of God: Religion, Moral Values, and Our Heritage of Slavery (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2001), quoted in William H. McNeill, “The Big R,” New York Review of Books (May 23, 2002), 58.
71. I use the term “Negro” here advisedly, for it was the common term that both non-African-descended people and African-descended people used in the period under examination.
72. Venture Smith, A Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Venture, A Native of Africa . . . (New London, Conn., 1798), quoted in Thomas R. Frazier, ed., Afro-American History: Primary Sources, 2nd ed. (Chicago: Dorsey, 1988), 8-9
73. Olaudah Equiano, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, ed. Robert J. Allison (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 1995; orig. 1789), 52-54.
74. Ibid., 57-58.
75. Ibid., 59.
76. A good place to start on the other vast slave movement out of Africa is Ronald Segal, Islam’s Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora (New York: Hill and Wang, 2001). See also Patrick Manning, Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Michael A. Gomez, Reversing Sail: A History of the African Diaspora (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005); Emma Christopher, et al., Many Middle Passages: Forced Migration and the Making of the Modern World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007).
77. The numbers here are based on my estimates of the numbers displayed in three-dimensional bar graph form. Gemery and Menard’s estimates for Africans are lower than several other demographers’. Accordingly, I have supplemented them with information from Philip D. Curtin, The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969), 140. See also Henry A. Gemery, “Emigration from the British Isles to the New World, 1630-1700: Inferences from Colonial Populations,” Research in Economic History, 5 (1980), 179-231; Gemery, “European Emigration to North America, 1700-1820: Numbers and Quasi-Numbers,” Perspectives in American History, New Series, 1 (1984), 283-343; Gemery, “The White Population of the Colonial United States, 1607-1790,” in A Population History of North America, ed. Michael R. Haines and Richard H. Steckel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 143-90; Philip D. Curtin, The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969), 140; Paul E. Lovejoy, “The Volume of the Atlantic Slave Trade: A Synthesis,” Journal of African History, 23 (1982), 473-501); Joseph Inikori and Stanley L. Engerman, eds., The Atlantic Slave Trade (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1992); James A. Rawley, The Transatlantic Slave Trade (New York: Norton, 1981), 167; Michael A. Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 20.
78. David Northrup, ed., The Atlantic Slave Trade, 3rd ed. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2011); Walter Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (Washington: Howard University Press, 1974), 95-118; Rodney, A History of the Upper Guinea Coast, 1545-1800 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970). For contrasting views, see Patrick Manning, “Contours of Slavery and Social Change in Africa,” American Historical Review, 88.4 (1983), 836-57; David Eltis, “Precolonial Western Africa and the Atlantic Economy,” in Slavery and the Rise of the Atlantic System, ed. Barbara Solow (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 97-119; Henry A. Gemery and Jan S. Hogendorn, eds., The Uncommon Market: Essays in the Economic History of the Atlantic Slave Trade (New York: Academic Press, 1979).
79. L. S. Stavrianos, Global Rift: The Third World Comes of Age (New York: Morrow), 99-121, 196-204; Herman L. Bennett, African Kings and Black Slaves: Sovereignty and Dispossession in the Early Modern Atlantic (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019).
80. This interpretation comes from several sources: Winthrop D. Jordan, The White Man’s Burden: Historical Origins of Racism in the United States (New York: Oxford, 1974), 3-54; Jordan, White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968), 3-98; David Brion Davis, Slavery and Human Progress (New York: Oxford, 1984); Betty Wood, The Origins of American Slavery (New York: Hill and Wang, 1997); Alden T. Vaughan, “The Origins Debate: Slavery and Racism in Seventeenth-Century Virginia,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 97.3 (1989), 311-54.
81. Allan Gallay, The Indian Slave Trade (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2002); Andrés Reséndez, The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2016).
82. Kenneth Morgan, Slavery and Servitude in Colonial North America (New York: New York University Press, 2001); Ira Berlin, Many Thousands gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998); Winthrop D. Jordan, “American Chiaroscuro: The Status and Definition of Mulattoes in the British Colonies,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 19 (1962), 183-200.
83. Robert Beverley, The History and Present State of Virginia, ed. Louis B. Wright (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1947; orig. 1705), 235-36.
84. These numbers come from a variety of sources. See those listed under Table 2.5, as well as Berlin, Many Thousands Gone: appendices.
85. Sources for the variety of slave patterns in the southern colonies include Berlin, Many Thousands Gone; Nash, Red, White, and Black; Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom; Philip D. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint: Black Culture in the Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake and Lowcountry (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); Peter H. Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (New York: Knopf, 1974); Daniel C. Littlefield, Rice and Slaves: Ethnicity and the Slave Trade in Colonial South Carolina (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981); Betty Wood, Slavery in Colonial Georgia, 1730-1775 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1984).
86. Sources for this section include Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks; Douglas B. Chambers, “ ‘My Own Nation’: Igbo Exiles in the Diaspora,” in Routes to Slavery: Direction, Ethnicity and Mortality in the Transatlantic Slave Trade, ed. David Eltis and David Richardson (London: Frank Cass, 1997), 72-97; Peter Caron, “ ‘Of a Nation Which Others Do Not Understand’: Bambara Slaves and African Ethnicity in Colonial Louisiana, 1718-60,” in Routes to Slavery, 98-121; “The Cultural Implications of the Atlantic Slave Trade: African Regional Origins, American Destinations and New World Developments,” in Routes to Slavery, 122-45; Ira Berlin, “From Creole to African: Atlantic Creoles and the Origins of African-American Society in Mainland North America,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 53.2 (1996); David Northrup, “Igbo Myth and Myth Igbo: Culture and Ethnicity in the Atlantic World, 1600-1850,” Slavery and Abolition, 21.3 (December 2000); Allan Kulikoff, “The Origins of Afro-American Society in Tidewater Maryland and Virginia, 1700-1790,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, 35 (1978), 226-59; Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, Slavery and African Ethnicities in the Americas (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006); A. B. Wilkinson, Blurring the Lines of Race and Freedom: Mulattoes and Mixed Bloods in English Colonial America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2020).
87. Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks, 165.
88. Ibid., 170-80.
89. Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion (New York: Oxford, 1978).
90. Tanner, Settling of North America, 51.
91. Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion: The “Invisible Institution” in the Antebellum South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978): 3-93; Kambiz Ghaneabassiri, A History of Islam in America: From the New World to the New World Order (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010): 9-94; Michael A. Gomez, “Muslims in Early America,” in Race and Immigration in the United States: New Histories, ed. Paul Spickard (New York: Routledge, 2012): 76-111.
92. Ira Berlin, “Time, Space, and the Evolution of Afro-American Society on British Mainland North America,” American Historical Review, 85.1 (1980).
93. We have more detailed knowledge of these migrants than of any others in early America, save the Puritans, thanks to the work of Bernard Bailyn and Barbara DeWolfe. See Bailyn, Voyagers to the West: A Passage in the Peopling of America on the Eve of the Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1986); DeWolfe, Discoveries of America: Personal Accounts of British Emigrants to North America during the Revolutionary Era (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1997). DeWolfe collaborated on Voyagers to the West.
94. Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 223-314; Nash, Red, White, and Black, 239-319.
95. This was in contrast to Amherst’s gentle treatment of French captives. Col. Henry Bouquet to General Amherst, July 13, 1763; Amherst to Bouquet, July 16, 1763; quoted in Francis Parkman, The Conspiracy of Pontiac, vol. 2 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1870), 39-40.
96. Curtin, Atlantic Slave Trade, 140, 234; see also Table 2.4.
97. Jordan, White Over Black, esp. “Unthinking Decision”; Theodore W. Allen, The Invention of the White Race: Racial Oppression and Social Control (London: Verso, 1994). Allen writes specifically about the early construction of the White race. Jordan concentrates on the White formation of Blackness and assigning of Blacks to slavery, but he also attends to Whiteness and the assigning of Whites to freedom. See also Nell Irvin Painter, The History of White People (New York: Norton, 2010). For a reflection on these authors and other students of Whiteness, see Paul Spickard, “What’s Critical About White Studies,” in Racial Thinking in the United States, ed. Spickard and G. Reginald Daniel (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 2004), 248-74.
98. Jon Butler, Becoming America: The Revolution before 1776 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000), 1-49.
99. David R. Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (London: Verso, 1991); Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York: Routledge, 1995).
100. Ethridge, Chikaza to Chickasaw; Stephen Warren, The Worlds the Shawnees Made: Migration and Violence in Early America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014).
101. For this process, see Rebecca Anne Goetz, “Becoming Christian, Becoming White,” in her book The Baptism of Early Virginia (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012).

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Notes

1. The Lincoln-Douglas Debates of 1858, ed., Robert W. Johannsen (New York: Oxford, 1965), 33, 128.
2. This section is based on my unpublished study, “Black Freedom in Revolutionary America: A Legal Study,” a comprehensive analysis of laws and court cases in Massachusetts, New York, Virginia, and South Carolina from the beginnings of slavery through the 1830s.  See also: Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,  1998), 217-357; Berlin, Slaves Without Masters: The Free Negro in the Antebellum South (New York: Pantheon, 1974), 15-107; Roger Bruns, ed., Am I Not a Man and a Brother: The Antislavery Crusade of Revolutionary America, 1688-1788 (New York: Chelsea House, 1977); David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770-1823 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1975); George M. Fredrickson, White Supremacy: A Comparative Study in American and South African History (New York: Oxford, 1981), 140-50; Winthrop D. Jordan, The White Man’s Burden: Historical Origins of Racism in the United States (New York: Oxford, 1974), 134-226; Jordan, White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968), 342-582; Duncan J. Macleod, Slavery, Race and the American Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974); William H. Pease and Jane H. Pease, eds., The Antislavery Argument (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1965), 1-17; Henry Wiencek, An Imperfect God: George Washington, His Slaves, and the Creation of America (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2003); Arthur Zilversmit, The First Emancipation: The Abolition of Slavery in the North (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967).
3. John Chester Miller, The Wolf by the Ears: Thomas Jefferson and Slavery (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1991); Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American Controversy (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1997); Annette Gordon-Reed, The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family (New York: Norton, 2008); Lucia Stanton, “Those Who Labor for My Happiness”: Slavery at Thomas Jefferson’s Monticello (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2012); Maurie D. McInnis and Louis P. Nelson, eds., Educated in Tyranny: Slavery at Thomas Jefferson’s University (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2019).
4. George F. Willison, Patrick Henry and His World (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1969), 9, 264-68, 485-86; italics added.  Gerald Horne adopts the radical position that the American Revolution amounted to a war to keep slavery.  He is right that White American slaveholders were deathly afraid of rebellion by enslaved people.  But we think he overestimates the degree to which the British had decided to give up human bondage by the time Americans declared their independence.  Britain gave up the slave trade finally in 1807, but they do not end slavery until 1833, half a century after the revolution concluded.  Gerald Horne, The Counter-Revolution of 1776: Slave Resistance and the Origins of the United States of America (New York: New York University Press, 2014).
5. US Bureau of the Census, Negro Population, 1790-1915 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1918), 45.
6. For more on the impact of the Haitian Revolution on slavery in the US see Simon P. Newman, “American Political Culture and the French and Haitian Revolutions: Nathaniel Cutting and the Jeffersonian Republicans,” and Robert Alderson, “Charleston Rumored Slave Revolt of 1793,” in David P. Geggus, ed., The Impact of the Haitian Revolution in the Atlantic World (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2002), 72-92, 93-111.
7. Gordon S. Wood, “Never Forget: They Kept Lots of Slaves,” New York Times (December 14, 2003); Benjamin Quarles, The Negro in the American Revolution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1961).  Wood and Henry Wiencek suggest that it may have been George Washington’s experience with African American soldiers that led him to provide for the emancipation and education of his own slaves after his death; Wiencek, An Imperfect God: 353.
8. Willie Lee Rose, ed., A Documentary History of Slavery in North America (New York: Oxford, 1976), 61-62.
9. Carl Becker, The Declaration of Independence (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1922), 212-13.
10. Tanisha Gupta, The Slave’s Cause: A History of Abolition (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2017): 9-193.
11. By the Sixteenth Amendment, the Constitution provided in 1913 for a tax on the incomes of individuals and businesses, but not a per capita tax.  In the late twentieth century and the twenty-first, flat-tax advocates reappeared in the Republican Party, a bit like flat Earth advocates.
12. Number 54, The Federalist Papers, by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay (New York: Penguin, 1961; orig. 1788), 336-37.
13. Kenneth M. Clark, “James Madison and Slavery,” web site of James Madison Museum, Orange, Virginia (2000); http://www.jamesmadisonmus.org/resources/slavery.htm (March 13, 2004); Matthew T. Mellon, Early American Views on Slavery (New York: Bergman, 1969).
14. Leon F. Litwack, North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790-1860 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961).  This analysis leaves aside the question of those Whites—those who did not make property, age, gender, or literacy requirements—who were also disfranchised.  Those are vital issues, but they are outside the scope of the present study.
15. Horne, Counter-Revolution.  Sean Wilentz takes a more sanguine view in No Property in Man: Slavery and Antislavery at the Nation’s Founding (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018); see also Nicholas Guyatt, “How Proslavery Was the Constitution?” New York Review of Books (June 6, 2019):45-47; John Paul Stevens, “The Court and the Right to Vote: A Dissent,” New York Review of Books (August 15, 2013): 37-39; Jamelle Bouie, “The Undemocratic Impulses of American Democracy,” New York Times Magazine (August 14, 2019); Jamelle Bouie, “Liberty and Slavery Have Always Been Wrapped Up With Each Other,” New York Times (August 23, 2019); Garry Wills, “Negro President”: Jefferson and the Slave Power (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2005).
16. Stephen A. Small, “Mustefinos Are White by Law: Whites and People of Mixed Racial Origins in Historical and Comparative Perspective,” in Racial Thinking in the United States: Uncompleted Independence, ed. Paul Spickard and G. Reginald Daniel (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 2004), 76.
17. Berlin, Slaves Without Masters; Revised Code of the Laws of Virginia, 3 vols. (Richmond: Ritchie, 1819), 1.111.
18. Nicholas Guyatt, Bind Us Apart: How Enlightened Americans Invented Segregation (New York: Basic Books, 2016); Litwack, North of Slavery; Leonard Curry, The Free Black in Urban America, 1800-1850 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981); James Oliver Horton, Free People of Color (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993); Gary B. Nash, Forging Freedom: The Formation of Philadelphia’s Black Community, 1720-1840 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988); Eugene H. Berwanger, The Frontier Against Slavery: Western Anti-Negro Prejudice and the Slavery Expansion Controversy (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1967); Carol Wilson, Freedom at Risk: The Kidnapping of Free Blacks in America, 1780-1865 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1994).
19. Carol V. R. George, Segregated Sabbaths: Richard Allen and the Emergence of Independent Black Churches, 1760-1840 (New York: Oxford, 1973); W. Jeffrey Bolster, Black Jacks: African American Seamen in the Age of Sail (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997); Harry Reed, Platforms for Change: The Foundations of the Northern Free Black Community, 1776-1865 (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1994); Benjamin Quarles, Black Abolitionists (New York: Oxford, 1969).
20. Berlin, Many Thousands Gone, 44-45, 123-25; Winthrop D. Jordan, ed. Paul Spickard, "Historical Origins of the One-Drop Rule in the United States," Journal of Critical Mixed Race Studies, 1 (2014), 98-132; Winthrop D. Jordan, "The Fruits of Passion: The Dynamics of Interracial Sex," in Jordan, White Over Black (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968), 136-78; A.B. Wilkinson, blurring the Lines of Race and Freedom: Mulattoes and Mixed Bloods in English Colonial America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2020).
21. Jordan, “Historical Origins of the One-Drop Rule”; F. James Davis, Who Is Black? One Nation’s Definition (University Park: Penn State University Press, 1991); Joel Williamson, New People: Miscegenation and Mulattoes in the United States (New York: Free Press, 1980), 5-60; Paul Spickard, Mixed Blood: Intermarriage and Ethnic Identity in Twentieth-Century America (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989), 235-52; US Census, Negro Population,  220; Berlin, Slaves Without Masters, 46, 178.  For the small minority of interracial couples who followed another pattern, see Martha Hodes, White Women, Black Men: Illicit Sex in the Nineteenth-Century South (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997).
22. G. Reginald Daniel, Race and Multiraciality in Brazil and the United States: Converging Paths? (University Park: Penn State University Press, 2006); G. Reginald Daniel, “Either Black or White: Race, Modernity, and the Law of the Excluded Middle,” in Racial Thinking in the United States, ed. Spickard and Daniel, 21-59; Daniel, “Multiracial Identity: Brazil and the United States,” in We Are a People: Narrative and Multiplicity in Constructing Ethnic Identity, ed. Paul Spickard and W. Jeffrey Burroughs (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2000), 153-78); Daniel, “White Into Black: Race and National Identity in Contemporary Brazil,” in Race and Nation: Ethnic Systems in the Modern World, ed. Paul Spickard (New York: Routledge, 2005); Edward E. Telles, Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004); Edward E. Telles, Pigmentocracies: Ethnicity, Race, and Color in Latin America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014); Carl N. Degler, Neither Black Nor White: Slavery and Race Relations in Brazil and the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1971); George M. Fredrickson, White Supremacy: A Comparative Study in American and South African History (New York: Oxford, 1981); Thomas E. Skidmore, Black into White: Race and Nationality in Brazilian Thought (New York: Oxford, 1974); Charles V. Hamilton, et al., eds., Beyond Racism: Race and Inequality in Brazil, South Africa, and the United States (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2001).
23. Theda Perdue, “Mixed Blood” Indians: Racial Construction in the Early South (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2003), 31, 112, and passim.; William Hartley and Ellen Hartley, Osceola, the Unconquered Indian (New York: Hawthorn, 1973); Barbara Krauthamer, Black Slaves, Indian Masters: Slavery, Emancipation, and Citizenship in the Native American South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013); Circe Sturm, Blood Politics: Race, Culture, and Identity in the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002).
24. Perdue, “Mixed Blood” Indians, 4-5; Jack D. Forbes, Africans and Native Americans: The Language of Race and the Evolution of Red-Black Peoples (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993); Daniel F. Littlefield, Jr., Africans and Seminoles (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1977); Katja May, African Americans and Native Americans in the Cherokee and Creek Nations, 1830s to 1920s (New York: Garland, 1996); William Loren Katz, Black Indians (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996); James F. Brooks, ed., Confounding the Color Line: The Indian-Black Experience in North America (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002); Kevin Mulroy, Freedom on the Border: The Seminole Maroons in Florida, the Indian Territory, Coahuila, and Texas (Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press, 1993); Kenneth Wiggins Porter, The Negro on the American Frontier (New York: Arno, 1971).  There were also many groups of “tri-racial isolates” scattered up and down the eastern seaboard from Florida to New England—small, remote groups who frequently called themselves “Indians” but whose ancestry surely included Africans and Europeans as well—such as the Lumbee, Melungeons, Brass Ankles, and many more; G. Reginald Daniel, “Passers and Pluralists: Subverting the Racial Divide,” in Racially Mixed People in America, ed. Maria P. P. Root (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1992), 91-107.
25. The Writings of George Washington, ed. John C. Fitzpatrick (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1938), 27.253-54; quoted in Immigration and the American Tradition, ed. Moses Rischin (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1976), 43.
26. 1 Stat. 103, quoted in U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Laws and Issues, ed. Michael LeMay and Elliott Robert Barkan (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1999), 11.  Emphasis added.
27. The debate in Congress ranged over many issues and opinions, but no one seems to have questioned limiting US citizenship to White people.  See Annals of Congress, 1st Congress, 2nd Session, 1789-1790, 1109-18; a portion of that debate is reproduced in William C. Fischer, David A. Gerber, Jorge M. Guitart, and Maxine S. Seller, eds., Identity, Community, and Pluralism in American Life (New York: Oxford, 1997), 206-11.
28. James H. Kettner, The Development of American Citizenship, 1608-1870 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1978), 287-333 (quotes are on 294 and 295); Rogers M. Smith, Civic Ideals: Conflicting Visions of Citizenship in US History (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997); Nell Irvin Painter, The History of White People (Norton, 2010): 104-31; Martha S. Jones, Birthright Citizens: A History of Race and Rights in Antebellum America (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2018).
29. Kettner, Development of American Citizenship, 287-333; Smith, Civic Ideals.
30. Kettner, Development of American Citizenship, 102-3, 233-46; Alan Cowell, “Britain’s First Citizenship Ceremony,” New York Times (February 26, 2004).  Emphasis added.
31. Our argument in this section stands on a number of shoulders:  Philip J. Deloria, Playing Indian (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1998); Brian W. Dippie, The Vanishing American: White Attitudes and U.S. Indian Policy (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1982); Robert F. Berkhofer, Jr., The White Man’s Indian (New York: Knopf, 1978); Eva Marie Garroutte, Real Indians: Identity and the Survival of Native America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003); S. Elizabeth Bird, ed., Dressing in Feathers: The Construction of the Indian in American Popular Culture (Boulder, Colo,: Westview, 1996); James A. Clifton, ed., The Invented Indian: Cultural Fictions and Government Policies (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1990); Shari M. Huhndorf, Going Native: Indians in the American Cultural Imagination (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2001); Raymond William Stedman, Shadows of the Indian: Stereotypes in American Culture (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1982); Ward Churchill, Indians Are Us? Culture and Genocide in Native North America (Monroe, Me.: Common Courage Press, 1994); Alan Trachtenberg, Shades of Hiawatha: Staging Indians, Making Americans, 1880-1930 (New York: Hill and Wang, 2004); Paige Rabmon, Authentic Indians: Episodes of Encounter from the Late-Nineteenth-Century Northwest Coast (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2005); Chad A. Barbour, From Daniel Boone to Captain America: Playing Indian in American Popular Culture (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2016); Pauline Turner Strong, American Indians and the American Imaginary: Cultural Representations Across the Centuries (New York: Routledge, 2013); Circe Sturm, Becoming Indian: The Struggle over Cherokee Identity in the Twenty-first Century (Santa Fe: School for Advanced Research Press, 2010).
32. Berkhofer, White Man’s Indian, 30; D. H. Lawrence, Studies in Classic American Literature (New York: Viking, 1961; orig. 1923), 38; Jean M. Obrien, Firsting and Lasting: Writing Indians Out of Existence in New England (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010).
33. Donna Barbie, “Sacajawea: The Making of a Myth,” in Sifters: Native American Women’s Lives, ed. Theda Perdue (New York: Oxford, 2001), 60-76.  See the Natural American Spirit website at www.nascigs.com (Paul Spickard visited it on February 4, 2004, and again on September 24, 2020).  The Santa Fe Tobacco Company, owned by RJ Reynolds Tobacco Holdings, freely uses Native American symbols.  There is no indication anywhere in the website that anyone involved might actually be an Indian, nor that any Native group has approved of their using Indian imagery.  Subsequent research demonstrated that, while a majority of consumers thought Natural American Spirit cigarettes were more healthful than other brands, they were in fact more toxic; Anna E. Epperson, Lisa Henriksen, and Judith J. Prochaska, “Natural American Spirit Brand Marketing Casts Health Halo Around Smoking,” American Journal of Public Health, 107.5 (May 2017): 668-70.
34. Albert L. Hurtado and Peter Iverson, eds., Major Problems in American Indian History, 2nd ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001), 200-1; P. L. Ford, ed., The Writings of Thomas Jefferson (New York, 1892-99), 3.214, quoted in Edward H. Spicer, A Short History of the Indians of the United States (New York: Van Nostrand, 1969), 227.
35. Anthony F. C. Wallace, The Death and Rebirth of the Seneca (New York: Knopf, 1969); John Walton Caughey, McGillivray of the Creeks (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1938).
36. Hurtado and Iverson, Major Problems in American Indian History, 202-3.
37. R. David Edmunds, The Shawnee Prophet (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983); Edmunds, Tecumseh and the Quest for Indian Leadership (Boston: Little, Brown, 1984); Gregory Dowd, A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indians’ Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992); Anthony F. C. Wallace, The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians (New York: Hill and Wang, 1993); Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars (New York: Viking, 2001); Sean Michael O’Brien, In Bitterness and in Tears: Andrew Jackson’s Destruction of the Creeks and Seminoles (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2003).
38. Alexander Saxton, The Rise and Fall of the White Republic: Class Politics and Mass Culture in Nineteenth-Century America (London: Verso, 1990); Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color, 15-90; Dana D. Nelson, National Manhood: Capitalist Citizenship and the Imagined Fraternity of White Men (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1998).
39. Survivalist Miles Stair’s opinion is typical:  “Perhaps we are not a ‘country’ at all now, as by definition a ‘country’ must define its borders”; “End Times Report” (June 6, 2004) (www.endtimesreport.com, Nov. 17, 2004).  Even California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger, generally a friend of immigrants and an immigrant himself, wrote, “The first order of business for the federal government is to secure our borders”; “Next Step for Immigration,” Los Angeles Times (March 28, 2006). Since the dawn of the twenty-first century, we have seen a pernicious conflation of immigrants and terrorists in many minds; see US Department of Homeland Security, “Undersecretary [Asa] Hutchinson Testifies Before Senate Judiciary Subcommittee on Immigration, February 12, 2004” (http://www.dhs.gov/dhspublic/display?theme=45&content=3160&print=true, November 17, 2004); Phyllis Schlafly, “Security Starts at Our Borders,” The Phyllis Schlafly Report, 35.4 (Nov. 2001).
40. In parts of Texas, the border itself came and went, as the Rio Grande frequently jumped its banks until it was encased in concrete in 1968.  Even today, there are huge stretches of the US border with Canada where an individual can wander back and forth across the line with impunity.  Paul Spickard has done so several times.
41. See Appendix A.  LeMay and Barkan, US Immigration and Naturalization Laws and Issues, 12-25; Marion T. Bennett, American Immigration Policies (Washington: Public Affairs Press, 1963), 7-14; Michael C. LeMay, From Open Door to Dutch Door: An Analysis of US Immigration Policy Since 1820 (New York: Praeger, 1987), 20-37; E. P. Hutchinson, Legislative History of American Immigration Policy, 1798-1965 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 11-46.
42. See Appendix B, Tables 2-6.  See also Hans-Jürgen Grabbe, “European Immigration to the United States in the Early National Period, 1783-1820,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 133.2 (1989): 190-214.
43. Carl Wittke, We Who Built America (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1940), 101.
44. Ibid., 405.
45. Ibid., 406-7.
46. These textbooks told pretty much the same old story about immigration:  Jeanne Boydston, Nick Culather, Jan Lewis, Michael McGerr, and James Oakes, Making a Nation: The United States and Its People (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2003); Alan Brinkley, American History, 10th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999); Mark C. Carnes and John A. Garraty, The American Nation, 11th ed. (Glenview, Ill.: Longman, 2003); James West Davidson and Mark H. Lytle, The United States: A History of the Republic, 5th ed. (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1991); Robert A. Divine, T. H. Breen, George M. Fredrickson, R. Hal Williams, Ariela J. Gross, and H. W. Brands, America: Past and Present, 7th ed. (Glenview, Ill.: Longman, 2004); John M. Faragher, Susan H. Armitage, Mari Jo Buhle, and Daniel Czitrom, Out of Many, 4th ed. (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2004); David Goldfield, Virginia DeJohn Anderson, Jo Ann Argersinger, Peter H. Argersinger, William L. Barney, Robert M. Weir, Carl Abbott, The American Journey, 3rd ed. (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2005); James Kirby Martin, Randy Roberts, Steven Mintz, Linda O. McMurry, and James H. Jones, America and Its Peoples: A Nation in the Making, 5th ed. (Glenview, Ill.: Longman, 2003); John M. Murrin, Paul E. Johnson, James M. McPherson, Gary Gerstle, Emily S. Rosenberg, and Norman L. Rosenberg, Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People, 4th ed. (Stamford, Conn.: Thomson/ Wadsworth, 2005); Mary Beth North, David M. Katzman, David W. Blight, Howard P. Chudakoff, Frederik Logevall, Beth Bailey, Thomas G. Patterson, William M. Tuttle, Jr., A People and a Nation, 7th ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin); James L. Roark, Michael P. Johnson, Patricia Cline Cohen, Sarah Stage, Alan Lawson, and Susan M. Hartmann, The American Promise: A History of the United States, 2nd ed. (Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2002).  Three textbooks told rather a different story, more in line with the argument of Almost All Aliens:  Paul S. Boyer and Madison Clifford E. Clark, Jr., The Enduring Vision, 5th ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin); James A. Henretta, David Brody, and Lynn Dumenil, America’s History, 5th ed. (New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2004); Jacqueline Tyler Jones, Peter H. Wood, Elaine Tyler May, Thomas Borstelmann, and Vicki L. Ruiz, Created Equal (Glenview, Ill.: Longman, 2003).
47. Jon Gjerde, ed., Major Problems in American Immigration and Ethnic History (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1998); Alan M. Kraut, The Huddled Masses: The Immigrant in American society, 1880-1921, 2nd ed. (Wheeling, Ill.: Harlan Davidson, 2001); Leonard Dinnerstein, Roger L. Nichols, and David M. Reimers, Natives and Strangers: A Multicultural History of Americans, 4th ed. (New York: Oxford, 2003); Leonard Dinnerstein and David M. Reimers, Ethnic Americans, 4th ed. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999); Frederick M. Binder, and David M. Reimers, All the Nations under Heaven (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995).  This is true to a lesser extent even of the most revisionist of the general treatments, Roger Daniels’s Coming to America, 2nd ed. (New York: Harper Collins, 2002).  Although Daniels explicitly criticizes the Old vs. New Immigration hypothesis, he lumps Scandinavians in with Irish and Germans as “pioneers of immigration” though they mainly came later, and he does  not treat British immigrants at all after the colonial period.  Even George Pozzetta’s masterwork, a twenty-volume compilation of essays by dozens of distinguished immigration scholars that cuts the territory up several different ways, contains not a hint of racial analysis; American Immigration and Ethnicity, 20 vols. (New York: Garland, 1991).
48. Katharine W. Jones examines the implications of giving privilege to English immigrants as if they were natural Americans in Accent on Privilege: English Identities and Anglophilia in the U.S. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001).  She examines late twentieth-century English immigrants.  See also Stephen Tuffnell, Made in Britain: Nation and Emigration in Nineteenth-Century America (Oakland: University of California Press, 2020).
49. See Appendix B, Tables 14 and 16.  Chinese again constituted a significant part of the immigrant stream after 1965.
50. Sources on nineteenth-century Chinese immigrants include:  Gunther Barth, Bitter Strength: A History of the Chinese in the United States, 1850-1870 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1964); Sucheng Chan, This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1860-1910 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986); Ping Chiu, Chinese Labor in Nineteenth-Century California (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1963); Mary Roberts Coolidge, Chinese Immigration (New York: Holt, 1909); Charles McClain, ed., Chinese Immigrants and American Law (New York: Garland, 1994); McClain, In Search of Equality: The Chinese Struggle Against Discrimination in Nineteenth-Century America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); Stuart C. Miller, The Unwelcome Immigrant: The American Image of the Chinese, 1785-1882 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969); George Anthony Peffer, If They Don’t Bring Their Women Here: Chinese Female Immigration before Exclusion (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999); Elmer Clarence Sandmeyer, The Anti-Chinese Movement in California (Urbana:  University of Illinois Press, 1973; orig. 1939); Alexander Saxton, The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California  (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971); John Kuo Wei Tchen, New York before Chinatown (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); Benson Tong, Unsubmissive Women: Chinese Prostitutes in Nineteenth-Century San Francisco (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994); Beth Lew-Williams, the Chinese Must Go! Violence, Exclusion, and the Making of the Alien in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018); Jean Pfaelzer, Driven Out: The forgotten War against Chinese Americans (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008).
51. Sources on Scandinavian immigration include: Arlow W. Anderson, The Norwegian-Americans (Boston: Twayne, 1975); Philip J. Anderson and Dag Blanck, eds., Swedish-American Life in Chicago: Cultural and Urban Aspects of an Immigrant People, 1850-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992); H. Arnold Barton, A People Divided: Homeland Swedes and Swedish Americans, 1840-1940 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1994); Adolph B. Benson, Americans from Sweden (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1950); Martin Dribe, Leaving Home in a Peasant Society (Södertälje, Sweden : Almqvist & Wiksell, 2000); Frederick Hale, ed., Danes in North America (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1984); Florence Edith Janson, The Background of Swedish Immigration, 1840-1930 (New York: Arno, 1970; orig. 1931); John S. Lindberg, The Background of Swedish Emigration to the United States (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1930); George R. Nielsen, Danes in America (Boston: Twayne, 1981); Harold Runblom and Hans Norman, eds., From Sweden to America (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1976); Ingrid Semmingsen, Norway to America, trans. Einar Haugen (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1978); Karen V. Hansen, Encounter on the Great Plains: Scandinavian Settlers and the Dispossession of Dakota Indians, 1890-1930 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013).
52. There are only three modern monographs on the subject:  Rowland Tappan Berthoff, British Immigrants in Industrial America, 1790-1950 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1953); William E. Van Vugt, Britain to America: Mid-Nineteenth-Century Immigrants to the United States (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999); Van Vugt, British Buckeyes: The English, Scots, and Welsh in Ohio, 1700-1900 (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University, 2006).  However, Van Vugt has produced a valuable four-volume tome that has masses of information: British Immigration to the United States, 1776-1914 (New York: Routledge, 2017).mmThere are three edited collections of letters: Charlotte Erickson, Invisible Immigrants: The Adaptation of English and Scottish Immigrants in 19th Century America (Coral Gables, Fla.: University of Miami Press, 1972); Alan Conway, ed., The Welsh in America: Letters from the Immigrants (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1961); David A. Gerber, ed., Authors of Their Lives: The Personal Correspondence of British Immigrants to North America in the Nineteenth Century (New York: NYU Press, 2006).  Among the articles used to prepare this section are Maldwyn A. Jones, “The Background to Emigration from Great Britain in the Nineteenth Century,” Perspectives in American History, 7 (1973), 3-92; Malcolm Gray, “Scottish Emigration : The Social Impact of Agrarian Change in the Rural Lowlands, 1775-1875,” Perspectives in American History, 7 (1973), 95-174; Alan Conway, “Welsh Emigration to the United States,” Perspectives in American History, 7 (1973), 177-271.  See also Raymond L. Cohn, Mass Migration Under Sail: European Immigration to the Antebellum United States (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009).
53. Appendix B, Table 9; Van Vugt, Britain to America, 8, 17.
54. Van Vugt, Britain to America, 3.
55. “The Emigrant’s Farewell,” (1839) quoted in Van Vugt, Britain to America, 6.  There were many songs so named, with different tunes and contents.
56. Van Vugt, Britain to America, 2-3.
57. Lynne Murphy, The Prodigal Tongue: The Love-Hate Relationship Between American and British English (New York: Penguin, 2018).
58. Mary Wrightson Adkins was Paul Spickard’s grandmother.  Genealogical data from 1880 British manuscript census and these websites: www.katarre.com; www.mcguire-spickard.com/genealogy.
59. Charles H. Anderson, White Protestant Americans (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1970), 16-18; Paul Spickard, Japanese Americans (New York: Twayne, 1996), 20-63.
60. See Appendix B, Tables 6 and 10.  Sources for the following section include:  Don Heinrich Tolzmann, The German-American Experience (Amherst, N.Y.: Humanity Books, 2000), 124-208; John A. Hawgood, The Tragedy of German-America (New York: Dutton, 1940); Cohn, Mass Migration Under Sail; James M. Bergquist, “German Communities in American Cities: An Interpretation of the Nineteenth-Century Experience,” Journal of American Ethnic History, 4.1 (1984), 9-30; Walter D. Kamphöfner, “At the Crossroads of Economic Development: Background Factors Affecting Emigration fron Nineteenth-Century Germany,” in Migration across Time and Nations, ed. Ira Z. Glazier and Luigi De Rosa (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1986), 174-201; Wolfgang Köllmann and Peter Marschalck, “German Emigration to the United States,” Perspectives in American History, 7 (1973), 497-554; Anderson, White Protestant Americans, 79-93; Steven M. Nolt, Foreigners in Their Own Land: Pennsylvania Germans in the Early Republic (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2002); Stanley Nadel, Little Germany: Ethnicity, Religion, and Class in New York City, 1845-80 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990); Walter D. Kamphoefner, Wolfgang Helbich, and Ulrike Sommer, eds., News from the Land of Freedom: German Immigrants Write Home, trans. Susan Carter Vogel (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991); Frederick M. Binder and David M. Reimers, All the Nations under Heaven: An Ethnic and Racial History of New York City (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), 74-92; Marianne S. Wokeck, Trade in Strangers: The Beginnings of Mass Migration to North America (University Park: Penn State University Press, 1999); Tyler Anbinder, City of Dreams: The 400-Year Epic History of Immigrant New York (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2017); Richard Scheuerman and Clifford E. Trafzer, Hardship to Homeland: Pacific Northwest Volga Germans, rev. ed. (Pullman: Washington State University Press, 2018); Zachary Stuart Garrison, German Americans on the Middle Border: From Antislavery to Reconciliation, 1830-1877 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2019).
61. See also Frederick C. Luebke, Germans in the New World (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990).
62. Bruce Levine, The Spirit of 1848: German Immigrants, Labor Conflict, and the Coming of the Civil War (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992). 15-50.
63. Kathleen Neils Conzen, Immigrant Milwaukee, 1836-1860 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976).
64. The University of Cincinnati Archives, German-Americana Collection, contains forty-three volumes of the histories of German breweries in the United States.
65. Bergquist, “German Communities in American Cities,” 9.
66. Jay P. Dolan, The Immigrant Church: New York’s Irish and German Catholics, 1815-1865 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975).  The ins and outs of Lutheran and pietist theological divisions and institutional struggles are desperately complex.  One can get an introduction to the issues in the relevant chapters of Sydney E. Ahlstrom, A Religious History of the American People (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972).  See also David A. Gustafson, Lutherans in Crisis: The Question of Identity in the American Republic (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993); Alan Graebner, Uncertain Saints: The Laity in the Lutheran Church, Missouri Synod, 1900-1970 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1975); E. Clifford Nelson and Eugene L. Fevold, The Lutheran Church among Norwegian Americans (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1960); Todd W. Nichol, ed., Crossings: Norwegian-American Lutheran as a Transatlantic Religion (Northfield, Minn.: Norwegian American Historical Society, 2003); Charles P. Lutz, ed., Church Roots: Stories of Nine Immigrant Groups that Became the American Lutheran Church (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1985).
67. Terry G. Jordan, German Seed in Texas Soil (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1966).  The process continued through the end of the century.  Mountain Lake, Minnesota, was founded by a group of Volga German Mennonites in 1873, as was Gackle, North Dakota, in 1904.  See town websites.
68. It has been alleged that the German-language version of the Declaration of Independence was the first one publicly printed.  Clyde S. Stine, “The Pennsylvania Germans and the School,” in The Pennsylvania Germans, ed. Ralph Wood (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1942), 103-27.
69. Ibid., 105.
70. Ibid., 120-121; Nolt, Foreigners in Their Own Land, 43-45.
71. Bergquist, “German Communities in American Cities,” 17; Anderson, White Protestant Americans, 79-93; Herbert Gans, “Symbolic Ethnicity,” Ethnic and Racial Studies, 2 (1979), 1-20.
72. Giovanni Costigan, A History of Modern Ireland (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1969).
73. Sources for this section include: Timothy J. Meagher, Inventing Irish America: Generation, Class, and Ethnic Identity in a New England City, 1880-1928 (Notre Dame, Ind.: Notre Dame University Press, 2001); Cohn, Mass Migration Under Sail; Kerby A. Miller, Emigrants and Exiles: Ireland and the Irish Exodus to North America (New York: Oxford, 1985); Lawrence J. McCaffrey, The Irish Diaspora in America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1976); Oliver MacDonagh, “The Irish Famine Emigration to the United States,” Perspectives in American History, 10 (1976): 355-446; William V. Shannon, The American Irish (New York: Macmillan, 1966); Donald B. Cole, Immigrant City: Lawrence, Massachusetts, 1845-1921 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1963); Conzen, Immigrant Milwaukee; Oscar Handlin, Boston’s Immigrants, rev. ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959);Mary C. Kelly, The Shamrock and the Lily: The New York Irish and the Creation of a Transatlantic Identity, 1845-1925 (New York: Peter Lang, 2005); J. J. Lee and Marion R. Casey, eds., Making the Irish American (New York: NYU Press, 2006); Brian Christopher Mitchell, The Paddy Camps: The Irish of Lowell, 1821-61 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988); Anbinder, City of Dreams; Wokeck, Trade in Strangers; Edward Laxton, The Famine Ships: The Irish Exodus to America (New York: Holt, 1998); John Kelly, The Graves Are Walking: The Great Famine and the Saga of the Irish People (New York: Picador, 2012); Kirby A. Miller, et al., Irish Immigrants in the Land of Canaan: Letters and Memoirs from Colonial and Revolutionary America, 1675-1815 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003); David A. Wilson, United Irishmen, United States: Immigrant Radicals in the Early Republic (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998).
74. Miller, Emigrants and Exiles, 285.
75. John C. Pinheiro, ““Religion without Restriction”: Anti-Catholicism, All Mexico, and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.” Journal of the Early Republic, Vol. 23, No. 1 (Spring 2003), 70.
76. Pinheiro, “Religion without Restriction,” 70.
77. “During the Mexican-American War, Irish-Americans Fought for Mexico in the ‘Saint Patrick’s Battalion’,” Smithsonian Magazine, March 15, 2019.
78. On the Saint Patrick’s Battalion, see: Michael Hogan, The Irish Soldiers of Mexico (Guadalajara: Intercambio Press, 2011); “During the Mexican-American War, Irish-Americans Fought for Mexico in the ‘Saint Patrick’s Battalion’,” Smithsonian Magazine, March 15, 2019; John C. Pinheiro, ““Religion without Restriction”: Anti-Catholicism, All Mexico, and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.” Journal of the Early Republic, Vol. 23, No. 1 (Spring 2003); Peter F. Stevens, The Rogue’s March: John Riley and the St. Patrick’s Battalion, 1846-48 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999).Robert Ryal Miller, Shamrock and Sword: The Saint Patrick’s Battalion in the US-Mexican War (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989).
79. Ibid.: 3-4.  Miller implies the song of the exile is unique to them, an essential part of Irish culture, but he has little of the crucial comparative evidence he would need to support his contention.  He does not demonstrate that Irish emigrants to other places like Australia and Canada had the same melancholy resentment of exile, nor that other immigrants to the United States—say, Chinese or Koreans—did not have a similar lament.
80. Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, Rebel Girl, quoted in Matthew Frye Jacobson, Special Sorrows: The Diasporic Imagination of Irish, Polish, and Jewish Immigrants in the United States, rev. ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 54.
81. Tyler Anbinder, Five Points: The 19th-Century New York City Neighborhood That Invented Tap Dance, Stole Elections, and Became America’s Most Infamous Slum (New York: Free Press, 2001).
82. Donald B. Cole, Immigrant City: Lawrence, Massachusetts, 1845-1921 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1963), 27-28; Anthony F. C. Wallace, Rockdale: The Growth of an American Village in the Early Industrial Revolution (New York: Norton, 1978).
83. Alan Dawley, Class and Community: The Industrial Revolution in Lynn (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976).
84. Roger Daniels does this in Coming to America, 2nd ed. (New York: Harper Collins, 2002), 144-64.
85. The reader can explore this period in Jewish American history in many sources, among them:  Jacob Rader Marcus, The American Jew: 1585-1990 (Brooklyn: Carlson, 1995): 45-158; Abraham J. Karp, The Jewish Experience in America, vol. 2, In the Early Republic (New York: Ktav, 1969); Rudolf Glanz, Studies in Judaica Americana (New York: Ktav, 1970);  Stanley Feldstein, The Land That I Show You: Three Centuries of Jewish Life in America (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1979), 41-117.  An important source for quantitative estimates is Avraham Barkai, “German-Jewish Migration in the Nineteenth Century,” in Migration across Time and Nations, ed. Glazier and De Rosa, 202-19.
86. Jacob Rader Marcus, The Colonial American Jew (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1970); Marcus, Early American Jewry, 2 vols. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1951-1953); Hyman B. Grinstein, The Rise of the Jewish Community of New York, 1654-1860 (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1957); Karp, Jewish Experience, vol 1, The Colonial Period; Feldstein, Land That I Show You, 1-40; Marcus, American Jew, 1-40.
87. See Appendix B, Table 33.
88. Feldstein, Land That I Show You, 41-42.
89. Barkai, “German-Jewish Migration,” 211.
• Harold Sharfman, Jews on the Frontier (Chicago: Regnery, 1977).
90. The taking on of the forms and styles of congregational Protestantism was a common way for non-Christian religions to adapt to American social life.  For a similar development in the twentieth century among Buddhists, see Lori Pierce, “Buddhist Modernism in English Language Buddhist Periodicals,” in Issei Buddhism in the Americas, ed. Duncan Ryuken Williams and Tomoe Moriya (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2010): 87-109.
91. Joseph L. Blau, Modern Varieties of Judaism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1966): 60-88; Michael A. Meyer, Response to Modernity: A History of the Reform Movement in Judaism (New York: Oxford, 1988).
92. Eugene B. Borowitz, Reform Judaism Today.  Volume 3. How We Live (New York: Behrman House, 1978): quote is from 190-91; W. Gunther Plaut, The Growth of Reform Judaism: American and European Sources until 1948 (New York: World Union for Progressive Judaism, 1965), 3-74.
93. Daniels, Coming to America, 17-18. Sucheng Chan pursues this mode of interpretation in Asian Americans: An Interpretive History (Boston: Twayne, 1991).
94. Dirk Hörder, “Mass Migration,” in The Settling of North America, ed. Helen Hornbeck Tanner (New York: Macmillan, 1995), 102-35; Hörder, Cultures in Contact: World Migrations in the Second Millennium (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2002); Hörder, “From Immigration to Migration Systems: New Concepts in Migration History,” OAH Magazine of History, 14.1 (Fall 1999), 5-11.  Of course, the webs were more complex than this, connecting peoples outside and across this three-part division.  To take just one example, Fijians, I-Kiribati, New Caledonians, and other Pacific Islanders were taken in these same years to work under slave-like conditions in places like Australia and Chile.  E. W. Docker, The Blackbirders: A Brutal Story of the Kanaka Slave-Trade (London: Angus and Robertson, 1981); Gerald Horne, The White Pacific: US Imperialism and Black Slavery in the South Seas after the Civil War (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2007); H. E. Maude, Slavers in Paradise: The Peruvian Slave Trade in Polynesia, 1862-1864  (Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, 1981); Dorothy Shineberg, The People Trade: Pacific Island Labourers and New Caledonia, 1865-1930 (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1999).
95. John Bodnar, The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985), 54-55.
96. Wiley & Putnam’s Emigrant’s Guide (London: Wiley & Putnam, 1845; repr. Ft. Washington, Penn.: Eastern National, 2001), viii.
97. Kamphoefner, Helbich, and Sommer, News from the Land of Freedom; reprinted in Jon Gjerde, ed., Major Problems in American Immigration and Ethnic History (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1998), 109.
98. Walter D. Kamphöfner, The Westfalians: From Germany to Missouri (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1987); Jon Gjerde, “Chain Migrations from the West Coast of Norway,” in A Century of European Migrations, 1830-1930, ed. Rudolph J. Vecoli and Suzanne M. Sinke (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991), 158-81; Odd S. Lovoll, “A Pioneer Chicago Colony from Voss, Norway: Its Impact on Overseas Migration, 1836-60,” in Century of European Migrations, ed. Vecoli and Sinke, 182-99; June Granatir Alexander, “Staying Together: Chain Migration and Patterns of Slovak Settlement in Pittsburgh Prior to World War I,” Journal of American Ethnic History, 1 (Fall 1981), 56-83.
99. Günter Moltmann, “American German Return Migration in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries,” Central European History, 13.4 (1980), 378-92; Wilbur S. Shepperson, “British Backtrailers: Working-Class Immigrants Return,” in In the Trek of the Immigrants, ed. O. Fritiof Ander (Rock Island, Ill.: Augustana College Library, 1964): 179-96; Theodore Saloutos, “Exodus U.S.A.” in Trek of the Immigrants, ed. Ander, 197-215; Ewa Morawska, “Return Migrations,” in Century of European Migrations, ed. Vecoli and Sinke, 277-92; Walter D. Kamphoefner, “The Volume and Composition of German-American Return Migration,” in Century of European Migrations, ed. Vecoli and Sinke, 293-311.
100. Van Vugt, Britain to America: 155; Charles Dickens, American Notes and Pictures from Italy (London: Macmillan, 1893), 223-24.
101. Philip Taylor, The Distant Magnet: European Emigration to the U.S.A. (New York: Harper, 1971), 131-44; Edwin C. Guillet, The Great Migration : The Atlantic Crossing by Sailing-Ship, 1770-1860, 2nd ed. (University of Toronto Press, 1963), 67-68; Tuffnell, Made in Britain.
102. Guillet, Great Migration, 68, 81.
103. Taylor, Distant Magnet: 145-66.
104. The historian of American Nativism is Erika Lee, America for Americans: A History of Xenophobia in the United States (New York: Basic Books, 2019).  Other rich sources include Hidetaka Hirota, Expelling the Poor: Atlantic Seaboard States and the 19th-Century Origins of American Immigration Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017); Ray Allen Billington, The Protestant Crusade, 1800-1860: A Study of the Oritins of American Nativism (New York: Rinehart, 1952; orig. 1938); Billington, The Origins of Nativism in the United States, 1800-1844 (PhD diss., Harvard University, 1933; repr. New York: Arno, 1974); Ira M. Leonard and Ronald D. Parmet, American Nativism, 1830-1860 (Huntington, N.Y.: Krieger, 1971); Thomas J. Curran, Xenophobia and Immigration, 1820-1930 (Boston: Twayne, 1975); Dale T. Knobel, “America for the Americans”: The Nativist Movement in the United States (New York: Twayne, 1996).
105. John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925, 2nd ed. (New York: Atheneum, 1975), 4.
106. Thomas R. Whitney, A Defence of the American Policy (1856), quoted in Jon Gjerde, Major Problems in American Immigration History (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1998), 145; Samuel F. B. Morse, Imminent Dangers to the Free Institutions of the United States through Foreign Immigration (New York: Clayton, 1835; repr. 1969).
107. Maria Monk, Awful Disclosures of the Hotel Dieu Nunnery of Montreal (Hamden, Conn.: Archon, 1962; orig. 1836).
108. Tyler Anbinder, Nativism and Slavery: The Northern Know Nothings and the Politics of the 1850s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Eric Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War (New York: Oxford, 1971).
109. Leonard Dinnerstein, Antisemitism in America (New York: Oxford, 1994), 13-34; Frederic Cople Jaher, A Scapegoat in the New Wilderness: The Origins and Rise of Anti-Semitism in America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994).
110. Najia Aarim-Heriot, Chinese Immigrants, African Americans, and Racial Anxiety in the United States, 1848-1882 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003), 15-29.
111. Thomas Bailey Aldrich, The Works of Thomas Bailey Aldrich, vol. 1 (New York: AMS Press, 1970; orig. 1907), 71-72.
112. For a summary and analysis of this intellectual movement see Paul Spickard, “What’s Critical About White Studies,” in Racial Thinking in the United States, ed. Spickard and G. Reginald Daniel (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 2004), 248-74.  See also Theodore W. Allen, The Invention of the White Race, 2 vols. (London: Verso, 1994, 1997); Eric Arnesen, “Whiteness and Historians’ Imagination,” International Labor and Working Class History, 60 (2001), 3-32; Karen Brodkin, How Jews Became White Folks and What That Says about Race in America (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1999); Steve Garner, Racism in the Irish Experience (London: Pluto Press, 2004); Jennifer Guglielmo and Salvatore Salerno, eds., Are Italians White? (New York: Routledge, 2003); Thomas A. Guglielmo, White on Arrival: Italians, Race, Color, and Power in Chicago, 1890-1945 (New York: Oxford, 2003); Ira Haney Lopez, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York: NYU Press, 1996); Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York: Routledge, 1995); Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998); Peter Kolchin, “Whiteness Studies: The New History of Race in America,” Journal of American History, 89 (2002): 154-73; George Lipsitz, The Possessive Investment in Whiteness (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998); David R. Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (London: Verso, 1991); Alexander Saxton, The Rise and Fall of the White Republic (London: Verso, 1990); David R. Roediger, Working Toward Whiteness: How America’s Immigrants Became White: The Strange Journey from Ellis Island to the Suburbs (New York: Basic Books, 2005); Eric L. Goldstein, The Price of Whiteness: Jews, Race, and American Identity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008); Jonathan M. Metzyl, Dying of Whiteness: How the Politics of Racial Resentment is Killing America’s Heartland (New York: Basic Books, 2020); Jessica Barbara Jackson, Dixie’s Italians: Sicilians, Race, and Citizenship in the Jim Crow Gulf South (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2020); Tyler Stovall, White Freedom: The Racial History of an Idea (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2021).
113. Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 262, 264; Winthrop D. Jordan, The White Man’s Burden: Historical Origins of Racism in the United States (New York: Oxford, 1974), 52.
114. Thomas Nast, “The Ignorant Vote: Honors Are Easy,” Harper’s Weekly, December 9, 1876), reproduced in L. Perry Curtis, Jr., Apes and Angels: The Irishman in Victorian Culture (Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1971), 60; Albert Bigelow Paine, Thomas Nast: His Period and His Pictures (New York: Harper, 1904).
115. Curtis, Apes and Angels.
116. Jon Gjerde, The Minds of the West: Ethnocultural Evolution in the Rural Middle West, 1830-1917 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), xi.
117. J. Hector St. John de Crèvecouer, Letters from an American Farmer (London, 1782), reproduced in Immigration and the American Tradition, ed. Moses Rischin (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1976), 25-26.
118. Milton M. Gordon, Assimilation in American Life (New York: Oxford, 1964), 88.

Images

Notes

1. The chapter title is taken from a sentiment widely expressed among California Chicanos.  Its exact origin is obscure.  Maria Herrera-Sobek recounts Chicanos marching against California’s anti-immigrant Proposition 187 chanting the slogan in 1994.  Rodolfo Acuña uses the phrase in Anything But Mexican: Chicanos in Contemporary Los Angeles (London: Verso, 1997), 109.
2. Justin Smith, The War With Mexico (New York: Macmillan, 1919), quoted by Richard Griswold del Castillo, The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: A Legacy of Conflict (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990), 108.
3. Walter Nugent, Habits of Empire: A History of American Expansion (New York: Knopf, 2008); Paul Frymer, Building an American Empire: The Era of Territorial and Political Expansion (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2019).  For a contrasting view, of much of the United States as the product of Spanish rather than Anglo-American empire, see Felipe Fernández-Armesto, Our America: A Hispanic History of the United States (New York: Norton, 2014).  Anne F. Hyde offers a bracing corrective with a decidedly domestic perspective in Empires, Nations, and Families: A New History of the North American West, 1800-1860 (New York: HarperCollins, 2011).
4. Marie Arana, “A History of Anti-Hispanic Bigotry in the United States,” Washington Post (August 9, 2019).
5. Some Americans of more recent vintage have tried to pretend that this impulse for empire never characterized the American people.  Thus, in a 2004 essay banging on George W. Bush’s Iraq misadventure, Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., wrote:  “But Americans, unlike the Romans, the British, and the French, are not colonizers of remote and exotic places.  We peopled North America’s vacant spaces . . . . But Americans, as James Bryce wrote in 1888, ‘have none of the earth-hunger which burns in the great nations of Europe.’ . . . The Americans wanted to control their own westward drive but, unlike the British and the French, could not have cared less about empire.”  Poppycock!  The westward drive was empire, and Euro-Americans at the time called it that.  Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., “The Making of a Mess,” New York Review of Books (September 23, 2004), 41.
6. Quoted by Richard White, “It’s Your Misfortune and None of My Own”: A History of the American West (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 73.
7. Albert K. Weinberg, Manifest Destiny: A Study of Nationalist Expansionism in American History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1935), 1-2.  See also Frederick Merk, Manifest Destiny and Mission in American History (New York: Knopf, 1963); David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler, Manifest Destiny (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 2003); Richard Kluger, Seizing Destiny: How America Grew from Sea to Shining Sea (New York: Knopf, 2008); Robert J. Miller, “The Doctrine of Discovery, Manifest Destiny, and American Indians” in Why You Can’t Teach United States History without American Indians, ed. Susan Sleeper Smith, et al. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015); William Deverell and Anne Hyde, eds., Shaped by the West: A History of North America, vol. 1, To 1877 (Oakland: University of California Press, 2018): 127-54.
8. Quoted in Henry Nash Smith, Virgin Land: The American West as Symbol and Myth (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1950), 44-48.
9. William Gilpin, Mission of the North American People, Geographical, Social, and Political (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1873), 130 (quoting a letter of 1846), quoted in Smith, Virgin Land, 37.  Richard Slotkin follows the career of these ideas in American popular culture in two extraordinary books: Regeneration through Violence: The Mythology of the American Frontier, 1600-1860 (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1973) and Gunfighter Nation: The Myth of the Frontier in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Atheneum, 1992).
10. George F. Will, “No Flinching from the Facts,” Washington Post, May 11, 2004;  Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1958); Albert Memmi, The Colonizer and the Colonized (Boston: Beacon, 1965).  Will adds that the imperial gaze is necessarily pornographic, as were the photos of Iraqi prisoners that shook the G. W. Bush administration at its foundations.  Think of pre-1970s photos in National Geographic or the softcore porn of Waikiki hula shows.  See also Robert Young, Colonial Desire (New York: Routledge, 1995).
11. Gavan Daws, Shoal of Time: A History of the Hawaiian Islands (New York: Macmillan, 1968), 213.  It is remarkable that this Christian gentleman blindly appropriated for the White race God’s charge to Adam on behalf of all humankind.
12. Reginald Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), 1-2.
13. That is not the way the Native peoples in question understood their origins.  For Native understandings, see, for example, Paul Zolbrod, trans., Dine Bahane: The Navajo Creation Story (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1988); Trudy Griffin-Pierce, Earth Is My Mother, Sky Is My Father: Space, Time, and Astronomy in Navajo Sandpainting (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1992); Ronald Goodman, Lakota Star Knowledge (Rosebud, S.D.: Sinte Gleska University, 1992); Marsha C. Bol, Stars Above, Earth Below: American Indians and Nature (Niwot, Colo.: Carnegie Museum of Natural History, 1998); Harold Courlander, The Fourth World of the Hopis (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1971).
14. Sources for this section include: William L. Anderson, ed., Cherokee Removal (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1991); Stuart Banner, How the Indians Lost Their Land (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2005); Louis Filler and Allen Guttmann, eds., The Removal of the Cherokee Nation: Manifest Destiny or National Dishonor? (Huntington, N.Y.: Krieger, 1977); Linda S. Parker, Native American Estate (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1989); Theda Perdue and Michael D. Green, eds., The Cherokee Removal (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 1995); Anthony F. C. Wallace, The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians (New York: Hill and Wang, 1993); Mary Stockwell, The Other Trail of Tears: The Removal of the Ohio Indians (Yardley, PA: Wentholme Publishing, 2014); John P. Bower, Land Too Good for Indians: Northern Indian Removal (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2016); Adam J. Pratt, Towards Cherokee Removal: Land, Violence, and the White Man’s Chance (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2020); Andrew Denson, Monuments to Absence: Cherokee Removal and the Contest over Southern Memory (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017); Jeffrey Ostler, Surviving Genocide: Native Nations and the United States from the American Revolution to Bleeding Kansas (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2019); Claudio Saunt, Unworthy Republic: The Dispossession of Native Americans and the Road to Indian Territory (New York: Norton, 2020); Deverell and Hyde, Shaped by the West, 155-72;  Daniel Kanstroom, Deportation Nation: Outsiders in American History (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007): 63-74; Jeff Ostler, Surviving Genocide: Native Nations and the United States from the American Revolution to Bleeding Kansas (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2019).  Places to begin on US Indian policy are: Francis Paul Prucha, The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians, abridged ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986); Wilcomb E. Washburn, ed., History of Indian-White Relations, Volume 4 of Handbook of North American Indians (Washington: Smithsonian, 1988); Brian W. Dippie, The Vanishing American: White Attitudes and US Indian Policy (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1982).
15. United States Congress, Indian Removal Act (May 28, 1830), Section 3, reproduced in Perdue and Green, Cherokee Removal, 116-17; italics added.
16. Perdue and Green, Cherokee Removal, 165.
17. James F. Brooks, ed., Confounding the Color Line: The Indian-Black Experience in North America (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002); Daniel F. Littlefield, Jr., Africans and Seminoles: From Removal to Emancipation (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1977); Tiya Miles, Ties That Bind: The Story of an Afro-Cherokee Family in Slavery and Freedom (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005); Theda Perdue, Slavery and the Evolution of Cherokee Society, 1540-1866 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1979); Circe Sturm, Blood Politics: Race, Culture, and Identity in the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002).
18. See, for example, Ralph K. Andrist, The Long Death: The Last Days of the Plains Indians (New York: Collier, 1969); Merrill D. Beal, I Will Fight No More Forever: Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1963); Dee Brown, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1971); Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., The Patriot Chiefs (New York: Viking, 1961); Peter Matthiessen, In the Spirit of Crazy Horse (New York: Viking, 1983); Mari Sandoz, Crazy Horse: The Strange Man of the Oglalas (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1961; orig. 1942); Benjamin Medley, An American Genocide: The United States and the California Indian Catastrophe, 1846-1873 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2017); Ostler, Surviving Genocide.
19. Pekka Hämäläinen, The Comanche Empire (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008); Pekka Hämäläinen, Lakota America: A New History of Indigenous Power (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2020).
20. Mari Sandoz, Cheyenne Autumn (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1953); Little Big Man, directed by Arthur Penn, starring Dustin Hoffman (Paramount Pictures, 1970); Richard White, “The Winning of the West: The Expansion of the Western Sioux in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,” Journal of American History, 65.2 (1978), 319-43.
21. Keith A. Murray, The Modocs and Their War (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1959); Jeff C. Riddle, The Indian History of the Modoc War (San Jose: Urion Press, 1998; orig. 1914); Murray L. Wax and Robert W. Buchanan, eds., Solving “The Indian Problem”: The White Man’s Burdensome Business (New York: New Viewpoints, 1975), 6-35.
22. “Chief Joseph Speaks: Selected Statements and Speeches by the Nez Perce Chief,” www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/resources/archives/six/jospeak.htm.  5/29/04.
23. Merrill D. Beal, I Will Fight No More Forever: Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce War (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1966); Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., The Nez Perce Indians and the Opening of the Northwest (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1965).
24. Russell Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and Survival (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987), 133.
25. Frederick E. Hoxie, Parading Through History: The Making of the Crow Nation in America, 1805-1935 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 9, 12, 14.
26. Katherine M. B. Osburn, “The Navajo at Bosque Redondo: Cooperation, Resistance, and Initiative, 1864-1868,” New Mexico Historical Review, 60.4 (1985), 399-413.
27. Waheenee: An Indian Girl’s Story Told by Herself to Gilbert L. Wilson, North Dakota History: Journal of the Northern Plains, 38:1-2 (1971), quoted in Peter Nabokov, Native American Testimony, rev. ed. (New York: Penguin, 1999), 182-83.
28. Dippie, Vanishing American, 12-44, 197-269 (Sprague quote, page 15); Stephen Dow Beckham, Requiem for a People: The Rogue Indians and the Frontiersmen, rev. ed. (Corvallis: Oregon State University Press, 1996; orig. 1971); Theodora Kroeber, Ishi in Two Worlds: A Biography of the Last Wild Indian in North America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961); Robert F. Heizer and Theodora Kroeber, eds., Ishi the Last Yahi (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979); Orin Starn, Ishi’s Brain: In Search of America’s Last “Wild” Indian (New York: Norton, 2004); Karl Kroeber and Clifton Kroeber, Ishi in Three Centuries (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003); Philip J. Deloria, Playing Indian (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998); Julie Schimmel, “Inventing the Indian,” in The West As America: Reinterpreting Images of the Frontier, 1820-1920, ed. William H. Treuttner (Washington: Smithsonian, 1991), 149-89.
29. Prucha, Great Father,  224-41; Emily Greenwald, Refiguring the Reservation: The Nez Perces, Jicarilla Apaches, and the Dawes Act (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2002).  Curtis was later Herbert Hoover’s Vice-President; C. Joseph Genetin-Pilawa, Crooked Paths to Allotment: The Fight over Federal Indian Policy after the Civil War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012).
30. David Wallace Adams, Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875-1928 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995); Brenda J. Child, Boarding School Seasons: American Indian Families, 1900-1940 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998); Carol Devens, “ ‘If We Get the Girls, We Get the Race’: Missionary Education of Native American Girls,” Journal of World History, 3.2 (1992): 219-37; Clyde Ellis, To Change Them Forever: Indian Education at the Rainy Mountain Boarding School, 1893-1920 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996); K. Tsianina Lomawaima, They Called It Prairie Light: The Story of the Chilocco Indian School (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994); Robert A. Trennert, Jr., The Phoenix Indian School: Forced Assimilation in Arizona, 1891-1935 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988); Adam Fortunate Eagle, Pipestone: My Life in an Indian Boarding School (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2010); Denise K. Lajimodiere, Stringing Rosaries: The History, the Unforgiveable, and the Healing of Northern Plains American Indian Boarding School Survivors (Fargo: North Dakota State University Press, 2019); Ward Churchill, Kill the Indian, Save the Man: The Genocidal Impact of Indian Residential Schools (San Francisco: City Lights Publishers, 2004); Jacqueline Fear-Seagal and Susan D. Rose, eds., Carlisle Indian Industrial School: Indigenous Histories, Memories, and Reclamations (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2018); Laura Briggs, Taking Children: A History of American Terror (Oakland: University of California Press, 2020): 46-75; Clifford E. Trafzer, Jean E. Keller, and Lorene Sisquoc, eds., Boarding School Blues: Revisiting American Indian Educational Experiences (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006).  For a parallel attempt by Euro-Australians to erase the identities of Australian Aborigines, see Doris Pilkington/Nugi Garimara, Rabbit-Proof Fence (New York: Hyperion, 2002), and also the 2002 Miramax movie by the same name.
31. Edwin R. Embree, Indians of the Americas (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1939), quoted in Nabokov, Native American Testimony, 221-24.
32. Sources for this section include: Stephen Cornell, The Return of the Native: American Indian Political Resurgence (New York: Oxford, 1988), 7, 62-67, and passim; Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Robert H. Ruby and John A. Brown, Dreamer-Prophets of the Columbia Plateau (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989); James Mooney, The Ghost-Dance Religion and the Sioux Outbreak of 1890, Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1892-93, Part 2 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1896); Alexander Lesser, The Pawnee Ghost Dance Hand Game: Ghost Dance Revival and Ethnic Identity (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978; orig. 1933); Gregory E. Smoak, Ghost Dances and Identity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006); Frank Rzeczkowski, Uniting the Tribes: The Rise and Fall of Pan-Indian Community on the Crow Reservation (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2012); Robert M. Owens, Red Dreams, White Nightmares: Pan-Indian Alliances in the Anglo-American Mind, 1763-1815 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2015).
33. David J. Weber says that “Blacks were imported as slaves or servants, and it appears that more Blacks than Spaniards entered Mexico during the colonial period.  They did not remain a distinctive minority, however, for they blended with Indian and Spanish stocks, and their descendants lost their racial identity.”  Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán wrote that “black and white together never represented more than one to two percent of the total population of the country”; La población negra de Mexico, 1519-1810 (Mexico, 1946), 200, quoted in Weber, Foreigners in Their Native Land: Historical Roots of the Mexican Americans (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1973), 17, 267.
34. Sources for this section include:  Teresa Palomo Acosta and Ruthe Winegarten, Las Tejanas (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2003); Armando C. Alonzo, Tejano Legacy: Rancheros and Settlers in South Texas, 1734-1900 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1998); Arnaldo De León, The Tejano Community (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1982); Martha Menchaca, Recovering History, Constructing Race: The Indian, Black, and White Roots of Mexican Americans (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001); Gerald E. Poyo and Gilberto M. Hinojosa, eds., Tejano Origins in Eighteenth-Century San Antonio (San Antonio: University of Texas Institute of Texan Cultures, 1991); Andrés Reséndez, Changing National Identities at the Frontier: Texas and New Mexico, 1800-1850 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2005); James Diego Vigil, From Indians to Chicanos (Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press, 1984); Weber, Foreigners in Their Native Land: 1-50; David J. Weber, The Mexican Frontier, 1821-1846: The American Southwest Under Mexico (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1982); Weber, ed., New Spain’s Far Northern Frontier (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1979); Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1992); Hämäläinen, Comanche Empire; Deverell and Hyde, Shaped by the West, 173-90, 211-26; Zaragosa Vargas, Crucible of Struggle: A History of Mexican Americans (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011); Raúl A. Ramos, Beyond the Alamo: Forging Mexican Ethnicity in San Antonio, 1821-1861 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008); Omar S. Valerio-Jiménez, River of Hope: Forging Identity and Nation in the Rio Grande Borderlands (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2013).
35. In speaking of the Southwest in the nineteenth century and the encounter between Mexicans and European-descended Americans, we will use the terms “Anglo-Americans” and “White Americans” interchangeably.  In an earlier chapter we used “Anglo-Americans” to refer to US citizens of English descent, but in the context of the US encounter with Mexicans and Mexican-descended people, the White Americans in question were often of some other descent than English.  The difference should be clear from context.
36. Sources for this section include:  Terry G. Jordan, German Seed in Texas Soil: Immigrant Farmers in Nineteenth-Century Texas (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1966); Michael A. Morrison, Slavery and the American West: The Eclipse of Manifest Destiny and the Coming of the Civil War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997); Kevin Mulroy, Freedom on the Border: The Seminole Maroons in Florida, the Indian Territory, Coahuila, and Texas (Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press, 1993); Andrés Tijerina, Tejanos and Texas under the Mexican Flag, 1821-1836 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1994); Weber, Foreigners in Their Native Land, 51-137; Andrew J. Torget, Seeds of Empire: Cotton, Slavery, and the Transformation of the Texas Borderlands, 1800-1850 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015); Paul Barba, Country of the Cursed and Driven: Slavery and the Texas Borderlands (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, in press, advance copy courtesy of the author).
37. John Long, “The Americanization of Texas,” in The Settling of North America, ed. Helen Hornbeck Tanner (New York: Macmillan, 1995), 96.
38. On that opposition, see, for example, The Legion of Liberty, Remonstrance of Some Free Men, States, and Presses, to the Texas Rebellion, Against the Laws of Nature and of Nations (Albany, N.Y.: sold at the Patriot Office, 1843).
39. Richard Flores, Remembering the Alamo (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002); David J. Weber, “Refighting the Alamo: Mythmaking and the Texas Revolution,” in Weber, Myth and the History of the Hispanic Southwest (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1988), 133-50.
40. Pablo Mitchell, Understanding Latino History (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO Greenwood, 2018): 37.
41. Weber, Foreigners in Their Native Land, 59-60.
42. Juan N. Seguín, A Revolution Remembered: The Memoirs and Selected Correspondence of Juan N. Seguín, ed. Jesús F. de la Teja (Austin: State House, 1991).
43. “Personal Memoirs of John N. Seguín, 1858,” quoted in Mitchell, Understanding Latino History, 238-42.
44. Weber, Foreigners in Their Native Land, 95-96.
45. James K. Polk, “Special Message to Congress on Mexican Relations,” May 11, 1846, online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Wooley, The American Presidency Project. https://goo.gl/o9uAFh; Thomas N. Lord, Cause, Character and Consequences of the War with Mexico (Portland: Thurston and Co., 1847), 5-7, 10-12; Ulysses S. Grant, Personal Memoirs (New York: Charles Webster and Company, 1894), 37-40.
46. The storied, sordid history of the Texas Rangers has been told many times.  The best place to start is Julian Samora, Joe Bernal, and Albert Peña, Gunpowder Justice (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1979).  See also Monica Muñoz Martinez, The Injustice Never Leaves You: Anti-Mexican Violence in Texas (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2020); William D. Carrigan, Forgotten Dead: Mob Violence against Mexicans in the United States, 1848-1928 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013).
47. William Starr Meyers, ed., The Mexican War Diary of General B. Clellan (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1917), 1: 102, 161-62; quoted in Rodolfo Acuña, Occupied America: A History of Chicanos, 3rd ed. (New York: Harper and Row, 1988), 16-17.
48. Samuel E. Chamberlain, My Confessions (New York: Harper and Row, 1956), 75; quoted in Acuña, Occupied America, 17.
49. Sources for this section include:  Seymour V. Connor and Odie B. Faulk, North America Divided: The Mexican War, 1846-1848 (New York: Oxford, 1971); Ramón Eduardo Ruiz, ed., The Mexican War: Was It Manifest Destiny? (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963); Robert W. Johannsen, To the Halls of the Montezumas: The Mexican War in the American Imagination (New York: Oxford, 1985); Carol and Thomas Christensen, The U.S.-Mexican War (San Francisco: Bay Books, 1998); John Edward Weems, To Conquer a Peace: The War Between the United States and Mexico (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1974); Gene M. Brack, Mexico Views Manifest Destiny, 1821-1846: An Essay on the Origins of the Mexican War (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico press, 1975); William G. Robbins, Colony and Empire: The Capitalist Transformation of the American West (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1994), 22-39.
50. Amelia W. Williams and Eugene C. Barker, eds., The Writings of Sam Houston, 1813-1863 (Austin: 1938-1941), 5: 33-34; quoted in Weber, Foreigners in Their Native Land, 100.
51. John C. Pinheiro, “‘Religion without Restriction”: Anti-Catholicism, All Mexico, and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo,” Journal of the Early Republic, 23.2 (2003): 86.
52. US Congress, Senate, The Congressional Globe, 30th Cong., 1st sess. (1848) 98-99.
53. Sources for this section include:  Griswold del Castillo, Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo; Martha Menchaca, Recovering History, Constructing Race: The Indian, Black, and White Roots of Mexican Americans (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001).
54. Weber, Foreigners in Their Native Land, 162-68.
55. This anomaly was extended in the second half of the twentieth century to confuse the racial status of Latinos generally.  See Rubén G. Rumbaut, “Pigments of Our Imagination: On the Racialization and Racial Identities of ‘Hispanics’ and ‘Latinos’,” in How the US Racializes Latinos: White Hegemony and Its Consequences, ed. José A. Cobas, et al. (Dubuque, IA: Paradigm, 2009); Laura E. Gómez, Inventing Latinos: A New Story of American Racism (New York: New Press, 2020); Kenneth Prewitt, What Is Your Race? The Census and Our Flawed Efforts to Classify Americans (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013).
56. Clara E. Rodriguez, Changing Race: Latinos, the Census, and the History of Ethnicity in the United States (New York: NYU Press, 2000).
57. Neil Foley, The White Scourge: Mexicans, Blacks, and Poor Whites in Texas Cotton Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Foley, “Partly Colored or Other White: Mexican Americans and Their Problem with the Color Line,” in Beyond Black and White: Race, Ethnicity, and Gender in the US South and Southwest, ed.  Laura F. Edwards, et al. (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2004), 123-44.  See also David Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836-1896 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987); Arnoldo de León, Racial Frontiers: Africans, Chinese, and Mexicans in Western America, 1848-1890 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2002).
58. Sources for this section include:  Damon B. Akins and William M. Bauer Jr., We Are the Land: A History of Native California (Oakland: University of California Press, 2021); Leonard Pitt, The Decline of the Californios: A Social History of the Spanish-Speaking Californians, 1846-1890 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966); Albert L. Hurtado, Indian Survival on the California Frontier (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1988); Douglas Monroy, Thrown Among Strangers: The Making of Mexican Culture in Frontier California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990); Lisbeth Haas, Conquests and Historical Identities in California, 1769-1936 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); Ramón A. Gutiérrez and Richard J. Orsi, eds., Contested Eden: California Before the Gold Rush (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998); Robert F. Heizer and Alan J. Almquist, The Other Californians: Prejudice and Discrimination under Spain, Mexico, and the United States to 1920 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971); W. W. Robinson, Land in California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1948); John Walton Caughey, The Indians of Southern California in 1852 (San Marino, Calif.: Huntington Library, 1952); Clifford E. Trafzer and Joel R. Hyer, eds., “Exterminate Them”: Written Accounts of the Murder, Rape, and Slavery of Native Americans During the California Gold Rush, 1848-1868 (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1999); Sherburne F. Cook, The Conflict between the California Indian and White Civilization (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976); William J. Bauer Jr., We Were All Like Migrant Workers Here: Work, Community, and Memory on California’s Round Valley Reservation, 1850-1941 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009).
59. Albert Camarillo, Chicanos in a Changing Society: From Mexican Pueblos to American Barrios in Santa Barbara and Southern California, 1848-1930 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979); Tomás Almaguer, Racial Fault Lines: The Historical Origins of White Supremacy in California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); David Torres-Rouff, Before L.A.: Race, Space, and Municipal Power in Los Angeles, 1781-1894 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013); William Deverell, Whitewashed Adobe: The Rise of Los Angeles and the Remaking of Its Mexican Past (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005).  For broader racial processes, see James Diego Vigil, From Indians to Chicanos: The Dynamics of Mexican American Culture, 2nd ed. (Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press, 1998).
60. Weber, Foreigners in Their Native Land, 151-52; Carey McWilliams, North from Mexico: The Spanish-Speaking People of the United States (New York: Praeger, 1990; orig. 1948): 122-25.
61. Griswold del Castillo, Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 69; Menchaca, Recovering History, Constructing Race, 221-22.
62. Yellow Bird (John Rollin Ridge), The Life and Adventures of Joaquín Murieta (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1955; orig. 1854); Susan Lee Johnson, Roaring Camp: The Social World of the California Gold Rush (New York: Norton, 2000), 25-53; Walter Noble Burns, The Robin Hood of El Dorado: The Saga of Joaquin Murrieta, Famous Outlaw of California’s Age of Gold (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1999; orig. 1932); Remi Nadeau, The Real Joaquin Murieta: Robin Hood Hero or Gold Rush Gangster? (Corona del Mar, Calif.: Trans-Anglo Books, 1974); Frank F. Latta, Joaquín Murrieta and His Horse Gangs (Santa Cruz, Calif.: Bear State Books, 1980); Bruce Thornton, Searching for Joaquín: Myth, Murieta and History in California (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2003).  See also, on Gregorio Cortez, Elfego Baca, Tiburcio Vásquez, Juan Cortina, and others: Américo Paredes, “With His Pistol in His Hand”: A Border Ballad and Its Hero (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1958); Pedro Castillo and Albert Camarillo, eds., Furia y muerta: Los bandidos Chicanos (Los Angeles: Aztlán, 1973); Larry D. Ball, Elfego Baca in Life and Legend (El Paso: Texas Western Press, 1992); George A. Beers, Vasquez, or The Hunted Bandits of the San Joaquin (New York: De Witt, 1875); Eugene T. Sawyer, The Life and Career of Tiburcio Vasquez, the California Stage Robber (Oakland, Calif.: Biobooks, 1944); Jerry D. Thompson, ed., Juan Cortina and the Texas-Mexico Frontier, 1859-1877 (El Paso: Texas Western Press, 1994); Shelley Streeby, American Sensations: Class, Empire, and the Production of Popular Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 251-90.
63. On the recruiting of European immigrants, see Lars Ljungmark, For Sale—Minnesota: Organized Promotion of Scandinavian Immigration, 1866-1873 (Göteborg: Läromedelsförl, 1971).  Robert Bartlett points to very near parallels in the process by which West Europeans colonized outlying territories in Central Europe in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization, and Cultural Change, 950-1350 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993).
64. Frederick B. Goddard, Where to Emigrate and Why (New York: Goddard, 1869), 12.  See also Patricia Hills, “Picturing Progress in the Era of Westward Expansion,” in The West as America: Reinterpreting Images of the Frontier, 1820-1920, ed. William H. Truettner (Washington: Smithsonian, 1991), 97-148.
65. Goddard, Where to Emigrate and Why, quoted in Hills, “Picturing Progress,” 145.
66. Frederick Hoxie, email to the author, April 12, 2004.  Benjamin Horace Hibbard’s magisterial A History of the Public Land Policies (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965; orig. 1924), has 591 pages on the organization and dispersal of US public lands, but not one page on the taking of those lands from Native peoples, nor on the effect of that seizure on the former occupants.  It’s not part of the story.
67. A rich sampling can be had in Ethnicity on the Great Plains, ed. Frederick C. Luebke (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980); and European Immigrants in the American West, ed. Luebke (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1998).  See also Luebke, Immigrants and Politics: The Germans of Nebraska, 1880-1900 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1969); Dino Cinel, From Italy to San Francisco (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1982); David M. Emmons, The Butte Irish (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989); Jordan, German Seed in Texas Soil; Timothy J. Kloberdanz, The Volga Germans in Old Russia and in Western North America (Lincoln, Neb.: American Historical Society of Germans from Russia, 1979); Royden K. Loewen, Family, Church, and Market: A Mennonite Community in the Old and the New Worlds, 1850-1930 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993); Robert C. Ostergren, A Community Transplanted: The Trans-Atlantic Experience of a Swedish Immigrant Settlement in the Upper Middle West, 1835-1915 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1998); Dean L. May, Three Frontiers: Family, Land, and Society in the American West, 1850-1900 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1997); O. E. Rölvaag, Giants in the Earth (New York: Burt, 1929); William Toll, The Making of an Ethnic Middle Class: Portland Jewry over Four Generations (Albany: SUNY Press, 1982).  For a more nuanced view, try Karen V. Hansen, Encounter on the Great Plains: Scandinavian Settlers and the Dispossession of Dakota Indians, 1890-1930 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013).
68. Jon Gjerde, The Minds of the West: Ethnocultural Evolution in the Rural Middle West, 1830-1917 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 171.
69. Mari Sandoz, Cheyenne Autumn (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1953), v-vi; see also Sandoz, Old Jules (New York: Blue Ribbon Books, 1935).  Anthony F. C. Wallace makes the connection explicit regarding the removal of southeastern Indians during an earlier period in “The Hunger for Indian Land in Andrew Jackson’s America,” the introduction to The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians (New York: Hill and Wang, 1993), 3-13.  Jackson himself as a young lawyer moved into the town of Nashville in the Cumberland Valley in 1788, only three years after the government had forced the Cherokee to sell that valley.  Two vivid memoirs by children of homesteaders make the attempt to connect with Native American experiences, although neither succeeds in getting outside its author’s White perspective:  Bette Lynch Husted, Above the Clearwater: Living on Stolen Land (Corvallis: Oregon State University Press, 2004); Jarold Ramsey, New Era: Reflections on the Human and Natural History of Central Oregon (Corvallis: Oregon State University Press, 2003).  For an account that disagrees with this interpretation (though we think it is in error), see Richard Edwards, et al., Homesteading the Plains: Toward a New History (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2019).
• Of course the other great uses to which the government put the lands they took from Native peoples were to sponsor the building of railroads across the American West and to build land-grant (some say land-grab) universities.  On the latter, see Tristan Ahtone and Robert Lee, “Ask Who Paid for America’s Universities” New York Times (May 7, 2020); Robert Lee and Tristan Ahtone, “Land-Grab Universities,” Hig Country News (March 30, 2020).
70. Washington Irving, A Tour of the Prairies (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1956; orig. 1835); Hamlin Garland, A Son of the Middle Border (New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1917); Garrison Keillor, Lake Wobegon Days (New York: Viking, 1985).
71. It is amazing that the same White American folk wisdom that embraced the taking of land from US Indians and giving it to Euro-Americans found it abhorrent when, in 1954, the democratically elected government of Guatemala proposed to take unused land from US corporations like United Fruit (later United Brands, marketers of Chiquita Bananas) and give it back to the Indian peasants from whom it had been seized a generation earlier.  It was sufficiently abhorrent that the American people supported a CIA-organized coup in Guatemala.  See Richard H. Immerman, The CIA in Guatemala (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982).
72. Congressional Globe, Appendix (32nd Congress, 1st Session) April 6, 1852, 410, and April 20, 1852, 438; quoted in Lawrence Bacon Lee, Kansas and the Homestead Act, 1862-1905 (New York: Arno, 1979; orig. 1957), 23-24.
73. White, It’s Your Misfortune, 143-45.
74. Murray R. Wickett, Contested Territory: Whites, Native Americans, and African Americans in Oklahoma, 1865-1907 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2000); William T. Hagan, Taking Indian Lands (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2003); Banner, How the Indians Lost Their Lands.  The other place that Indian land went to was to fund colleges and universities across the nation—the Morrill Act, also of 1862, established a means to pay for so-called “land grant universities” which would be supported by selling or renting “public lands” which had until recently been the home of Native peoples.  See Nathan M. Sober, Land-Grant Colleges and Popular Revolt: The Origins of the Morrill Act and the Reform of Higher Education (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2018); Robert Lee and Tristan Ahtone, “Land-Grab Universities: Expropriated Indigenous Land Is the Foundation of the Land-Grant University System,” High Country News (March 30, 2020).
75. H. Craig Miner and William E. Unrau, The End of Indian Kansas: A Study of Cultural Revolution, 1854-1871 (Lawrence, Kans.: Regents Press, 1978), 133.
76. Frederick E. Hoxie, A Final Promise: The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians, 1880-1920 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984); David Rich Lewis, Neither Wolf nor Dog: American Indians, Environment, and Agrarian Change (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994); Peter Iverson, When Indians Became Cowboys: Native Peoples and Cattle Ranching in the American West (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994); Joy S. Kasson, Buffalo Bill’s Wild West (New York: Hill and Wang, 2000); Louis S. Warren, Buffalo Bill’s America: William Cody and the Wild West Show (New York: Random House, 2005); Linda Scarangella McNenly, Native Performers in Wild West Shows: From Buffalo Bill to Euro Disney (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2012); L. G. Moses, Wild West Shows and the Images of American Indians, 1883-1933 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1999).
77. Appendix B, Table 16.
78. Sources for this section include: Mary Roberts Coolidge, Chinese Immigration (New York: Henry Holt, 1909), still the best book on the subject; Gunther Barth, Bitter Strength: A History of the Chinese in the United States, 1850-1870 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1964); Sucheng Chan, This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1860-1910 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986); Yong Chen, Chinese San Francisco (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2000; de León, Racial Frontiers; Madeline Y. Hsu, Dreaming of Gold, Dreaming of Home: Transnationalism and Migration Between the United States and South China, 1882-1943 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2000); Josephine Lee, Imogene L. Lim, and Yuko Matsukawa, eds., Re-Collecting Early Asian America (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2002); Lynn Pan, Sons of the Yellow Emperor: A History of the Chinese Diaspora (New York: Kodansha, 1994); Nayan Shah, Contagious Divides: Epidemics and Race in San Francisco’s Chinatown (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001); John Kuo Wei Tchen, New York Before Chinatown: Orientalism and the Shaping of American Culture, 1776-1882 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); Shih-shan Henry Tsai, The Chinese Experience in America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986); Gordon H. Chang, Ghosts of Gold Mountain: The Epic Story of the Chinese Who Built the Continental Railroad (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2019); Kornel Chang, Pacific Connections: The Making of the US-Canadian Borderlands (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012); Manu Karuka, Empire’s tracks: Indigenous Nations, Chinese Workers, and the Transcontinental Railroad (Oakland: University of California Press, 2019).
79. Lee Chew, “The Biography of a Chinaman,” Independent, 55 (February 19, 1903), 417-23; reprinted in Plain Folk, ed. David M. Katzman and William M. Tuttle, Jr. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982), 164-75.  Note that Mott Street was not a city, but rather a street in New York’s Chinatown.
80. Karen J. Leong, “ ‘A Distant and Antagonistic Race’: Constructions of Chinese Manhood in the Exclusion Debates, 1869-1878,” in Across the Great Divide: Cultures of Manhood in the American West, ed. Laura McCall, Matthew Basso, and Dee Garceau (New York: Routledge, 2000): 131-48; Johnson, Roaring Camp, 35; Ronald Takaki, Iron Cages: Race and Culture in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Knopf, 1979), 215-49; Jachinson W. Chan, Chinese American Masculinities: From Fu Manchu to Bruce Lee (New York: Routledge, 2001).
81. For a similar figure among Italian, Greek, and Mexican immigrants to the American West, see Gunther Peck, Reinventing Free Labor: Padrones and Immigrant Workers in the North American West, 1880-1930 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
82. Note that, from 1870 on, it was illegal for Chinese to marry Whites in California.  In Hawai‘i, Chinese immigrant men intermarried freely with the local population, formed families, and stayed on.
83. Sources for this section include: John Kuo Wei Tchen and Dylan Yeats, eds., Yellow Peril! An Archive of Anti-Asian Fear (London: Verso, 2014); Erika Lee, America for Americans: A History of Xenophobia in the United States (New York: Basic Books, 2019): 75-112; Kanstroom, Deportation Nation, 91-130; Eithne Luihéid, Entry Denied: Controlling Sexuality at the Border (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002): 31-54; Elliott Young, “Caging Immigrants at McNeil Island Federal Prison, 1880-1940,” Pacific Historical Review, 88.1 (2019): 48-85; Scott Zesch, The Chinatown War: Chinese Los Angeles and the Massacre of 1871 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012); Najia Aarim-Heriot, Chinese Immigrants, African Americans, and Racial Anxiety in the United States, 1848-82 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003); Coolidge, Chinese Immigration;  Roger Daniels, Guarding the  Golden Door: American Immigration Policy and Immigrants since 1882  (New York: Hill and Wang, 2003); Andrew Gyory, Race, Politics, and the Chinese Exclusion Act (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); E. P. Hutchinson, Legislative History of American Immigration Policy, 1798-1965 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981); Victor Jew, “‘Chinese Demons’: The Violent Articulation of Chinese Otherness and Interracial Sexuality in the US Midwest, 1885-1889,” Journal of Social History (2003), 389-410; Lon Kurashige, Two Faces of Exclusion: The Untold Story of Anti-Asian Racism in the United States (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019), esp. 14-85; Erika Lee, At America’s Gates: Chinese Immigration during the Exclusion Era, 1882-1943 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); Robert G. Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in Popular Culture (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999); Michael LeMay and Elliott Robert Barkan, eds., US Immigration and Naturalization Laws and Issues (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1999); Charles McClain, ed., Chinese Immigrants and American Law (New York: Garland, 1994); McClain, In Search of Equality: The Chinese Struggle against Discrimination in Nineteenth-Century America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); Stuart Creighton Miller, The Unwelcome Immigrant: The American Image of the Chinese, 1785-1882 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969); George Anthony Peffer, If They Don’t Bring Their Women Here: Chinese Female Immigration Before Exclusion (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999); Lucy E. Salyer, Laws Harsh as Tigers: Chinese Immigrants and the Shaping of Modern Immigration Law (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995); Elmer Clarence Sandmeyer, The Anti-Chinese Movement in California (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1939); Alexander Saxton, The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971).
84. McClain, In Search of Equality, 20-22.
85. Charles I. Bevans, ed., Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States of America, 1776-1949 (Washington: US Government Printing Office, 1971), 6:682.  See also Shih-shan H. Tsai, China and the Overseas Chinese in the United States, 1868-1911 (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1983).
86. Daily Alta California, May 27, 1873.
87. LeMay and Barkan, US Immigration and Naturalization Laws, 35; Gary Y. Okihiro, Margins and Mainstreams: Asians in American History and Culture (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1994), 4-5.
88. Coolidge, Chinese Immigration, 265-67.
89. Megumi Dick Osumi, “Asians and California’s Anti-Miscegenation Laws,” in Nobuya Tsuchida, ed., Asian and Pacific American Experiences: Women’s Perspectives (Minneapolis: Asian/Pacific American Learning Resource Center, University of Minnesota, 1982).
90. LeMay and Barkan, US Immigration and Naturalization Laws, 33-34.
91. San Francisco Chronicle (February 25, 1878), quoted in Leong, “Distinct and Antagonistic Race,” 133.
92. LeMay and Barkan, US Immigration and Naturalization Laws, 48-54.
93. Appendix A, Table 16; Lee, At America’s Gates, 30-46.
94. Lee, At America’s Gates; Madeline Y. Hsu, Dreaming of Gold, Dreaming of Home: Transnationalism and Migration Between the United States and South China, 1882-1943 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2000).  For insight into Chinatown life, see the stories of Sui Sin Far (Edith Maude Eaton), in Mrs. Spring Fragrance and Other Writings (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995).  For later anti-Asian movements, see Roger Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice: The Anti-Japanese Movement in California and the Struggle for Japanese Exclusion (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962); Gary Y. Okihiro, Cane Fires: The Anti-Japanese Movement in Hawai‘i, 1865-1945 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991); Daniels, Prisoners Without Trial: Japanese Americans in World War II, rev. ed. (New York: Hill and Wang, 2004).
95. See, for example, Peter Kolchin, American Slavery (New York: Hill and Wang, 1993); Eugene Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York: Pantheon, 1974); Herbert Gutman, The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom (New York: Random House, 1976); Leslie Howard Owens, This Species of Property (New York: Oxford, 1976); John Blassingame, The Slave Community, rev. ed. (New York: Oxford, 1979); Lawrence W. Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom (New York: Oxford, 1977); Merton J. Dillon, Slavery Attacked: Southern Slaves and Their Allies, 1619-1865 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1990); Sterling Stuckey, Slave Culture (New York: Oxford, 1987); Douglas R. Egerton, Gabriel’s Rebellion: The Virginia Slave Conspiracies of 1800 and 1802 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993); Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion (New York: Oxford, 1978); Walter Johnson, Soul by Soul: Life Inside the Antebellum Slave Market (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999); Benjamin Quarles, Black Abolitionists (New York: Oxford, 1969); James Brewer Stewart, Holy Warriors: The Abolitionists and American Slavery, 2nd ed. (New York: Hill and Wang, 1997); Vincent Harding, There Is a River: The Black Struggle for Freedom in America (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1981); Andrew Delbanco, The War Before the War: Fugitive slaves and the Struggle for America’s Soul from the Revolution to the Civil War (New York: Penguin, 2018); R. J. M. Blackett, The Captive’s Quest for Freedom: Fugitive Slaves, the 1850 Fugitive Slave Law, and the Politics of Slavery (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2018); Walter Johnson, River of Dark Dreams: Slavery and Empire in the Cotton Kingdom (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013); Walter Johnson, Soul by Soul: Life Inside the Slave Market (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999); Thavolia Glymph, Out of the House of Bondage: The Transformation of the Plantation Household (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008); Deverell and Hyde, Shaped by the West, 191-210.
96. Avalon Project, “The Fugitive Slave Act 1850” (http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/Avalon/fugitive.htm, November 25, 2004).
97. Paul Finkelman, Dred Scott v. Sandford (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 1997); Don E. Fehrenbacher, The Dred Scott Case (New York: Oxford, 1978); Fehrenbacher, Slavery, Law, and Politics: The Dred Scott Case in Historical Perspective (New York: Oxford, 1981).
98. Leon F. Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery (New York: Knopf, 1979); Roger L. Ransom and Richard Sutch, One Kind of Freedom: The Economic Consequences of Emancipation (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1977); W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America (New York: Russell and Russell, 1966; orig. 1935); Tera W. Hunter, To ‘Joy My Freedom: Southern Black Women’s Lives and Labors after the Civil War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997); Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877 (New York: Harper and Row, 1988); Claude F. Oubre, Forty Acres and a Mule: The Freedmen’s Bureau and Black Landownership (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978); Michael L. Perman, Emancipation and Reconstruction, 1862-1879 (Arlington Heights, Ill.: Harlan Davidson, 1987); Henry Louis Gates Jr., Stony the Road: Reconstruction, White Supremacy, and the Rise of Jim Crow (New York: Penguin, 2019); Eric Foner, The Second Founding: How the Civil War and Reconstruction Remade the Constitution (New York: Norton, 2019).
99. Sources for this section include: M. L. Marks, Jews Among the Indians (Chicago: Benison Books, 1992); I. Harold Sharfman, Jews on the Frontier (Chicago, 1977); American Jewish Historical Society, “Solomon Bibo” (Jewish Virtual Library) http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/Bibo.html, 10/22/04.

Images

Image 4.5

Image 4.10

Notes

1. Yuji Ichioka, The Issei: The World of the First Generation Japanese Immigrants, 1885-1924 (New York: Free Press, 1988), 219.
2. Takao Ozawa v. United States, 260 US 178 (1922); Ian F. Haney López, White By Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York: NYU Press, 1996), 79-86.
3. United States Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1975), 163, 224, 230-31, 457, 589-90, 666, 693; Douglass C. North, Growth and Welfare in the American Past, 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1974), 27, 40; Mary Beth Norton, et al., A People and a Nation (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1982), 468.
4. Leonard Dinnerstein, Roger L. Nichols, and David M. Reimers, Natives and Srangers: Ethnic Groups and the Building of America (New York: Oxford, 1979), 130-31.
5. Theodore Saloutos, “Exodus U.S.A.,” in In the Trek of the Immigrants, ed. O. Gritiof Ander (Rock Island, Ill.: Augustana College Library, 1964), 197-215.  See also Theodore Saloutos, They Remember America: The Story of the Repatriated Greek-Americans (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1956); Hans Storhaug, “Return Migration: Numbers, Reasons and Consequences,” AEMI Journal (2003), 1-8.
6. Mark Wyman, Round-Trip to America: The Immigrants Return to Europe, 1880-1930 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1994), 17; Appendix B, Table 14.
7. Nancy L. Gree, Laura Levine Frader, and Pierre Milza, “Paris: City of Light and Shadow,” in Distant Magnets: Expectations and Realities in the Immigrant Experience, 1840-1930, ed. Dirk Hoerder and Horst Rössler (New York: Holms and Meier, 1993), 34-51; Henri Bunle, “Migratory Movements Between France and Foreign Lands,” in International Migrations, ed. Walter F. Willcox, vol. 2 (New York: Gordon and Breach, 1969), 201-36; Michael John and Albert Lichtblau, “Vienna around 1900: Images, Expectations, and Experience of Labor Migrants,” in Distant Magnets, ed. Hoerder and Rössler, 52-81; Anna Reczynska, “America and the Ruhr Basin in the Expectations of Polish Peasant Migrants,” in Distant Magnets, ed. Hoerder and Rössler, 84-104; Franco Ramella, “Across the Ocean or over the Border: Expectations and Experiences of Italians from Piedmont in New Jersey and Southern France,” in Distant Magnets, ed. Hoerder and Rössler, 105-25; Donna R. Gabaccia, Italy’s Many Diasporas (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2000).
8. If, for example, one compares the numbers in Table 5.2 with the summary numbers in the sources from which Table 5.2 is constructed, one sees this:

Census summary with Germany in Eastern Europe          My revision with Germany in Northwest Europe

               

	Northwest Europe	Eastern Europe	Northwest Europe	Eastern Europe
1900	4,202,683	4,136,646	6,866,101	1,471,389
1910	4,239,067	6,014,028	6,550,304	3,670,561
1920	3,830,094	6,134,845	5,516,202	4,443,453

Scholars and policy makers have usually relied on numbers for the foreign born presented as the census makers chose to summarize them.  Thus, it can hardly be a surprise that they reached the erroneous conclusion that the country was being inundated by a horde of Eastern Europeans.  It was not an accurate impression.  One might even say it had been prejudiced by the census makers.  A detailed quantitative study of the 1920 census material on foreign-born Americans and their children is Niles Carpenter, Immigrants and Their Children, US Bureau of the Census Monograph No. VII (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1927).  Analyzed critically, Carpenter’s work supports the interpretation I make here, although it has always been used to support the other interpretation.

9. The degree of this misperception is evident in the selection of people June Namias included in a fine set of oral histories:  First Generation: In the Words of Twentieth-Century American Immigrants, rev. ed. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992).  Among the ethnic groups included are Armenians, Chinese, Cubans, Filipinos, Greeks, Hungarians, Indians, Italians, Japanese, Jews, Koreans, Poles, Portuguese, Russians, Spaniards, Vietnamese, and West Indians.  The only Northwest Europeans are an Irish woman and a French woman.  The many other immigrants from that part of the world are ignored.  Joan Morrison and Charlotte Fox Zabusky show the same blindness in an equally evocative set of oral histories, American Mosaic: The Immigrant Experience in the Words of Those Who Lived It (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1993; orig. 1980).  This is by no means a complaint about the inclusion of so many others in either volume—that is an admirable array.  But the absence of Northwest Europeans distorts the representation of the actual shape of twentieth-century US immigration.
10. The youngest Wrightson daughter, Mary Ellen, was my grandmother.  Information on their household comes from the 1881 English manuscript census and her stories.  The physical description of the landscape comes from my 1997 visit to Middlestone and the Leasingthorne Colliery.  For the story of an English immigrant who remained professionally in the working class, see Samuel Gompers, Seventy Years of Life and Labor, abridged ed., ed. by Nick Salvatore (Ithaca, N.Y.: ILR Press, 1985; orig. ed. 1925).
11. Stanley C. Johnson, A History of Emigration From the United Kingdom to North America, 1763-1912 (London: Frank Cass, 1966; orig. 1913), 344-45; Charlotte J. Erickson, “English,” in Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, ed. Stephan Thernstrom (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980), 336; C. E. Snow, “Emigration from Great Britain,” in in International Migrations, ed. Willcox, 2:239-82; E. T. McPhee, “Australia—Its Immigrant Population,” in International Migrations, ed. Willcox, 2:169-78; D. J. Cruickshank, “New Zealand—External Migration,” in International Migrations, ed. Willcox, 2:179-200; William E. Van Vugt, British Immigration to the United States, 1776-1914, 4 vols. (New York: Routledge, 2017).
12. Rowland Tappan Berthoff, British Immigrants in Industrial America, 1790-1950 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1953), 157.  Berthoff’s is the only monograph on British immigration to the United States that takes the story past the middle of the nineteenth century (Van Vugt’s British Immigration is a compendium of documents).
13. Berthoff, British Immigrants, 10, 80-84.
14. Wilbur Shepperson, Emigration and Disenchantment (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1965), 7.
15. Johnson, Emigration From the United Kingdom, 346-47.
16. For one particularly interesting group of British migrants, see P. A. M. Taylor, Expectations Westward: The Mormons and the Emigration of their British Converts in the Nineteenth Century (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1965).
17. See also Appendix B Table 10.
18. Sources for this section include:  Don Heinrich Tolzmann, The German-American Experience (Amherst, N.Y.: Humanity Books, 2000); La Vern J. Rippley, The German-Americans (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1984; orig. 1976); Frederick C. Luebke, Germans in the New World: Essays in the History of Immigration (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990); Walter D. Kamphoefner, Wolfgang Helbich, and Ulrike Sommer, eds., News from the Land of Freedom: German Immigrants Write Home (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992); G. A. Dobbert, “German-Americans between New and Old Fatherland, 1870-1914,” American Quarterly, 19.4 (1967), 663-80; Karen Schniedewind, “Migrants Returning to Bremen: Social Structure and Motivations, 1850 to 1914,” Journal of American Ethnic History, 12.2 (Winter 1993), 35-55; Michael Ermarth, “Hyphenation and Hyper-Americanization: Germans of the Wilhelmine Reich Veiw German-Americans, 1890-1914,” Journal of American Ethnic History, 21.2 (Winter 2002), 33-58; F. Burgdörfer, “Migration across the Frontiers of Germany,” in International Migrations, ed. Willcox, 2:313-89; Tyler Anbinder, City of Dreams: The 400-Year Epic History of Immigrant New York (New York: Mariner Books, 2017).
19. Charles Thomas Johnson, Culture at Twilight: The National German-American Alliance, 1901-1918 (New York: Peter Lang, 1999).
20. Tolzmann, , German-American Experience, 288; Frederick C. Luebke, Bonds of Loyalty: German-Americans and World War I (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1974); Franziska Ott, “The Anti-German Hysteria: The Case of Robert Paul Prager,” in German Americans in the World Wars, ed. Don Heinrich Tolzmann (München: K. G. Saur, 1995-98): vol. 1, 237-365.
21. Tolzmann, , German-American Experience, 268-95; Kamphoefner, Helbich, and Sommer, News from the Land of Freedom, 23-26.  See also Phyllis Keller, States of Belonging: German-American Intellectuals and the First World War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979).  The migration to the United States in this period of the Dutch replicated in miniature the shape and issues of German migration (save the World War I situation), and came to assume local importance in some Midwestern states like Michigan, Wisconsin, and Iowa.  See Robert P. Swierenga, ed., The Dutch in America: Immigration, Settlement, and Cultural Change (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1985); Suzanne M. Sinke, Dutch Immigrant Women in the United States, 1880-1920 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000).
22. Sources for this section include: Anbinder, City of Dreams; James R. Barrett, The Irish Way: Becoming American in the Multiethnic City (New York: Penguin, 2013); Donald B. Cole, Immigrant City: Lawrence, Massachusetts, 1845-1921 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1963); D. A. E. Harkness, “Irish Emigration,” in International Migrations, ed. Willcox, 2:261-82; Matthew Frye Jacobson, Special Sorrows: The Diasporic Imagination of Irish, Polish, and Jewish Immigrants in the United States (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002); Kevin Kenny, The American Irish (New York: Routledge, 2000): 131-220; Lawrence J. McCaffrey, The Irish Diaspora in America (Bloomington:  Indiana University Press, 1976); Timothy J. Meagher, Inventing Irish America (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 2001); Kerby A. Miller, Emigrants and Exiles: Ireland and the Irish Exodus to North America (New York: Oxford, 1988); David Roediger and James Barrett, “Making New Immigrants ‘Inbetween’: Irish Hosts and White Panethnicity, 1890 to 1930,” in Not Just black and White: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Immigration, Race, and Ethnicity in the United States, ed. Nancy Foner and George M. Fredrickson (New York: Russell Sage, 2004), 167-96; Arnold Schrier, Ireland and the American Emigration, 1850-1900 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1958); William V. Shannon, The American Irish (New York: Macmillan, 1966); Barbara Miller Solomon, Ancestors and Immigrants: A Changing New England Tradition (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1956); Stephan Thernstrom, The Other Bostonians: Poverty and Progress in the American Metropolis, 1880-1970 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1973); Richard White, Remembering Ahanagran: A History of Stories (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2004; orig. 1998).
23. Kerby A. Miller, “Paddy’s Paradox: Emigration to America in Irish Imagination and Rhetoric,” in Distant Magnets, ed. Hoerder and Rössler, 264-93.
24. Ibid., 265.  The reference is to David N. Doyle, Irish Americans, Native Rights, and National Empires: The Structure, Divisions and Attitudes of the Catholic Minority in the Decade of Expansion, 1890-1901 (New York: Anno Press, 1976).
25. Cole, Immigrant City, 51-53.
26. William L. Riordian, Plunkitt of Tammany Hall (New York: Dutton, 1963), xx, 3, 36, 37.
27. On ethnic political machines, see, for example, Tyler Anbinder, Five Points: The 19th-Century New York City Neighborhood that Invented Tap Dance, Stole Elections, and Became the World’s Most Notorious Slum (New York: Free Press, 2010); Blaine A, Brownell, Bosses and Reformers: Urban Politics in America, 1880-1920 Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973); Fletcher Dobyns, The Underworld of American Politics (New York: Dobyns, 1932); Terry Golway, Machine Made: Tammany Hall and the Creation of Modern American Politics (New York: Norton, 2014); Alex Gottfried, Boss Cermak of Chicago (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1962); Paul M. Green and Melvin G. Holli, eds., The Mayors: The Chicago Political Tradition (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1995); Richard F. Welch, King of the Bowery: Big Tim Sullivan, Tammany Hall, and New York City from the Gilded Age to the Progressive Era (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 2008).
28. The play on words mocks the ancient creed: “One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic.”  Jay P. Dolan, The American Catholic Experience (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1985), 143, 180, 302-03.
29. Miller, “Paddy’s Paradox,” 265-66.
30. Jacobson, Special Sorrows, 25.
31. Irish World (Jan. 29, 1898), 1, and (March 12, 1898), 4, both quoted in Jacobson, Special Sorrows, 32.
32. Meagher, Inventing Irish America.
33. Sources for this section include:  Richard D. Alba, Italian Americans  Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1985); Anbinder, City of Dreams; Josef J. Barton, Peasants and Strangers: Italians, Rumanians, and Slovaks in an American City, 1890-1950 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1975); John W. Briggs, An Italian Passage: Immigrants to Three American Cities, 1890-1930 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1978); Dino Cinel, From Italy to San Francisco (Stanford, Calif,: Stanford University Press, 1982); Francesco Cordasco and Eugene Bucchioni, eds., The Italians: Social Backgrounds Of An American Group (Clifton, N.J.: Augustus M. Kelley, 1974); Alexander DeConde, Half Bitter, Half Sweet: An Excursion into Italian-American History (New York: Scribner’s, 1971); Donna Gabaccia, From Sicily to Elizabeth Street: Housing and Social Change Among Italian Immigrants, 1880-1930 (Albany: SUNY Press, 1984); Richard Gambino, Blood of My Blood: The Dilemma of the Italian-Americans (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1974); Jennifer Guglielmo, Living the Revolution: Italian Women’s Resistance and Radicalism in New York City, 1880-1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010); Thomas A. Guglielmo, White on Arrival: Italians, Race, Color, and Power in Chicago, 1890-1945 (New York: Oxford, 2003); Thomas Kessner, The Golden Door: Italian and Jewish Immigrant Mobility in New York City, 1880-1915 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977); Salvatore J. LaGumina, The Immigrants Speak: Italian Americans Tell Their Story (New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1979); Phylis Cancilla Martinelli, Undermining Race: Ethnic Identities in Arizona Copper Camps, 1850-1920 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2009); Gary Mormino, Immigrants on the Hill: Italian Americans in St. Louis, 1882-1982 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986); Humbert S. Nelli, From Immigrants to Ethnics: The Italian Americans (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983); Nelli, Italians in Chicago, 1880-1930 (New York: Oxford, 1970); Gunther Peck, Reinventing Free Labor: Padrones and Immigrant Workers in the North American West, 1880-1930 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Stanislau G. Pugliese and William J. Connell, eds., The Routledge History of Italian Americans (New York: Routledge, 2019); Andrew F. Rolle, The Italian Americans (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1972); S. M. Tomasi, Perspectives in Italian Immigration and Ethnicity (New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1977); Virginia Yans-McLaughlin, Family and Community: Italian Immigrants in Buffalo, 1880-1920 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1978).
34. Donna R. Gabaccia, Italy’s Many Diasporas (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2000); Dino Cinel, “The Seasonal Emigrations of Italians in the Nineteenth Century: From Internal to International Destinations,” Journal of Ethnic Studies, 10.1 (1982), 43-67; J. S. McDonald, “Italy’s Rural Social Structure and Emigration,” Occidente, 12.5 (1956), 437-56; Grazia Dore, “Some Social and Historical Aspects of Italian Emigration to America,” Journal of Social History (1968), 95-122. On late-twentieth-century Italian regionalism, see Ann Cornelisen, Strangers and Pilgrims: The Last Italian Migration (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980); Alessandro Portelli, “The Problem of the Color-Blind: Notes on the Discourse of Race in Italy,” in Race and Nation: Ethnic Systems in the Modern World, ed. Paul Spickard (New York: Routledge, 2005), 355-63.
35. Gabaccia, Italy’s Many Diasporas, 60-70; Anna Maria Ratti, “Italian Migration Movements, 1876 to 1926,” in International Migrations, ed., Willcox, 440-70.
36. Cinel, From Italy to San Francisco, 196-227; Paola Sesia, “White Ethnicity in America: The Italian Experience,” in Berkeley History Review, 2 (1982), 18-32; Mormino, Immigrants on the Hill, 28-55.
37. Micaela di Leonardo, The Varieties of Ethnic Experience: Kinship, Class, and Gender among California Italian-Americans (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1984), 58.
38. Rudolph J. Vecoli, “Italian American Workers, 1880-1920: Padrone Slaves or Primitive Rebels?” in Perspectives in Italian Immigration and Ethnicity, ed. Tomasi, 25-49; Gunther Peck, Reinventing Free Labor: Padrones and Immigrant Workers in the North American West, 1880-1930 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Gabaccia, Italy’s Many Diasporas, 58-80.
39. LaGumina, Immigrants Speak, 5-11.
40. Betty Boyd Caroli, Italian Repatriation from the United States, 1900-1914 (New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1973); Dino Cinel, The National Integration of Italian Return Migration, 1870-1929 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Victor Von Borosini, “Home-Going Italians,” in The Italians, ed. Cordasco and Bucchioni, 113-19.
41. Morrison and Zabusky, American Mosaic, 65-67.
42. Yans-McLaughlin, Family and Community, 18.  Yans-McLaughlin is arguing specifically against Oscar Handlin’s tale of peasant migrant dislocation and social dysfunction when thrown into urban, industrial America, which he presented in The Uprooted, 2nd ed. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1973).  Handlin’s interpretation  followed two generations of sociologists, led by University of Chicago scholars such as William I. Thomas, who wrote with Florian Znaniecki, The Polish Peasant in Europe and America, abr. ed. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984; orig. 5 vols., 1918-1920).  For a first take on a post-disorganization analysis, see Rudolph Vecoli, “Contadini in Chicago: A Critique of The Uprooted,” Journal of American History, 51 (1964), 404-17.
43. Gabaccia, From Sicily to Elizabeth Street, xv-xvi.
44. Nelli, From Immigrants to Ethnics, 131.
45. Gabaccia, From Sicily to Elizabeth Street, xv.
46. Kessner, The Golden Door, 155; Humbert S. Nelli, “Italians,” in Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, ed. Thernstrom, 548-49. On community building, see Dominic Candeloro, Chicago’s Italians (Charleston: Arcadia, 2003); Cinel, From Italy to San Francisco; Cordasco and Bucchioni, The Italians, 121-279; Gabaccia, From Sicily to Elizabeth Street;  Guglielmo, White on Arrival; Mormino, Immigrants on the Hill; Nelli, Italians in Chicago; Christopher M. Sterba, “ ‘More Than Ever, We Feel Proud to Be Italians’: World War I and the New Haven Colonia, 1917-1918,” Journal of American Ethnic History, 20.2 (Winter 2001), 70-106; Rudolph J. Vecoli, “The Formation of Chicago’s ‘Little Italies’,” Journal of American Ethnic History, 2.2 (Spring 1983), 5-20; Yans-McLaughlin, Family and Community.
47. Yans-McLaughlin, Family and Community, 261-62.
48. Sources for this section include:  Henry Pratt Fairchild, Greek Immigration to the United States (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1911); George Kaloudis, Modern Greece and the Disapora Greeks in the United States (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2018): 41-108; Charles C. Moskos, Greek Americans: Struggle and Success (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1980); Peck, Reinventing Free Labor; Theodore Saloutos, “Causes and Patterns of Greek Emigration to the United States,” Perspectives in American History, 7 (1973), 379-437; Saloutos, The Greeks in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1964); Saloutos, They Remember America; Alice Scourby, The Greek Americans (Boston: Twayne, 1984).
49. The Turkish genocide carried out against Armenians is one of the harrowing tales of modern history.  For Armenian immigration and the genocide, which are intertwined in the minds of many Armenian Americans, see Michael J. Arlen, Passage to Ararat (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975); Arra S. Avakian, The Armenians in America (Minneapolis: Lerner, 1977); Peter Balakian, Black Dog of Fate: AN American Son Uncovers His Armenian Past, rev. ed. (New York: Basic Books, 2009); Peter Balakian, The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America’s Response (New York: HarperCollins, 2003); Garin K. Hovannisian, Family of Shadoes: A Century of Murder, Memory, and the Armenian American Dream (New York: HarperCollins, 2010); Hans Lukas Kieser, Talaat Pasha: Father of Modern Turkey, Architect of Genocide (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018); Donald E. Miller and Lorna Touryan, Survivors: Am Oral History of the Armenian Genocide (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Benny Morris and Dror Ze‘evi, The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey’s Destruction of its Christian Minorities, 1894-1924 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2019); Ronald Grigor Suny, “They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else”: A History of the Armenian Genocide (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017).  For Assyrians, see Mary C. Sengstock, Chaldean-Americans: Changing Concepts of Ethnic Identity (New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1982); Yaasmeen Hanoosh, The Chaldeans: Politics and Identity in Iraq and the American Diaspora (London: I. B. Tauris, 2020).
50. Saloutos, “Greek Emigration,” 544.
51. Saloutos, They Remember America, 90-93.  For other Balkan immigrant groups, see:  June Granatir Alexander, “Staying Together: Chain Migration and Patterns of Slovak Settlement in Pittsburgh Prior to World War I,” Journal of American Ethnic History, 1 (fall 1981), 56-83; Emily Greene Balch, Our Slavic Fellow Citizens (New York: Charities Publication Committee, 1910); Barton, Peasants and Strangers; Branko Mita Colakovic, Yugoslav Migrations to America (San Francisco: R and E Research Associates, 1973); Gerald Gilbert Govorchin, Americans from Yugoslavia (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1961); Victor R. Greene, The Slavic Community on Strike: Immigrant Labor in Pennsylvania Anthracite (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1968); Marie Prisland, From Slovenia—to America (Chicago: Slovenian Women’s Union of America, 1968); George J. Prpic,The Croation Immigrants in America (New York: Philosophical Library, 1971);  Prpic, South Slavic Immigration in America (Boston: Twayne, 1978).  For a very different set of migrant experiences, by people from the opposite end of southern Europe, see Marilyn Halter, Between Race and Ethnicity: Cape Verdean American Immigrants, 1860-1965 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993); Jerry R. Williams, And Yet They Come: Portuguese Immigration from the Azores to the United States (New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1982).
52. For Eastern European groups not treated in detail here, see:  Balch, Our Slavic Fellow Citizens; Barton, Peasants and Strangers; Julianna Puskás, “Hungarian Images of America: The Sirens’ Song of Tinkling Dollars,” in Distant Magnets, ed., Hoerder and Rössler, 180-98; Juliana Puskás, Ties That Bind, Ties That Divide: 100 Years of Hungarian Experience in the United States, trans. Zora Ludwig (New York: Holmes and Meier, 2000); M. Mark Stolarik, Where Is My Home? Slovak Immigration to North America (1870-2010) (New York: Peter Lang, 2012); Tara Zahra, The Great Departure: Mass Migration from Eastern Europe and the Making of the Free World (New York: Norton, 2017).
53. Sources for this section include:  Balch, Our Slavic Fellow Citizens; John J. Bukowczyk, And My Children Did Not Know Me: A History of the Polish-Americans (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); Bukowczyk, ed., Polish Americans and Their History (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1996); Bukowczyk,  The Poles in America, special issue of Journal of American Ethnic History, 16.1 (Fall 1996) ; Caroline Golab, Immigrant Destinations (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1977); Victor Greene, For God and Country: The Rise of Polish and Lithuanian Ethnic Consciousness in America, 1860-1910 (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1975); Jacobson, Special Sorrows; Helena Znaniecki Lopata, Polish Americans (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1976); Karen Majewski, Traitors and True Poles: Narrating a Polish-American Identity, 1880-1939 (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2003); Dominic A. Pacyga, American Warsaw: The Rise, Fall, and Rebirth of Polish Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2019); Dominic A. Pacyga, Polish Immigrants and Industrial Chicago: Workers on the South Side, 1880-1922 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003); Thomas and Znaniecki, Polish Peasant in Europe and America.
54. Felix Klezl, “Austria,” in International Migrations, 390-410.
55. Balch, Our Slavic Fellow Citizens, 133; Pacyga, Polish Immigrants and Industrial Chicago, 17; Bukowczyk, And My Children Did Not Know Me, 15.
56. Balch, Our Slavic Fellow Citizens, 263, 461. A question nags:  Why is it that more Polish Americans lived in New York than in Chicago, and more lived in Pennsylvania than in Illinois, yet almost all the writing about Polish Americans is about Chicago?  See for example: Bukowczyk, And My Children Did Not Know Me; Greene, For God and Country; Lopata, Polish Americans; Pacyga, Polish Immigrants and Industrial Chicago; Thomas and Znaniecki, Polish Peasant.  What is it about Polish life in Chicago that generates such focused interest?  Because I don’t have the ghost of an answer to this question, I will leave it in a footnote, but someone surely ought to figure this out.
57. Pacyga, Polish Immigrants and Industrial Chicago, 15-42.
58. Victor Greene, “Poles,” in Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, ed. Thernstrom, 787-803.
59. Kraków Diocese Archives, cited in Wyman, Round-Trip to America, 17-18.
60. Anna Reczynska, “America and the Ruhr Basin in the Expectations of Polish Migrants,” in Distant Magnets, ed. Hoerder and Rössler, 84-104.  See also Ewa Morawska, “From Myth to Reality: America in the Eyes of East European Peasant Migrant Laborers,” in Distant Magnets, ed. Hoerder and Rössler, 241-63; Jacobson, Special Sorrows.
61. Reczynska, “Expectations of Polish Migrants.”
62. Something of history can be read in place names.  A tour of the map of southern Minnesota and northern Wisconsin recalls yesteryear’s boosterism (Excelsior, Welcome), patriotism (Adams, Monroe, Monticello), religious commitment (St. Peter, East Bethel), ersatz Indianness (Minnetonka, Winnebago), and the landscape and fauna (Little Falls, Coon Rapids).  But it also includes rural communities that speak of specific immigrant roots:  New Prague, Heidelberg, Kilkenny, Hamburg, New Ulm, Poland, Little Canada, Caledonia, Scandia, Pilsen, Lindstrom, Pulaski.  Many Midwestern states boast a similar array.
63. Bukowczyk, And My Children Did Not Know Me, 20.
64. Polish workers seem not to have depended on labor contractors so much as did Italians, Greeks, Chinese, Japanese, and others; Bukowczyk, And My Children Did Not Know Me, 20-23.
65. Pacyga, Polish Immigrants and Industrial Chicago, 111-57.  On community and institutional life, see also Lopata, Polish Americans, 33-67; Thomas and Znaniecki, Polish Peasant, 239-55.
66. William J. Galush, “Polish Americans and Religion,” in Polish Americans and Their History, ed. Bukowczyk, 80-92; Greene, For God and Country; Dolan, American Catholic Experience, 183-84; Pacyga, Polish Immigrants and Industrial Chicago, 127-43; Joseph John Parot, Polish Catholics in Chicago, 1850-1920 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1981).
67. Sources for this section include: Lucy S. Dawidowicz, ed., The Golden Tradition: Jewish Life and Thought in Eastern Europe (Boston: Beacon, 1967); Milton Doroshkin, Yiddish in America: Social and Cultural Foundations (Rutherford, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1969); Stanley Feldstein, The Land That I Show You: Three Centuries of Jewish Life in America (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1978); Nathan Glazer, American Judaism, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972); Louis Greenberg, The Jews in Russia (New York: Schocken, 1976; orig. 1944, 1956); Liebmann Hersch, “International Migration of the Jews,” in International Migrations, ed. Willcox, 471-520; Irving Howe, World of Our Fathers (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1976); Jacobson, Special Sorrows; Ava F. Kahn, ed., Jewish Life in the American West (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002); Kessner, The Golden Door; Jacob Rader Marcus, ed., The Jew in the American World (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1996); Simon Kuznets, “Immigration of Russian Jews to the United States,” Perspectives in American History, 9 (1975), 33-124; Isaac Metzker, ed., A Bintel Brief (New York: Ballantine, 1971); Moses Rischin, ed., Grandma Never Lived in America: The New Journalism of Abraham Cahan (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985); Rischin, The Promised City: New York’s Jews, 1870-1914 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1962); Jonathan D. Sarna, ed., The American Jewish Experience (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1986); Chaim L. Waxman, America’s Jews in Transition (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1983); Michael R. Weisser, A Brotherhood of Memory: Jewish Landsmanshaftn in the New World(New York: Basic, 1985).  Vivid personal accounts can be found in fiction, autobiography, and film, including Mary Antin, From Plotzk to Boston (Boston: Clarke, 1899); Antin, The Promised Land (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1912); Abraham Cahan, The Rise of David Levinsky (New York: Harper and Row, 1960; orig. 1917); Cahan, Yekl and The Imported Bridegroom (New York: Dover, 1970; orig. 1896, 1898); M. E. Ravage, An American in the Making: The Life Story of an Immigrant (New York: Dover, 1971; orig. 1917); Joan Micklin Silver, dir., Hester Street (New York: First Run Features, 1974); Anzia Yezierska, Bread Givers (New York: Persea, 1975; orig. 1925).  Some sentences are modified from  my book Mixed Blood: Intermarriage and Ethnic Identity in Twentieth-Century America (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989), 172-73; Anbinder, City of Dreams.
68. Leonard Dinnerstein and Richard Reimers, Ethnic Americans, 2nd ed. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), 163-65.
69. Hersch, “International Migration of the Jews,” 479; see also Kuznets, “Immigration of Russian Jews,” 39.
70. Waxman, American Jews in Transition, 33.
71. Mark Zborowski and Elizabeth Herzog, Life Is with People: The Culture of the Shtetl (New York: Schocken, 1952); Davidowicz, Golden Tradition, 5-90.  The stories of Sholem Aleichem tell of shtetl life: Tevye’s Daughters (New York: Crown, 1949).  For a somewhat broader view of East European Jewish life in this period, see Isaac Bashevis Singer, Crown of Feathers (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1973); Singer, Gimpel the Fool (New York: Noonday, 1957); Singer, The Magician of Lublin (London: Secker and Warburg, 1961); Singer, The Slave (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1962); Yohanan Petrovsky-Shtern, A Golden Age Shtetl: A New History of Jewish Life in Eastern Europe (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015); Jeffrey Veidingler, In the Shadow of the Shtetl: Small-Town Jewish Life in Soviet Ukraine (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2016).
72. Antin, Promised Land, 8.
73. Arthur A. Goren, “Jews,” in Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, ed. Thernstrom, 571-98.
74. Quoted in Howe, World of Our Fathers, 27.
75. Kuznets, “Immigration of Russian Jews,” 113.
76. Ibid., 95.
77. Howe, World of Our Fathers, 87.
78. Jewish immigrant women, by contrast, had a lower literacy rate (66 per cent) than did Gentile immigrant women (74 per cent); Kuznets, “Immigration of Russian Jews,” 115.
79. Howe, World of Our Fathers, 148-68.
80. Ibid., 305.
81. Ibid., 305-06.
82. Lucy S. Dawidowicz, “The Jewishness of the Jewish Labor Movement in the United States,” in American Jewish Experience, ed. Sarna, American Jewish Experience, 158-66; Howe, World of Our Fathers, 287-359.
83. Michael R. Weisser, A Brotherhood of Memory: Jewish Landsmanshaftn in the New World (New York: Basic, 1985); Doroshkin, Yiddish in America, 136-69; Marcus, Jew in the American World, 340-80.
84. Howe, World of Our Fathers, 417-551; Doroshkin, Yiddish in America, 82-135; Marcus, Jew in the American World, 381-92.
85. Moses Rischin, “Germans versus Russians,” in Sarna, American Jewish Experience, 120-32; Rischin, Promised City, 95-111; Avraham Barkai, “German-Jewish Migration in the Nineteenth Century, 1830-1910,” in Migration across Time and Nations, ed. Ira Z. Glazier and Luigi De Rosa (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1986), 202-19.
86. Karen V. Hansen, Encounter on the Great Plains: Scandinavian Settlers and the Dispossession of Dakota Indians (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013); Erika K. Jackson, Scndinavians in Chicago: The Origins of White Privilege in Modern America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2018); Jana Sverdljuk, et al., eds., Nordic Whiteness and Migration to the USA (New York: Routledge, 2021).
• We will have little to say about Danes, Finns, and Icelanders here.  On Danish immigrants, see: Thomas Peter Christensen, A History of the Danes in Iowa (New York: Arno, 1979; orig. 1952);  Kristian Hvidt, Flight to America: The Social Background of 300,000 Danish Emigrants (New York: Academic, 1975); Hivdt, Danes Go West (Copenhagen, 1976); George R. Nielsen, The Danish Americans (Boston: Twayne, 1981).  On Finns, see: A. William Hoglund, Finnish Immigrants in America, 1880-1920 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1960); Ralph J. Jalkanen, ed., The Finns in North America (Hancock, Mich.: Michigan State University Press, 1969); Michael G. Karni and Doublas J. Ollila, eds., For the Common Good: Finnish Immigrants and the Radical Response to Industrial America (Superior, Wis.: Tyomies Society, 1977); Reino Kero, Migration from Finland to North America in the Years between the United States Civil War and the First World War (Turku, Finland: Turun Yliopisto, 1974); Carl Ross, The Finn Factor in American Labor, Culture, and Society (New York Mills, Minn.: Parta, 1977).  On Icelanders, see: Thorstina Jackson Walters, Modern Sagas: The Story of the Icelanders in North America (Fargo, N.D.: 1953).
87. Sources for this section include: H. Arnold Barton, A Folk Divided: Homeland Swedes and Swedish Americans, 1840-1940 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1994); Anita Olson Gustafson, Swedish Chicago: The Shaping of an Immigrant Community 1880-1920 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2018); John S. Lindbert, The Background of Swedish Emigration to the United States (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1930); Robert C. Ostergren, A Community Transplanted: the Trans-Atlantic Experience of a Swedish Immigrant Settlement in the Upper Middle West, 1835-1915 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988); Harald Runblom and Hans Norman, eds., From Sweden to America (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1976).
88. Peg Meier, ed., Bring Warm Clothes: Letters and Photos from Minnesota’s Past (Minneapolis: Minneapolis Tribune, 1981), 194.
89. Morrison and Zabusky, American Mosaic, 3-8.
90. G. William Carlson, private communication with the author, 1982.  Needless to say, this mix of progressive politics, unionism, and evangelical faith was lost somewhere in the last third of the twentieth century.  For the longstanding bond of progressivism and evangelicalism, now abandoned, see Timothy L. Smith, Evangelism and Social Reform: American Protestantism on the Eve of the Civil War (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980); Ernest R. Sandeen, ed., The Bible and Social Reform (Chico, Calif.: Scholars, 1982).
91. Sources for this section include:  Betty A. Bergland and Lori Ann Lahlum, eds., Norwegian American Women: Migration, Communities, and Identities (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 2011); Jon Gjerde, From Peasants to Farmers: The Migration from Balestrand, Norway, to the Upper Middle West (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Jon Gjerde and Carleton C. Qualey, Norwegians in Minnesota (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 2002); L. DeAne Lagerquist, In America the Men Milk the Cows: Factors of Gender, Ethnicity, and Religion in the Americanization of Norwegian-American Women (New York: Carlson, 1991); Odd S. Lovoll, Across the Deep Blue Sea: The Saga of Early Norwegian Immigrants (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 2015); Odd S. Lovoll, Norwegians on the Prairie: Ethnicity and the Development of the Country Town (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 2006); Odd S. Lovoll, The Promise of America: A History of the Norwegian-American People, rev. ed. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999); Ingrid Semmingsen, Norway to America, trans. Einar Haugen (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1978).
92. Ole Beim was my great-grandfather.  This account is taken from his letters and from family stories.
93. Tomás Almaguer, Racial Fault Lines: The Historical Origins of White Supremacy in California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); Gordon Morris Bakken and Brenda Farringson, eds., Racial Encounters in the Multi-Cultural West (New York: Garland, 2000); Arnoldo De León, Racial Frontiers: Africans, Chinese, and Mexicans in Western America, 1848-1890 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2002); Neil Foley, The White Scourge: Mexicans, Blacks, and Poor Whites in Texas Cotton Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Robert F. Heizer and Alan J. Almquist; The Other Californians: Prejudice and Discrimination under Spain, Mexico, and the United States to 1920 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971); Carey McWilliams, Factories in the Fields (Santa Barbara: Peregrine Smith, 1971; orig. 1935); Ronald Takaki, Pau Hana: Plantation Life and Labor in Hawaii (Honolulu: University of Hawai`i Press, 1983).
94. Sources for this section include:  Susie Lan Cassel, ed., The Chinese in America (Walnut Creek, Calif.: AltaMira, 2002); Sucheng Chan, ed., Entry Denied: Exclusion and the Chinese Community in America, 1882-1943 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991); Yong Chen, Chinese San Francisco, 1850-1943 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2000); Lucy M. Cohen, Chinese in the Post-Civil War South (Baton Rouge, La.: LSU Press, 1984); Clarence E. Glick, Sojourners and Settlers: Chinese Migrants in Hawaii (Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, 1980); Sarah M. Griffith, “Border Crossings: Race, Class, and Smuggling in Pacific Coast Chinese Immigrant Society,” Western Historical Quarterly, 35 (2004), 473-92; Marlon K. Hom, Songs of Gold Mountain: Cantonese Rhymes from San Francisco Chinatown (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); Madeline Y. Hsu, Dreaming of Gold, Dreaming of Home: Transnationalism and Migration Between the United States and South China, 1882-1943 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2000); S. W. Kung, Chinese in American Life (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1962); Him Mark Lai, Becoming Chinese American: A History of Communities and Institutions (2004); Erika Lee, At America’s Gates: Chinese Immigration during the Exclusion Era, 1882-1943 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005); Rose Hum Lee, The Chinese in the United Sttes of America (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1960); Huping Ling, Chinese St. Louis (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004); Ling, Surviving on the Gold Mountain: A History of Chinese American Women and their Lives (Albany: SUNY Press, 1998); James W. Loewen, The Mississippi Chinese (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971); Stanford M. Lyman, Chinese Americans (New York: Random House, 1974); Mildred Crowl Martin, Chinatown’s Angry Angel: The Story of Donaldina Cameron (Palo Alto, Calif.: Pacific Books, 1977); Charles J. McClain, In Search of Equality: The Chinese Struggle against Discrimination in Nineteenth-Century America (Berkeley: University of California Press; Ruthanne Lum McCunn, Chinese American Portraits: Personal Histories, 1828-1988 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1988); McCunn, Thousand Pieces of Gold(San Francisco: Design Enterprises, 1981); Adam McKeown, Chinese Migrant Networks and Cultural Change: Peru, Chicago, Hawaii, 1900-1936 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001); Victor G. Nee and Brett DeBary Nee, Longtime Californ’: A Documentary Study of an American Chinatown (New York: Pantheon, 1973); Lucy E. Salyer, Laws Harsh as Tigers: Chinese Immigrants and the Shaping of Modern Immigration Law (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995); Nayan Shah, Contagious Divides: Epidemics and Race in San Francisco’s Chinatown (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001); Paul C. P. Siu, The Chinese Laundryman (New York: NYU Press, 1987; orig. 1953); Betty Lee Sung, Mountain of Gold (New York: Macmillan, 1967); John Kuo Wei Tchen and Dylan Yeats, eds., Yellow Peril! An Archive of Anti-Asian Fear (London: Verso, 2014); Shih-shan Henry Tsai, The Chinese Experience in America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986); K. Scott Wong and Sucheng Chan, eds., Claiming Americ: Constructing Chinese American Identities during the Exclusion Era (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998); Judy Yung, Unbound Feet: A Social History of Chinese Women in San Francisco (Berkeley: California, 1995); Judy Yung, Gordon K. Chang, and Him Mark Lai, eds., Chinese American Voices: From the Gold Rush to the Present (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006).
95. Richard Dillon’s The Hatchet Men (New York: Coward McCann, 1962) is one example of Chinatown exoticist fantasy.  The back cover read:  “Chinatown, 1880, a world as vanished as Pompeii—where the hair is worn in a queue to the waist, where the full sleeve of a silken kimono hides a razor-sharp weapon.  It was a world of 20 men for every woman, where tranquility was sought in the opium pipe and dish.  It was a world controlled by the famed and feared tongs, whose dynasty of mayhem, assassination, extortion, gambling, prostitution and vendetta flourished just south of the Golden Gate—a hell so flagrant that nothing short of an earthquake could quell it.”  A far more accurate picture of Chinatown life can be found in the stories of Edith Maude Eaton, a Chinese-White woman who wrote under the pen name Sui Sin Far; see Mrs. Spring Fragrance and Other Writings (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995; orig.1912).
96. Hsu, Dreaming of Gold, Dreaming of Home.
97. Sterling Seagrave, The Soong Dynasty (New York: Harper and Row, 1985); Marie-Clare Bergère, Sun Yat-sen, trans. Janet Lloyd (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000); Harold Z. Shiffrin, Sun Yat-sen and the Origins of the Chinese Revolution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968).
98. On paper children and the trans-Pacific Chinese family, see Tung Pok Chin and Winifred C. Chin, Paper Son (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2000); Xiaojian Zhao, Remaking Chinese America: Immigration, Family, and Community (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2002).
99. This section is drawn from the first four chapters of my book Japanese Americans, rev. ed. (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2009), which includes a comprehensive bibliography on Japanese American history.  Other sources consulted include:  Eichiro Azuma, Between Two Empires: Race, History, and Transnationalism in Japanese America (New York: Oxford, 2005); Eiichiro Azuma, In Search of Our Frontier: Japanese America and Settler Colonialism in the Construction of Japan’s Borderless Empire (Oakland: University of California Press, 2019); Ted W. Cox, The Toledo Incident of 1925 (Corvallis, OR: Old World Publications, 2005); Roger Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice: The Anti-Japanese Movement in California and the Struggle for Japanese Exclusion (New York: Atheneum, 1968; orig. 1962); Masayo Umezawa Duus, The Japanese Conspiracy: The Oahu Sugar Strike of 1920 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999); Louis Fiset and Gail M. Nomura, eds., Nikkei in the Pacific Northwest (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2005); Yuji Ichioka, The Issei: The World of the First Generation Japanese Immigrants, 1885-1924 (New York: Free Press, 1988); Daniel H. Inouye, Distant Islands: The Japanese American Community in New York City, 1876-1930s (Louisville, CO: University Press of Colorado, 2018); Kazuo Ito, Issei: A History of Japanese Immigrants in North America (Seattle: Japanese Community Service, 1973); Tooru J. Kanazawa, Sushi and Sourdough (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1989); Akemi Kikumura, Through Harsh Winters: The Life of a Japanese Immigrant Woman (Novato, Calif.: Chandler and Sharp, 1981); Yukiko Kimura, Issei: Japanese Immigrants in Hawaii (Honolulu: University of Hawai`i Press, 1988); Harry H. L. Kitano, Japanese Americans, 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1976); Henry Kiyama, The Four Immigrants Manga (Berkeley, Calif.: Stone Bridge Press, 1999); Shelley Sang-Hee Lee, Claiming the Oriental Gateway: Prewar Seattle and Japanese Americans (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2012); Sidney Xu Lu, The Making of Japanese Settler Colonialism: Malthusianism and Trans-Pacific Migration, 1868-1961 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2019);; Daniel M. Masterson and Sayaka Funada-Classen, The Japanese in Latin America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004); Charles McClain, ed., Japanese Immigrants and American Law (New York: Garland, 1994); Alan Takeo Moriyama, Imingaisha: Japanese Emigration Companies and Hawaii (Honolulu: University of Hawai`i Press, 1985); William Petersen, Japanese Americans (New York: Random House, 1971); Frederick Samuels, The Japanese and the Haoles of Honolulu (New Haven, Conn.: College and University Press, 1970); Mitziko Sawada, Tokyo Life, New York Dreams: Urban Japanese Visions of America, 1890-1924 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); Linda Tamura, The Hood River Issei (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993); Ikuko torimoto, Okina Kyuin and the Politics of Early Japanese Immigration to the United States, 1868-1924 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2017); Robert A. Wilson and Bill Hosokawa, East to America: A History of the Japanese in the United States (New York: Morrow, 1980).
100. Marius B. Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000); James L. Huffman, Down and out in Late Meiji Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2018).
101. Quoted in Chizuko Lampman, The East, vol. 2, no. 4 (1966), 71-75; Cited in Kitano, Japanese Americans, 13.
102. Quoted in Ito, Issei, 32.
103. It is the subject of a novel by revered Japanese American writer Yoshiko Uchida (Picture Bride [New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987) and a Hollywood movie, Picture Bride, dir. Kayo Hatta (Miramax Films, 1995).  See also Barbara Kawakami, Picture Bride Stories (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2016).
104. Sources for this section include: Rodolfo Acuña, Occupied America: A History of Chicanos, 3rd ed. (New York: Harper and Row, 1988), 141-97; Albert Camarillo, Chicanos in a Changing Society (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979); Lawrence A. Cardoso, Mexican Emigration to the United States, 1897-1931 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1980); Sarah Deutsch, No Separate Refuge: Culture, Class, and Gender on an Anglo-Hispanic Frontier in the American Southwest, 1880-1940 (New York: Oxford, 1987); William Deverell, Whitewashed Adobe: The Rise of Los Angeles and the Remaking of its Mexican Past (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004); Foley, White Scourge; Manuel Gamio, The Life Story of the Mexican Immigrant (New York: Dover, 1971; orig. 1931); Manuel Gamio, Mexican Immigration to the United States (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1930); Juan R. García, Mexicans in the Midwest, 1900-1932 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1996); Gilbert G. Gonzalez, “Mexican Labor Migration, 1876-1924,” in Beyond la Frontera: The History of Mexico-US Migration, ed. Mark Overmyer-Velázquez (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011): 28-50; Juan Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire: A History of Latinos in America (New York: Penguin, 2000); David G. Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); John Martinez, Mexican Emigration to the U.S., 1910-1930 (San Francisco: R and E Research Associates, 1971); Carey McWilliams, North From Mexico (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1949); Douglas Monroy, Rebirth: Mexican Los Angeles from the Great Migration to the Great Depression (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999); David Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836-1986 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987); Peck, Reinventing Free Labor; George J. Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945 (New York: Oxford, 1993); Paul S. Taylor, “Critique of the Official Statistics of Mexican Migration To and From the United States,” in International Migrations, ed. Willcox, 581-90; Torres-Rouff, Before LA; Zaragosa Vargas, Crucibles of Struggle: A History of Mexican Americans from Colonial Times to the Present Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011): 144-212; Zaragosa Vargas, ed., Major Problems in Mexican American History (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1999), 176-271; Zaragosa Vargas, Proletarians of the North: A History of Mexican Industrial Workers in Detroit and the Midwest, 1917-1933 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).
105. The Zorro story is the story of popular bandit Joaquin Murieta (see Chapter 4) overlaid by the Californio myth of Castillian origins.  On the legend of Zorro, see Isabel Allende, Zorro (New York: Harper Collins, 2005); Sandra Curtis, Zorro Unmasked (New York: Hyperion, 1998); Johnston McCulley, The Mark of Zorro (New York: Forge Books, 1998; orig. 1952); Alex Toth, Zorro (Berkeley, Calif.: Image Comics, 2001); John Whitman, The Mask of Zorro (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1998); William Yenne, The Legend of Zorro (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991).  On the changes in racial status over the course of the nineteenth century and into the twentieth, see Torres-Rouff, Before LA; Almaguer, Racial Fault Lines; Camarillo, Chicanos in a Changing Society; Deverell, Whitewashed Adobe; Martha Menchaca, Recovering History, Constructing Race: The Indian, Black, and Whie Roots of Mexican Americans (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001).
106. Acuña, Occupied America, 141.  Hawai`i did not achieve a White plurality—and statehood—for another half century.
107. Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors, 40; Cardoso, Mexican Emigration, 38.
108. Gamio, Life Story, 45-47.
109. Ibid., 55-57.
110. Sources for this section include:  Almaguer, Racial Fault Lines; Richard A. Buitron, Jr., The Quest for Tejano Identity in San Antonio, Texas, 1913-2000 (New York: Routledge, 2004); Neil Foley, “Straddling the Color Line: The Legal Construction of Hispanic Identity in Texas,” in Not Just Black and White: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Immigration, Race, and Ethnicity in the United States, ed. Nancy Foner and George M. Fredrickson (New York: Russell Sage, 2004), 341-57; Foley, White Scourge; Laura E. Gomez, Inventing Latinos (New York: New Press, 2020; Ariel J. Gross, “Texas Mexicans and the Politics of Whiteness,” Law and History Review,21.1 (2003); Rudy P. Guevarra Jr., Becoming Mexipino: Multiethnic Identities and Communities in San Diego (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2012); Rudy Guevarra, “Burritos and Bagoong: Mexipinos and Multiethnic Identity in San Diego, California,” in Crossing Lines: Race and Mixed Race across the Geohistorical Divide, ed. Marc Coronado, Rudy Guevarra, Jeffrey Moniz, and Laura Szanto (Santa Barbara: UC Santa Barbara Multiethnic Student Outreach, 2003), 73-96; Ira F. Haney López, “Hernandez v. Brown,” New York Times (May 22, 2004); Haney López, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York: NYU Press, 1996); Eric V. Meeks, Border Citizens: The Making of Indians, Mexicans, and Anglos in Arizona (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2007); Martha Menchaca, “Chicano Indianism: A Historical Account of Racial Repression in the United States,” American Ethnologist, 20.3 (1993), 583-603; Menchaca, Recovering History, Constructing Race; Pablo Mitchell, West of Sex: Making Mexican America, 1900-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012); Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans; Charles Montgomery, “Becoming ‘Spanish-American’: Race and Rhetoric in New Mexico Politics, 1880-1928,” Journal of American Ethnic History 20.4 (Summer 2001), 59-84; Gail Pollard-Terry, “Documenting Mexico’s Strong African Legacy,” Los Angeles Times (February 21, 2005); George Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American; Monica Sánchez, “Are Mexican Americans Whites?” (student paper, UC Santa Barbara, June 2005); Clare Sheridan, “ ‘Another White Race’: Mexican Americans and Whiteness in Jury Selection,” Law and History Review, 21.1 (2003); Sheridan “Contested Citizenship: National Identity and the Mexican Immigration Debates of the 1920s,” Journal of American Ethnic History, 21.3 (Spring 2002), 3-35; Steven H. Wilson, “Brown over Other White: Mexican Americans’ Legal Arguments and Litigation Strategy in School Desegregation Lawsuits,” Law and History Review, 21.1 (2003).
111. Deutsch, No Separate Refuge, 5.
112. José Vasconcellos, The Cosmic Race (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997); Virginia Q. Tilley, “Mestizaje and the ‘Ethnicization’ of Race in Latin America,” in Race and Nation, ed. Paul Spickard (New York: Routledge, 2005), 53-66; Raphael Perez-Torres, Mestizaje (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007); Marilyn Grace Miller, Rise and Fall of the Cosmic Race: The Cult of Mestizaje in Latin America (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2004).  G. Reginald Daniel reminds us that all human populations are mixed in More Than Black? Multiracial Identity and the New Racial Order (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2002).
113. Montgomery, “Becoming ‘Spanish-American’,” 63.  One can discern a similar racial move by already-resident Mexican Americans against more recent immigrants in the support by elements of Chicano communities for California’s Proposition 187 in the 1990s or calls for border controls in the 2000s.
114. Lone Star, John Sayles, director (Castle Rock Entertainment, 1996).
115. Foley, “Straddling the Color Line,” 341.
116. Linda Gordon, The Great Arizona Orphan Abduction (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999).
117. Sources for this section include:  Teodoro A. Agoncillo, History of the Filipino People, 8th ed. (Quezon City: Garotech, 1990); Ruben Alcantara, Sakada: Filipino Adaptation in Hawaii (Washington: University Press of America, 1981); Rick Baldoz, The Third Asiatic Invasion: Empire and Migration in Filipino America, 1898-1946 (New York: New York University Press, 2011); Manuel Buaken, I Have Lived With the American People (Caldwell, Id.: Caxton, 1948); Carlos Bulosan, America Is In the Heart (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1973; orig. 1946); California Department of Industrial Relations, Facts About Filipino Immigration Into California (San Francisco: R and E Research Associates, 1972; orig. 1930); Sharon Delmendo, The Star-Entangled Banner: One Hundred Years of America in the Philippines (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2004); Virgilio Menor Felipe, Hawai`i: A Pilipino Dream (Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 2002); Dorothy B. Fujita-Rony, American Workers, Colonial Power: Philippine Seattle and the Transpacific West, 1919-1941 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003); Stanley Karnow, In Our Image: America’s Empire in the Philippines (New York: Ballantine, 1989); Bruno Lasker, Filipino Immigration (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1931); Dawn Bohulano Mabalon, Little Manila Is In the Heart: The Making of the Filipino Community of Stockton, California (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006); Charles McClain, ed., Asian Indians, Filipinos, Other Asian Communities and the Law (New York: Garland, 1994); Nicholas Trajano Molnar, American Mestizos, the Philippines, and the Malleability of Race, 1898-1961 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2017); Anthony Christian Ocampo, The Latinos of Asia: How Filipino American Break the Rules of Race (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2016); Barbara M. Posadas, The Filipino Americans (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1999); Miriam Sharma, "Labor Migration and Class Formation Among the Filipinos in Hawaii, 1906-1946," in Labor Immigration Under Capitalism, ed. Lucie Cheng and Edna Bonacich (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 579-611; Sharma, "The Philippines: A Case of Migration to Hawaii, 1906 to 1946," in Labor Immigration Under Capitalism, ed. Cheng and Bonacich, 337-58; Angel Velasco Shaw and Luis H. Francia, eds., Vestiges of War: The Philippine-American War and the Aftermath of an Imperial Dream, 1899-1999 (New York: NYU Press, 2002).
118. Myrna Oliver, "Julio 'Jay' Ereneta, 103; One of the State's Last World War I Veterans," Los Angeles Times (April 29, 2005).
119. Lasker, Filipino Immigration, 5-6.
120. Rudy P. Guevarra Jr., Becoming Mexipino: Multiethnic Identities and Communities in San Diego (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2012); Guevarra, “Burritos and Bagoong.”  There were also Indipino communities in the Pacific Northwest.
121. Lasker, Filipino Immigration, 15; Fujita-Rony, American Workers, Colonial Power, 1-3; Nellie Foster, "Legal Status of Filipino Intermarriages in California," in Asian Indians, Filipinos, Other Asian Communities and the Law, ed. Charles McClain, 5-18.
122. Paul Spickard, Mixed Blood: Intermarriage and Ethnic Identity in Twentieth-Century America (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989), 6, 107, 345, 351, 374-75.
123. Mary Paik Lee, Quiet Odyssey: A Pioneer Korean Woman in America (Seattle: University of Washington press, 1990); Wayne Patterson, The Ilse: First-Generation Korean Immigrants in Hawai`i, 1903-1973 (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2000); Wayne Patterson, The Korean Frontier in America: Immigration to Hawai‘i, 1896-1910 (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1994); Richard S. Kim, The Quest for Statehood: Korean Immigrant Nationalism and US Sovereignty, 1905-1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011).
124. Vivek Bald, Bengali Harlem and the Lost Histories of South Asian America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013); Vivek Bald, et al., eds., The Sun Never Sets: South Asian Migrants In an Age of US Power New York: New York University Press, 2013); Joan M. Jensen, Passage from India: Asian Indian Immigrants in North America (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1988); Karen Isaksen Leonard, Making Ethnic Choices: California's Punjabi Mexican Americans (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992); Dhan Gopal Mukerji, Caste and Outcast, ed. Gordon H. Chang, et al. (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002); Seema Sohi, Echoes of Mutiny: Race, Surveillance, and Indian Anticolonialism in North America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014).
125. Sources for this section include: Colin G. Calloway, First Peoples, 6th ed. (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s 2018); Stephen Cornell, The Return of the Native: American Indian Political Resurgence (New York: Oxford, 1988); Brian W. Dippie, The Vanishing American: White Attitudes and U.S. Indian Policy (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1982); Donald L. Fixico, Bureau of Indian Affairs (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2012); Alexandra Harmon, Indians in the Making: Ethnic Relations and Indian Identities around Puget Sound (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998); Frederick E. Hoxie, A Final Promise: The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians, 1880-1920 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984); Hoxie, Parading Through History: The Making of the Crow Nation, 1805-1935 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Hoxie, Peter C. Mancall, and Hames H. Merrell, eds., American Nations: Encounters in Indian Country, 1850 to the Present (New York: Routledge, 2001); Albert L. Hurtado and Peter Iverson, eds., Major Problems in American Indian History, 2nd ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001); Francis Paul Prucha, The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians, abr. ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986); David Treuer, The Heartbeat of Wounded Knee: Native America from 1890 to the Present (New York: Riverhead, 2019); S. Lyman Tyler, A Histgory of Indian Policy (Washington: Bureau of Indian Affairs, 1973).
126. The Bureau of Indian Affairs was created in 1824 by Secretary of War John C. Calhoun.  At various times it has also been called the Indian Bureau, the Indian Office, the Indian Service, the Board of Indian Commissioners; the Indian Desk, and the Office of Indian Affairs.  Sharon O’Brien, “Bureau of Indian Affairs,” in Encyclopedia of North American Indians, ed. Frederick E. Hoxie (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996), 87; Fixico, Bureau of Indian Affairs.
127. Thomas Biolsi, “The Birth of the Reservation: Making the Modern Individual among the Lakota,” American Ethnologist, 22.1 (1995), 28-53; Hoxie, Final Promise, 185;  Melissa L. Meyer, “Signatures and Thumbprints: Ethnicity among the White Earth Anishinaabeg, 1889-1920,” Social Science History, 14.3 (1990), 305-45; David Rich Lewis, “Reservation Leadership and the Progressive-Traditional Dichotomy: William Wash and the Northern Utes, 1865-1928,” Ethnohistory, 38.2 (1991), 124-40.
128. Theodore Roosevelt, The Winning of the West, 6 vols. (New York: Putnam’s, 1920; orig. 1910), Volume 1, Appendix A to Chapter 4; italics added.
129. David Wallace Adams, Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875-1928 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995); Margaret L. Archuleta, Brenda J. Child, and K. Tsianina, eds., Away from Home: American Indian Boarding School Experiences, 1879-2000 (Phoenix: Heard Museum, 2000); Brenda Child, Boarding School Seasons: American Indian Families, 1900-1940 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998); Ward Churchill, Kill the Indian, Save the Man: The Genocidal Impact of American Indian Residential Schools (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 2004); Sherman Coolidge, “The Function of the Society of American Indians,” quoted in Calloway, First Peoples, 370-71; Carol Devens, “ ‘If We Get the Girls, We Get the Race’: Missionary Education of Native American Girls,” Journal of World History, 3.2 (1992), 219-37; Lisa E. Emmerich, “ ‘Right in the Midst of My own People’: Native American Women and the Field Matron Program,” American Indian Quarterly, 15 (1991), 201-16; Frederick E. Hoxie, “Exploring a Cultural Borderland: Native American Journeys of Discovery in the Early Twentieth Century,” Journal of American History, 79 (1992), 969-95.  It is worth noting that many of the leaders of African independence movements—people like Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia, Julius Nyerere of Tanzania, Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, and Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya—were educated in missionary schools.
130. Harold E. Driver, “On the Population Nadir of Indians in the United States,” Current Anthropology 9.4 (1968), 330; Russell Thornton and Joan Marsh-Thornton, “Estimating Prehistoric American Indian Population Size for United States Area: Implications of the Nineteenth Century Population Decline and Nadir,” American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 55 (1981), 48.
131. And some were recorded as White.  Anthropologist Max Stanton tells of three brothers in Dulac, Louisiana. All were Houma Indians, had a French last name, and shared the same father and mother.  All received their racial designations at the hands of the medical people who assisted at their births.  The oldest brother, born before 1950 at home with the aid of a midwife, was classified as a “Negro,” because the state of Louisiana did not recognize the Houma as Indians before 1950.  The second brother, born in a local hospital after 1950, was assigned to the Indian category.  The third brother, born eight miles away in a New Orleans hospital, was designated White on the basis of the French family name.  See Paul Spickard, “The Illogic of American Racial Categories,” in Racially Mixed People in America, ed. Maria P. P. Root (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1992), 12-23; Max Stanton, “A Remnant Indian Community: The Houma of Southern Louisiana,” in The Not So Solid South: Anthropological Studies in a Regional Subculture, ed. J. K. Moorland (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1971), 82-92.
132. Biolsi, “Birth of the Reservation”; James F. Brooks, ed. Confounding the Color Line: The Indian-Black Experience in North America (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002; Katherine Ellinghaus, Blood Will Tell: Native Americans and Assimilation Policy (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2017); Kathleen Ratteree and Norbert Hill, eds., The Great Vanishing Act: Blood Quantum and the Future of Native Nations (Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing, 2017); Circe Sturm, Blood Politics: Race, Culture, and Identity in the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002); Pauline Strong and Barrik Van Winkle, “ ‘Indian Blood’: Reflections on the Reckoning and Refiguring of Native North American identity,” Cultural Anthropology, 11.4 (1996), 547-76; Terry P. Wilson, “Blood Quantum: Native American Mixed Bloods, “ in Racially Mixed People in America, ed. Maria P. P. Root (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1992), 108-25.  The US government made the same move in Hawai‘i, but there restricted membership in the Hawaiian people to only those who could demonstrate fifty per cent Hawaiian ancestry.  In time, many Native American tribes adopted the blood quantum idea as their own.
133. Dippie, Vanishing American; Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz and Dina Gilio-Whitaker, “All the Real Indians Dief Off”: And 20 Other Myths About Native Americans (Boston: Beacon Press, 2016).
134. Sources for this section include: Chad A. Barbour, From Daniel Boone to Captain America: Playing Indian in American Popular Culture (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2016); S. Elizabeth Bird, ed., Dressing in Feathers: The Construction of the Indian in American Popular Culture (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1996); Ward Churchill, Acts of Rebellion (New York: Routledge, 2003); Philip J. Deloria, Playing Indian (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1998); Deloria, Indians in Unexpected Places (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2004); Dippie, Vanishing American; Eva Marie Garroutte, Real Indians: Identity and the Survival of Native America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003); Shari M. Huhndorf, Going Native: Indians in the American Cultural Imagination (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2001); Bonita Lawrence, “Real” Indians and Others: Mixed-Blood Urban Native Peoples and Indigenous Nationhood (Lincoln: University of Nebraska press, 2004); Paige Sylvia Raibmon, Authentic Indians: Episodes of Encounter from the Late-Nineteenth-Century Northwest (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2005).
135. Patrick B. Miller, The Playing Fields of American Culture (New York: Oxford, forthcoming; advance copy courtesy of the author).  See also Carol Spindel, Dancing at Halftime: Sports and the Controversy over American Indian Mascots (New York: NYU Press, 2000); C. Richard King and Charles Fruehling Springwood, Team Spirits: The Native American Mascots Controversy (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001; Jason Edward Black, “The Mascotting of Native America: Construction, Commodity, and Assimilation,” American Indian Quarterly, 26.4 (2002), 605-22; Andrew C. Billings and Jason Edward Black, Mascot Nation: The Controversy over Native American Representations in Sports (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2018); C. Richard King, ed., The Native American Mascot Controversy: A Handbook (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2015).
136. Simon Pokagon, The Red Man’s Greeting (Hartford, Mich.: E. H. Engle, 1893), quoted in Talking Back to Civilization: Indian Voices from the Progressive Era, ed. Frederick E. Hoxie (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2001), 31.  See also Joy S. Kasson, Buffalo Bill’s Wild West (New York: Hill and Wang, 2000), 161-219.  On the Columbian Exposition, see Stanley Appelbaum, The Chicago World’s Fair of 1893: A Photographic Record (New York: Dover, 1980); Reid Badger, The Great American Fair: The World’s Columbian Exposition and American Culture (Chicago: Nelson Hall, 1979); Norm Bolotin, The World’s Columbian Exposition: The Chicago World’s Fair of 1893 (Washington: Preservation press, 1992); Neil Harris, et al., Grand Illusions: Chicago’s World’s Fair of 1893 (Chicago: Chicago Historical Society, 1993); Christopher Robert Reed, “All the World is Here!”: The Black Presence at White City (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000).
137. Carlos Montezuma, “The Duty of Every Indian Soldier Who Entered the War,” Wassaja (February 1919), quoted in Major Problems in American Indian History, ed. Hurtado and Iverson, 359-60.
138. Sources for this section include: Carey McWilliams, Factories in the Field: The Story of Migratory Farm Labor in California (Santa Barbara: Peregrine Smith, 1971; orig. 1935); Martha Menchaca, The Mexican Outsiders (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1995), 59-77; Torres-Rouff, Before LA; and the sources listed under the immediate previous sections.
139. Takaki, Pau Hana; Masayo Umezawa Duus, The Japanese Conspiracy: The Oahu Sugar Strike of 1920 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999).

Images

Notes

1. Gloria Anzaldúa, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (San Francisco: Aunt Lute Books, 1987): 194-95.
2. That is the tendency in works such as:  Nelson Lichtenstein, Susan Strasser, and Roy Rosenzweig, Who Built America? Working People and the Nation’s Economy, Politics, Culture, and Society (New York: Worth, 2000); James Barrett, Work and Community in the Jungle: Chicago’s Packinghouse Workers, 1894-1922 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Anthony Bimba, The Molly Maguires (New York: International, 1932); James R. Green, The World of the Worker: Labor in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Hill and Wang, 1980); David Brody, Workers in Industrial America (New York: Oxford, 1980); Melvyn Dubofsky, Industrialism and the American Worker, 1865-1920 (Arlington Heights, Ill.: AHM, 1975); Herbert G. Gutman, Work, Culture and Society in Industrializing America (New York: Random House, 1976); Victor R. Greene, The Slavic Community on Strike: Immigrant Labor in Pennsylvania Anthracite (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1968).  Not all labor historians make this mistake; see, for example, Zaragosa Vargas, Labor Rights Are Civil Rights: Mexican American Workers in Twentieth-Century America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2005); Donald B. Cole, Immigrant City: Lawrence, Massachusetts, 1845-1921 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991); Verónica Castillo-Muñoz, The Other California: Land, Identity, and Politics in the Mexican Borderlands (Oakland: University of California Press, 2017).
3. Ewa Morawska, “From Myth to Reality: America in the Eyes of East European Peasant Migrant Laborers,” in Distant Magnets: Expectations and Realities in the Immigrant Experience, ed. Dirk Hoerder and Horst Rössler (New York: Homes and Meier, 1993): 241-63.
4. John DeWitt Warner, “The ‘Sweating System’ in New York City,” Harper’s Weekly (February 9, 1895), 135-36.  For a latter-twentieth-century sweatshop tour, see Victor G. Nee and Brett DeBary Nee, Longtime Californ’: A Documentary History of San Francisco’s Chinatown (New York: Pantheon, 1973), 289-319.
5. Sources for this section include:  Roland Tappan Berthoff, British Immigrants in Industrial America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1953); Edna Bonacich and John Modell, The Economic Basis of Ethnic Solidarity: Small Business in the Japanese American Community (Berkeley: University of California pres, 1980); E. P. Hutchinson, Immigrants and Their Children, 1850-1950 (New York: Wiley, 1956); Thomas Kessner, The Golden Door: Italian and Jewish Immigrant Mobility in New York City, 1880-1915 (New York: Oxford, 1977); John Modell, The Economics and Politics of Racial Accommodation: The Japanese of Los Angeles, 1900-1942 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977).
6. Far too much has been made of one particular occupational avenue to upward mobility:  organized crime.  Some have seen this as a sort of immigrant entrepreneurship off the back of the truck, a way to take that first step on the ladder of social mobility.  On the over-identification of Italians and crime via the Mafia myth, see Richard Gambino, Blood of My Blood: The Dilemma of the Italian-Americans (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1974), 274-312; Francis A. J. Ianni, “The Mafia and the Web of Kinship,” Public Interest (Winter 1971), 78-100.
7. Liebmann Hersch, “International Migration of the Jews,” in International Migrations, ed. Walter F. Willcox, vol. 2 (New York: Gordon and Breach, 1969), 493.
8. These were all the socially significant ethnic groups.  Warner, et al., found that the town had eighty African Americans and no Indians or Asians.  On Canadian immigration, see Jacques Ducharme, The Shadows of the Trees: The Story of French-Canadians in New England (New York: Harper, 1943); Nora Faires, “Poor Women, Proximate Border: Migrants from Ontario to Detroit in the Late Nineteenth Century,” Journal of American Ethnic History, 20.3 (Spring 2001), 88-109; Sheila McManus, “Mapping the Alberta-Montana Borderlands: Race, Ethnicity and Gender in the Late Nineteenth Century,” Journal of American Ethnic History, 20.3 (Spring 2001), 71-87; Bruno Ramirez, “Canada in the United States: Perspectives on Migration and Continental History,” Journal of American Ethnic History, 20.3 (Spring 2001), 50-70; Ramirez, Crossing the 49th Parallel: Migration from Canada to the United States, 1900-1930 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2001).  On Azoreans and Cape Verdeans, two formally Portuguese groups that came mainly to New England in this period, see Marilyn Halter, Between Race and Ethnicity: Cape Verdean American Immigrants, 1860-1965 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993); Jerry R. Williams, And Yet They Come: Portuguese Immigration from the Azores to the United States (New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1982).
9. W. Lloyd Warner, J. O. Low, Paul S. Lunt, and Leo Srole,  Yankee City, abr. ed. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1963; orig ed. 5 vols., 1941-1959), 394-400.
10. Sources for this section include:  Sydney E. Ahlstrom, A Religious Hisotry of the American People (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1975), 208-23; Alfred Bloom, “Shin Buddhism in America,” in The Faces of Buddhism in America, ed. Charles S. Prebish and Kenneth K. Tanaka ( (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 31-47; Rudiger v. Busto, “DisOrienting Subjects: Reclaiming Pacific Islander/Asian American Religions,” in Revealing the Sacred in Asian and Pacific America, ed. Jane Naomi Iwamura and Paul Spickard (New York: Routledge, 2003), 9-28; Donald B. Cole, Immigrant City: Lawrence, Massachusetts, 1845-1921 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1963; Jay P. Dolan, The American Catholic Experience (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1985), 127-320; Brian Masaru Hayashi, ‘For the Sake of Our Japanese Brethren’: Assimilation, Nationalism, and Protestantism among the Japanese of Los Angeles, 1895-1942 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1995); Howe, World of Our Fathers; Tetsuden Kashima, Buddhism in America(Westport, Conn: Greenwood, 1977); Gary Laderman and Luis León, eds., Religions and American Cultures, vol. 1, 27-204; Leo Trepp, A History of the Jewish Experience. rev. ed. (New York: Behrman House, 1973), 387-414; Wyman, Round-Trip to America.  See also Paul Spickard, “Asian Americans, Religion, and Race,” in From Arrival to Incorporation: Migration to the US in a Gloval Era, ed. Elliott R. Barkan, Hasia Diner, and Alan Kraut (New York: NYU Press, 2007): 94-117.
11. Louise H. Hunter, Buddhism in Hawai`i (Honolulu: University of Hawai`i Press, 1971); Ronald Takaki, Paul Hana: Plantation Life and Labor in Hawai`i (Honolulu: University of Hawai`i Press, 1983); Edward D. Beechert, Working in Hawai`i (Honolulu: University of Hawai`i Press, 1985).
12. Masayo Umezawa Duus, The Japanese Conspiracy: The Oahu Sugar Strike of 1920 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999); Samuel Gompers,  Seventy Years of Life and Labor (New York: Dutton, 1925); Victor R. Greene, The Slavic Community on Strike: Immigrant Labor in Pennsylvania Anthracite (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1968); Gunther Peck, Reinventing Free Labor: Padrones and Immigrant Workers in the North American West, 1880-1930 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Zaragosa Vargas, Labor Rights Are Civil Rights: Mexican American Workers in Twentieth Century America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2005).
13. The progressive-era reformers were indefatigable writers.  See, for example:  Jane Addams, Twenty Years at Hull-House (New York: Macmillan, 1910); Arthur C. Holden, The Settlement House: A Vision of Social Justice (New York: Macmillan, 1922); Jacob A. Riis, How the Other Half Lives (New York: Hill and Wang, 1957); Upton Sinclair, The Jungle (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005; orig. 1906); Lillian D. Wald, The House on Henry Street (New York: Holt, 1915); Robert A. Woods, ed., Americans in Process: A Settlement Study (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1903); Woods, The Neighborhood in Nation-Building: The Running Comment of Thirty Years at the South End House (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1923).  For analyses, see Robert H. Bremner, From the Depths: The Discovery of Poverty in the United States (New York: NYU Press, 1956); Rivka Shpak Lissak, Pluralism and Progressives: Hull House and the New Immigrants, 1890-1919 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989); Elizabeth Lasch-Quinn, Black Neighbors: Race and the Limits of Reform in the American Settlement House Movement, 1890-1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993).
14. Marie Hall Ets, Rosa: The Life of an Italian Immigrant, quoted in Lichtenstein, et al., Who Built America?, 2.213.
15. Sources for this section (not for this stereotype) include: Hasia Diner, Erin’s Daughters in America (Baltimore: John’s Hopkins University Press, 1983); Katharine M. Donato and Donna Gabaccia, Gender and International Migration (New York: Russell Safe Foundation, 2015); Yen Le Espiritu, Asian American Women and Men (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1997); Nancy Foner, In a New Land: A Comparative View of Immigration (New York: NYU Press, 2005), 89-105, 156-79; Kathie Friedman-Kasaba, Memories of Migration: Gender, Ethnicity, and Work in the Lives of Jewish and Italian Women in New York, 1870-1924 (Albany: SUNY Press, 1996); Donna Gabaccia, From the Other Side: Women, Gender, and Immigrant Life in the US, 1820-1990 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994); Gabaccia, ed., Seeking Common Ground: Multidisciplinary Studies of Immigrant Women in the United States (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1992); Martha Gardner, The Qualities of a Citizen: Women, Immigration, and Citizenship, 1870-1965 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2005); Sheba Mariam George, When Women Came First: Gender and Class in Transnational Migration (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005); Evelyn Nakano Glenn, Issei, Nisei, War Bride: Three Generations of Japanese American Women in Domestic Work (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1996); Susan Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl: Life and Labor in the Immigrant Generation (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1990); Linda Gordon, The Great Arizona Orphan Abduction (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999); Jennifer Guglielmo, Living the Revolution: Italian Women’s Resistance and Radicalism in New York City (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010); Thomas Kessner and Betty Boyd Caroli, “New Immigrant Women at Work: Italians and Jews in New York City, 1880-1905,” Journal of Ethnic Studies, 5.4 (1978); Huping Ling, Surviving on the Gold Mountain (Albany: SUNY Press, 1998); Catrin Lundstrom, White Migrations: Gender, Whiteness, and Privilege in Transnational Migration (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014); Carol Lynn McKibben, Beyond Cannery Row: Sicilian Women, Immigration, and Community in Monterey, California, 1915-99 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2006); Mirjana Morokvasic, “Women in Migration: Beyond the Reductionist Outlook,” in One Way Ticket: Migration and Female Labour, ed. Annie Phizacklea (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1983), 13-31; Thaddeus C. Radzilowski, “Family, Women, and Gender: The Polish Experience,” in Polish Americans and Their History, ed. John J. Bukowczyk (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1996), 58-79; Vicki L. Ruiz, and Ellen Carol DuBois, Unequal Sisters: A Multicultural Reader in US Women’s History, 3rd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2000); Barbara A. Schreier, Becoming American Women: Clothing and the Jewish Immigrant Experience, 1880-1920 (Chicago: Chicago Historical Society, 1995); Pamela Sharpe, ed., Women, Gender and Labour Migration (London: Routledge, 2001); Suzanne Sinke, “Migration for Labor, Migration for Love: Marriage and Family Formation across Borders,” OAH Magazine of History (Fall 1999), 17-21; Sinke with Stephen Gross, “The International Marriage Market and the Sphere of Social Reproduction,” in Seeking Common Ground, ed. Gabaccia, 67-87; Sydney Stahl Weinberg, “The Treatment of Women in Immigration History: A Call for Change,” in Seeking Common Ground, ed. Gabaccia, 3-22; Judy Yung, Unbound Feet: A Social History of Chinese Women in San Francisco (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).
16. Dorothy B. Fujita-Rony, American Workers, Colonial Power: Philippines Seattle and the Transpacific West, 1919-1941 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 1-3.
17. Gabaccia, From the Other Side, 11.
18. Friedman-Kasaba, Memories of Migration, 7; Gabaccia, From the Other Side, 59.
19. John J. Bukowczyk, And My Children Did Not Know Me: A History of the Polish-Americans (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 24-25.
20. Sources on the picture bride phenomenon include:  Alice Yun Chai, “Picture Brides: Feminist Analysis of Life Histories of Hawai`i’s Early Immigrant Women from Japan, Okinawa, and Korea,” in Seeking Common Ground, ed. Gabaccia, 123-38; Isabel Kaprielian-Churchill, “Armenian Refugee Women: The Picture Brides, 1920-1930,” Journal of American Ethnic History, 12.3 (Spring 1993), 3-29; Laurie M. Mengel, “Issei Women and Divorce in Hawai`i, 1885-1908,” Social Process in Hawai`i, 38 (1997), 17-39; Suzanne Sinke, “Migration for Labor, Migration for Love: Marriage and Family Formation across Borders,” OAH Magazine of History, 14.1 (Fall 1999), 17-21; Sinke with Stephen Gross, “The International Marriage Market and the Sphere of Social Reproduction,” in Seeking Common Ground, ed. Gabaccia, 67-87; Paul Spickard, Japanese Americans (New York: Twayne, 1996), 32-37; Yoshiko Uchida, Picture Bride (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987). In fact, mail-order brides were a feature of the White native population as it spread across the North American continent as well.  Famous in Seattle’s history are the eleven women that Asa Mercer brought west from New York to become brides of some of that city’s first citizens.  See Murray Morgan, Skid Road (New York: Viking: 1951); William C. Speidel, Sons of the Profits (Seattle: Nettle Creek Publishing, 1967), 107-8.
21. Mengel, “Issei Women and Divorce.”
22. Gordon, Great Arizona Orphan Abduction.
23. George Anthony Peffer, If They Don’t Bring Their Women Here: Chinese Female Migration Before Exclusion (Urbana, University of Illinois Press, 1999); Karen J. Leong, “ ‘A Distinct and Antagonistic Race’: Construction of Chinese Manhood in the Exclusionist Debates, 1869-1878,” in Across the Great Divide: Cultures of Manhood in the American West, ed. Matthew Basso, Laura McCall, and Dee Garceau (New York: Routledge, 2001), 131-48.

One hears echoes of the gendered quality of the anti-Chinese movement in the anti-Arab movement of the twenty-first century, not just in the United States but in Europe as well.  Like the anti-Asianists of the nineteenth century, modern-day anti-Arabists do not even recognize their prejudice.  Where once the cry of ostensibly concerned citizens was that “Chinese women are all prostitutes,” now one hears from well-meaning people that “Arab women [or Muslim] women  are all brutally oppressed.”  See, e.g., Mina Ahadi, Ich habe abgeschworen: Warum ich für die Freiheit und gegen den Islam kämpfe [I have Sworn: Why I Fight for Freedom and Against Islam] (Munich: Random House, 2008); Ayaan Hirsi Ali, Prey: Immigration, Islam, and the Erosion of Women’s Rights (New York: Harper, 2021); Christopher Caldwell, Reflections on the Revolution in Europe: Immigration, Islam, and the West (New York: Doubleday, 2009); Sara R. Farris, In the Name of Women’s Rights: The Rise of Femonationalism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2017); Necla Kelek, Die fremde Braut: Ein Bericht aus dem Inneren des türkischen Lebens in Deutschland [The Strange Bride: Report from Inside Turkish Life in Germany] (Munich: Random House, 2005).  Even scholars lend some credence to this view (“on the one hand, but on the other”), e.g.: Anna C. Korteweg and Gökce Yurdakul, The Headscarf Debates: Conflicts of National Belonging (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2014); Dominic McGoldrick, Human Rights and Religion: The Islamic Headscarf Debate in Europe (Oxford, UK: Hart, 2005); Beverly M. Weber, Violence and Gender in the “New” Europe: Islam in German Culture (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013).
Most Arab and Muslim women in the US and Europe would beg to differ, but their voices go largely unheard.  See Rabab Abdulhadi, Evelyn Alsultany, and Nadine Naber, eds., Arab and Arab American Feminisms: Gender, Violence, and Belonging (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2011); Lila Abu-Lughod, Do Muslim Women Need Saving? (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013); Leila Ahmed, A Quiet Revolution: The Veil’s Resurgence from the Middle East to America (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011); Farideh Akashe-Böhme, Die islamische Frau ist anders: Vorurteile und Realitäten [The Islamic Woman is Different; Prejudices and Realities] (Gütersloh: Gütersloh Verlaghaus, 1997); Nada Elia, “The ‘White’ Sheep of the Family: But Bleaching Is Like Starvation,” in This Bridge We Call Home, ed. Gloria E. Anzaldúa and Analouise Keating (New York: Routledge, 2002), 223-31; John L. Esposito and Dalia Mogahed, Who Speaks for Islam? What a Billion Muslims Really Think (New York: Gallup Press, 2007); Jennifer Kawaja, director Under One Sky: Arab Women in North America Talk About the Hijab (Montreal: National Film Board of Canada, 2000); Kathleen Moore, “The Hijab and Religious Liberty: Anti-Discrimination Law and Muslim Women in the United States,” in Muslims on the Americanization Path?, ed. Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and John L. Esposito (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1998), 129-58; Michael W. Suleiman, Suad Joseph, and Louise Cainkar, eds., Arab American Women: Representation and Refusal (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2021); Margaretha A. van Es, Stereotypes and Self-Representations of Women with a Muslim Background: The Stigma of Being Oppressed (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016).

24. Margot Canaday, “‘A New Species of Undesirable Immigrant’: Perverse Aliens and the Limits of the Law, 1900-1924,” in Canaday, The Straight State: Sexuality and Citizenship in Twentieth-Century America Princeton, NY: Princeton University Press, 2009): 19-54; Lionel Cantú Jr., The Sexuality of Migration: Border Crossings and Mexican Immigrant Men, ed. Nancy A. Naples and Salvador Vidal-Ortiz (New York: NYU Press, 2009); Gardner, Qualities of a Citizen; Eithne Luibhéid, Entry Denied: Controlling Sexuality at the Border (Minneapolis: University Of Minnesota Press, 2002); Eithne Luibhéid and Lionel Cantú Jr., eds., Queer Migrations: Sexuality, US Citizenshp, and Border Crossings, 3rd ed. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005); Kevin Mumford, Interzones: Black/White Sex Districts in Chicago and New York in the Early Twentieth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997): 73-92; Nayan Shah, Stranger Intimacy: Contesting Race, Sexuality and the Law in the North American West (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012); Amy Sueyoshi, Queer Compulsions: Race, Nation, and Sexuality in the Affairs of Yone Noguchi (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2012); Amy Sueyoshi, Discriminating Sex: White Leisure and the Making of the American “Oriental” (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2018); Salvador Vidal-Ortiz, et al., eds., Race and Sexuality (London: Polity Press, 2018).
25. David M. Brownstone, Irene M. Franck, Douglass L. Brownstone, Island of Hope, Island of Tears (New York: Penguin, 1986); Peter Morton Coan, Ellis Island Interviews (New York: Facts On File, 1997); Island of Hope—Island of Tears (Washington: Guggenheim Productions, n.d.); Malgozata Szejnert, Ellis Island: A People’s History, trans. Sean Gaspar Bye (London: Scribe, 2020); Vincent J. Cannato, American Passage: A History of Ellis Island (New York: Harper, 2009).
26. Island of Hope—Island of Tears.
27. Erika Lee and Judy Yung, Angel Island: Immigrant Gateway to America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010); Carved in Silence (San Francisco: Felicia Lowe Productions, 1996); Roger Daniels, “No Lamps Were Lit for Them: Angel Island and the Historiography of Asian American Immigration,” Journal of American Ethnic History, 17.1 (Fall 1997), 3-18; Him Mark Lai, Genny Lim, and Judy Yung, Island: Poetry and History of Chinese Immigrants on Angel Island, 1910-1940 (San Francisco: Chinese Culture Foundation, 1980); Lee, At America’s Gates; Elliott Young, “Caging Immigrants at McNeill Island Federal Prison, 1880-1940,” Pacific Historical Review, 88.1 (2019): 48-85.
28. Carved in Silence; Chinese examination stations at Malone, N.Y., and Richford, Vt., Annual Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1904), loose picture.
29. Lai, et al., Island 56, 100, 126.
30. María Cristina García, The Refugee Challenge in Post-Cold War America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017); César Cuauhtémac García Hernández, “Ellis Island Welcomed Thousands to America—But It Was Also a Detention Center,” Time (January 1, 2020); García Hernández, Migrating to Prison: America’s Obsession with Locking Up Immigrants (New York: New Press, 2019); University of Michigan Research Initiative, “Documenting Criminalization and Confinement—the Carceral State Project,” https://sites.lsa.mich.edu/dcc-project, retrieved December 12, 2020.
31. Mark Stolarik, ed., Forgotten Doors: The Other Ports of Entry to the United States (Philadelphia: Balch Institute Press, 1988); Ramirez, Crossing the 49th Parallel; Sui Sin Far (Edith Maude Eaton), Mrs. Spring Fragrance and other Writings (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995; orig. 1912); Bernard Marinbach, Galveston: Ellis Island of the West (Albany: SUNY Press, 1983).
32. “Early History of the Border Patrol” (US Immigration and Naturalization Service Fact Sheet, May 1999); “US Border Patrol History” (US Customs and Border Protection, July 15, 2003) www.customs.gov/xp/cgov/border_security/border_patrol/history.xml, September 25, 2005.
33. Brook Thomas, Plessy v. Ferguson (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 1997), 41-60; Steve Luxenberg, Separate: The Story of Plessy v. Ferguson, and America’s Journey from Slavery to Segregation (New York: Norton, 2019).  On Louisiana creoles, see Andrew J. Jolivette, Louisiana Creoles: Cultural Recovery and Mixed-Race American Identity (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2007); Sybil Kein, ed., Creole: The History and Legacy of Louisiana’s Free People of Color (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2000); Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, Africans in Colonial Louisiana: The Development of Afro-Creole Culture in the Eighteenth Century (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1992); Gary B. Mills, Forgotten People: Cane River’s Creoles of Color (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1977).
34. Sources for this section include: Douglas A. Blackmon, Slavery By Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black People in America from the Civil War to World War II (New York: Doubleday, 2008); Pete Daniel, The Shadow of Slavery: Peonage in the South, 1901-1969 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1972); Allison Davis, Burleigh B. Gardner, and Mary R. Gardner, Deep South, abr. ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965; orig. 1941); Donald P. DeNevi and Doris A. Holmes, eds., Racism at the Turn of the Century (San Rafael, Calif.: Leswing, 1973); John Dollard, Caste and Class in a Southern Town, 3rd ed. (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1957; orig. 1937); W.E.B. DuBois, Black Reconstruction in America (New York: Russel and Russel, 1935); Scott Farris, Freedom on Trial: The First Post-Civil War Battle Over Civil Rights and Voter Suppression (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2020); John Hope Franklin, Reconstruction After the Civil War (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961); Thomas R. Frazier, ed., Afro-American History, 2nd ed. (Chicago: Dorsey, 1988); Henry Louis Gates, Jr., Stony the Road: Reconstruction, White Supremacy, and the Rise of Jim Crow (New York: Penguin, 2019); Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, Gender and Jim Crow (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); Herbert G. Gutman, The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750-1925 (New York: Pantheon, 1976); Grace Elizabeth Hale, Making Whiteness: The Culture of Segregation in the South, 1890-1940 (New York: Random House, 1998); Darlene Clark Hine, William C. Hine, and Stanley Harrold, The African-American Odyssey, 2nd ed. (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2003); Alexander Keyssar, “How Has the Electoral College Survived for This Long?” New York Times (August 3, 2020); Keyssar, Why Do We Still Have the Electoral College? (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2020); Leon F. Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery (New York: Knopf, 1979); Litwack, Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow (New York: Knopf, 1998); Neil R. McMillen, Dark Journey: Black Mississippians in the Age of Jim Crow (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989); Alexandra Natapoff, Punishment Without Crime: How Our Massive Misdemeanor System Traps the Innocent and Makes America More Unequal (New York: Basic Books, 2018); Donald G. Nieman, ed., African Americans and the Emergence of Segregation, 1865-1900 (New York: Garland, 1994); Hortense Powdermaker, After Freedom: A Cultural Study in the Deep South (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993; orig. 1939); Roger Ransom and Richard Sutch: One Kind of Freedom: The Economic Consequences of Emancipation (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1977); Joel Williamson, A Rage for Order: Black-White Relations in the American South since Emancipation (New York: Oxford, 1986); Edlie L. Wong, Racial Reconstruction: Black Inclusion, Chinese Exclusion, and the Racial Fictions of Citizenship (New York: New York University Press, 2015); C. Vann Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow, 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford, 1974).
35. Elaine Frantz Parsons, Ku-Klux: The Birth of the Klan during Reconstruction (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015); Linda Gordon, The Second Coming of the KKK: The Ku Klux Klan of the 1920s and the American Political Tradition (New York: Norton, 2017); Felix Harcourt, Ku Klux Kulture: America and the Klan in the 1920s (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2019).
36. It is important to note that all the features of southern post-Civil War segregation were used against Blacks in northern cities during the slavery era, and most of the features of segregation were also retained and often expanded in the Northeast, Midwest, and West after the Civil War.  See James Oliver Horton and Lois E. Horton, In Hope of Liberty: Culture, Community, and Protest among Northern Free Blacks, 1700-1860 (New York: Oxford, 1997); Leon G. Litwack, North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790-1860 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961).
37. Joel Williamson, New People: Miscegenation and Mulattoes in the United States (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1995; orig. 1980).  Note that multiracial people like Charles W. Chesnutt and W. E. B. Du Bois still had racial options as late as the turn of the century, and many chose to be Black. See Ingrid Dineen-Wimberly, The Allure of Blackness in Mixed-Race America, 1862-1916 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2019); Paul Spickard, “The Power of Blackness: Mixed-Race Leaders and the Monoracial Ideal,” in Racial Thinking in the United States: Uncompleted Independence, ed. Paul Spickard and G. Reginald Daniel (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2004): 103-23; Paul Spickard, “Shape Shifting: Reflections on Racial Plasticity,” in Shape Shifters: Journeys across Terrains of Race and Identity (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 2020): 1-53.
38. Sources on lynching include: James Allen, et al., Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photography in America (Santa Fe: Twin Palms, 2000); W. Fitzhugh Brundage, ed., Under Sentence of Death: Lynching in the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997); William D. Carrigan, Forgotten Dead: Mob Violence against Mexicans in the United States, 1848-1928 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013); William D. Carrigan, The Making of a Lynching Culture: Violence and Vigilantism in Central Texas, 1836-1916 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004); William D. Carrigan and Clive Webb, “Muerto por Unos Desconocidos (Killed by Persons Unknown): Mob Violence against Blacks and Mexicans,” in Race, Ethnicity, and Gender in the US South and Southwest, by Laura F. Edwards, William D. Carrigan, Clive Webb, Stephanie Cole, Sarah Deutsch, and Neil Foley (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2004), 35-74; Monica Davey, “Minnesota Memorial Stirs Racial Tensions,” Oregonian (December 7, 2003); Philip Dray, At the Hands of Persons Unknown: The Lynching of Black America (New York: Random House, 2002); Hale, Making Whiteness, 199-239; James H. Madison, A Lynching in the Heartland (New York: Palgrave/St. Martin’s, 2001); Jonathan Markovitz, Legacies of Lynching: Racial Violence and Memory (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004); Monica Muñoz Martinez, The Injustice Never Leaves You: Anti-Mexican Violence in Texas (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018); Ursula J. Ore, Lynching: Violence, Rhetoric, and American Identity (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2019); Michael J. Pfeifer, Rough Justice: Lynching and American Society, 1874-1947 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004), 155-83; advance copy courtesy of the publisher; Pfeiffer, The Roots of Rough Justice: Origins of American Lynching (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2014); Stewart E. Tolnay and E. M. Beck, A Festival of Violence: An Analysis of Southern Lynchings, 1882-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995), 273; Walter White, Rope and Faggot: The Biography of Judge Lynch (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 2001; orig. 1929); Amy Louise Wood, Lynching and Spectacle: Witnessing Racial Violence in America, 1890-1940 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011).
39. W. J. Cash, The Mind of the South (New York: Knopf, 1941), 188-219.
40. William Briggs and Jon Krakauer, “The Massacre that Emboldened White Supremacists,” New York Times (August 28, 2020); David S. Cecelski and Timothy B. Tyson, eds., Democracy Betrayed: The Wilmington Race Riot of 1898 and Its Legacy (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); David Zucchino, Wilmington’s Lie: The Murderous Coup of 1898 and the Rise of White Supremacy (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2020); Ben Fenwick, “The Massacre That Destroyed Tulsa’s ‘Black Wall Street’,” New York Times (July 13, 2020); Tim Madigan, The Burning: Massacre, Destruction, and the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921 (New York: St. Martin’s, 2001); Randy Krehbiel, Tulsa, 1921: Reporting a Massacre (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2019); David F. Krugler, 1919, the Year of Racial Violence: How African Americans Fought Back (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2015).
41. Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998); David Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class, rev. ed. (London: Verso, 1991); James R. Barrett and David Roediger, “Inbetween Peoples: Race, nationality and the ‘New Immigrant’ Working Class,” Journal of American Ethnic History, 16.3 (Spring 1997), 3-44; Eric L. Goldstein, The Price of Whiteness: Jews, Race and American Identity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006); Nell Irvin Painter, The History of White People (New York: Norton, 2011).
42. This exercise is reported more fully in Paul Spickard, “Who Is an American?  Teaching about Racial and Ethnic Hierarchy,” Immigration and Ethnic History Newsletter, 31.1 (May 1999).
43. Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color, 140; italics added.
44. David A. J. Richards, Italian Americans: The Racializing of an Ethnic Identity (New York: NYU Press, 1999); Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York: Routledge, 1995); Karen Brodkin, How Jews Became White Folks and What That Says about Race in America (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1998); see also David R. Roediger, Working Toward Whiteness: How America’s Immigrants Became White (New York: Basic Books, 2005); Bruce Nelson, Irish Nationalists and the Making of the Irish Race (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012); Matthew Frye Jacobson, “Becoming Caucasian: Vicissitudes of Whiteness in American Politics and Culture,” Identities, 8 (2001): 83-104.  For a corrective, see Paul Spickard, “What’s Critical about White Studies,” in Racial Thinking in the United States, ed. Spickard and G. Reginald Daniel (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 2004), 248-74.
45. See, for example, Madison Grant, The Passing of the Great Race, or The Racial Basis of European History (New York: Scribner’s, 1918), 148-66; Alfred P. Schultz, Race or Mongrel (Boston: Page, 1908), 109-23; Peter Roberts, Immigrant Races in North America (New York: Association Press, 1912); Lothrop Stoddard, Racial Realities in Europe (New York: Scribners, 1924), 94-122.
46. Thomas A. Guglielmo, White on Arrival: Italians, Race, Color, and Power in Chicago, 1890-1945 (New York: Oxford, 2003), 27ff.
47. J. Alexander Karlin, “The Italo-American Incident of 1891 and the Road to Reunion,” Journal of Southern History, 8 (1942), 242-46; Dray, At the Hands of Persons Unknown, 130-32, 207-14; Frank Viviano, “Atrocities America Forgot,” New York Review of Books (June 6, 2019).
48. These numbers are Dray’s.  An earlier accounting by Walter White, in the first and perhaps overall the best lynching study, suggested an even larger percentage of Whites among those lynched.  White recorded 4951 lynchings between 1882 and 1927:  3513 Black (71 per cent) and 1438 White (29 per cent).  See White, Rope and Faggot, 267; Pfeifer, Rough Justice, 155-83.
49. Other sources on lynching are found in note 37.  Carrigan and Webb, “Muerto por Unos Desconocidos,” estimate a “lynching rate” for Mexican Americans of 27.4, versus an African American rate of 37.1, for the period 1880-1930.
50. Jennifer Guglielmo and Salvatore Salerno, Are Italians White? How Race Is Made in America (New York: Routledge, 2003).
51. Vincenza Scarpaci, “Walking the Color Line: Italian Immigrants in Rural Louisiana, 1880-1910,” in Are Italians White, ed. Guglielmo and Salerno, 60-76; Thomas A. Guglielmo, “No Color Barrier: Italians, Race, and Power in the United States,” in Are Italians White, ed. Guglielmo and Salerno, 29-43; Jessica Barbata Jackson, Dixie’s Italians: Sicilians, Race, and Citizenship in the Jim Crow Gulf South (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2020).

A book on Japanese Americans in Chicago, taken together with a comment on that book by another scholar, brings up an issue that has come relevance here.  Jacalyn Harden, an African American anthropologist, spoke of Japanese Americans’ “vexed position as sometimes ‘colored,’ sometimes white (for example, the Japanese American soldier who was instructed to use the white washrooms at boot camp in Alabama during World War II, while thousands were being relocated to internment camps).”  To which an African American historian responded:  “Well, racialization is unevenly deployed, isn’t it?  What’s the Jim Crow etiquette in a situation like that?  Offend the White pissers by making them expose themselves to a Chinaman?  Or offend the Chinaman who is clearly not friend, but not necessarily foe, by making him piss with Blacks?  Individual cases mean very little, of course.  If they put up a sign on the Negro restroom that said ‘Niggers and Japs’—now that would mean something.  But no, I don’t think getting to pee with White men makes you White, any more than getting lynched like a Black man makes you Black.” The first quote is from Jacalyn D. Harden, Double Cross: Japanese Americans in Black and White Chicago (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003): dust cover.  The second person asked to remain anonymous; the analysis came in a private communication with Paul Spickard, February 27, 2004.

52. Bukowczyk, And My Children Did Not Know Me, iv.
53. Among the studies of Black migration in this period are: Eric Arnesen, Black Protest and the Great Migration (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2003); John Bodnar, Roger Simon, and Michael P. Weber, Lives of Their Own: Blacks, Italians, and Poles in Pittsburgh, 1900-1960 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982); James Borchert, Alley Life in Washington: Family, Community, Religion, and Folklife in the City, 1850-1970 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1980); Albert S. Broussard, Black San Francisco (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993); Douglas Henry Daniels, Pioneer Urbanites: A Social and Cultural History of Black San Francisco (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1980); Neil Fligstein, Going North: Migration of Blacks and Whites from the South, 1900-1950 (New York: Academic Press, 1981); Peter Gottlieb, Making Their Own Way: Southern Blacks’ Migration to Pittsburgh, 1916-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press,1987); James R. Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989); Florette Henri, Black Migration: Movement North, 1900-1920 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1975); Daniel M. Johnson and Rex R. Campbell, Black Migration in America (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1981); Kenneth L. Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978); Carole Marks, Farewell—We’re Good and Gone: The Great Black Migration (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989); Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto, Negro New York, 1890-1930, 2nd ed. (New York: Harper and Row, 1971); Nell Irvin Painter, Exodusters: Black Migration to Kansas after Reconstruction (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1976); Allan H. Spear, Black Chicago: The Making of a Ghetto, 1890-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967); Quintard Taylor, The Forging of a Black Community: Seattle’s Central District from 1870 through the Civil Rights Era (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1994); Taylor, In Search of the Racial Frontier: African Americans in the American West, 1528-1990 (New York: Norton, 1998); Joe William Trotter, Jr., Black Milwaukee: The Making of an Industrial Proletariat, 1915-45 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985); Trotter, ed., The Great Migration in Historical Perspective (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991).
54. Marks, Farewell—We’re Good and Gone, 122.  The numbers continued to climb, as Black migration out of the South continued.  There was another large expansion of the flow during World War II, and this time there was a significant flow to cities in the West as well.  The migration did not begin to recede until the 1960s or later.
55. Bodnar, Simon, and Weber, Lives of Their Own, 69; Paul Spickard, Japanese Americans (New York: Twayne, 1996), 65-68; George Sánchez, Boyle Heights: How a Los Angeles Neighborhood Became the Future of American Democracy (Oakland: University of California Press, 2021).
56. Khalil Gibran Muhammad, The Condemnation of Blackness: Race, Crime, and the Making of Modern Urban America, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2019); Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness (New York: New Press, 2010).
57. Sarah Deutsch, No Separate Refuge: Culture, Class, and Gender on an Anglo-Hispanic Frontier in the American Southwest, 1880-1940 (New York: Oxford, 1987), 4;  Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., “The American Empire? Not So Fast,” World Policy Journal, 22.1 (April 2005), electronic version; Daniel Immerwahr, How to Hide an Empire: A History of the Greater United States (New York: Picador, 2019); A. G. Hopkins, American Empire: A Global History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018); Julian Go, Patterns of Empire: The British and American Empires, 1688 to the Present (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2011); Kristin L. Hoganson, American Empire at the Turn of the Twentieth Century (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2017).

The fantasy of American exceptionalism is apparent in the pronouncements of President George W. Bush in November 2005.  Wire services reported: “President Bush vigorously defended U.S. interrogation practices in the war on terror Monday and lobbied against a congressional drive to outlaw torture. . . . ‘Any activity we conduct is within the law.”  That is, because they were Americans, what they were doing was not torture.  “Bush Defends Detainee Policy,” CNN.com (November 7, 2005).  The ultimate absurdity in the dream of American exemption from the ways of human history is on view in Francis Fukuyama’s wildly successful 1992 book, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press).  See Godfrey Hodgson, The Myth of American Exceptionalism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009); Jeffrey D. Sachs, A New Foreign Policy: Beyond American Exceptionalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 2018); Donald E. Pease, The New American Exceptionalism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009).

58. Stephen Kinzer, Overthrow: America’s Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq (New York: Times Books, 2006).  The debate can be traced in J. Rogers Hollingsworth, ed., American Expansion in the Late Nineteenth Century: Colonialist or Anticolonialist? (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968); Thomas G. Paterson, American Imperialism and Anti-Imperialism (New York: Crowell, 1974); E. Berkeley Tompkins, Anti-Imperialism in the United States: The Great Debate, 1890-1920 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1970).
59. Frederick Jackson Turner, The Frontier in American History (New York: Henry Holt, 1958; orig. 1920), quoted in James Chace, “Tomorrow the World,” New York Review of Books (November 21, 2002), 33.
60. Rudyard Kipling, “The White Man’s Burden,” McClure’s Magazine, 12 (February 1899), 290-91.
61. Quoted in Samuel Flagg Bemis, A Diplomatic History of the United States (New York: Henry Holt, 1936), 472.  Not that Germany was not a rival in Southeast Asia at that time, and that the Philippines had the highest percentage of believing Christians of any nation outside Europe and the Americas.  Not all White Americans bought this self-excusing nonsense.  It is perhaps not surprising that Mark Twain waxed biting and satirical in this poetic reaction to the US war on the Philippines, written about 1900.  It is to be sung to the tune of “The Battle Hymn of the Republic”:

Mine eyes have seen the orgy of the launching of the Sword;
He is searching out the hoardings where the stranger’s wealth is stored;
He hath loosed his fateful lightnings, and with woe and death has scored;
His lust is marching on.

I have seen him in the watch-fires of a hundred circling camps.
They have builded him an altar in the Eastern dews and damps;
I have read his doomful mission by the dim and flaring lamps;
His night is marching on.

I have read his bandit gospel writ in burnished rows of steel;
“As ye deal with my pretensions, so with you my wrath shall deal”;
Let the faithless son of Freedom crush the patriot with his heel;
Lo, Greed is marching on!

We have legalized the strumpet and are guarding her retreat;
Greed is seeking out commercial souls before his judgment seat;
O, be swift, ye clods, to answer him! be jubilant my feet!
Our god is marching on!

In a sordid slime harmonious, Greed was born in yonder ditch,
With a longing in his bosom—and for others’ goods an itch—
As Christ died to make men holy, let men die to make us rich—
Our god is marching on.
Mark Twain, A Pen Warmed-Up in Hell: Mark Twain in Protest, ed. F. Anderson (New York: Harper and Row, 1972), 4.

62. Sources for this section include:  Teodoro A. Agoncillo, A History of the Filipino People, 8th ed. (Quezon City: Garotech, 1990), 129-383; Dineen-Wimberly, Allure of Blackness, 87-142; Elisabeth M. Eittreim, Teaching Empire: Native Americans, Filipinos, and US Imperial Education, 1879-1918 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2019); Dorothy B. Fujita-Rony, American Workers, Colonial Power: Philippine Seattle and the Transpacific West, 1919-1941 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003); Willard B. Gatewood, Jr., “Black Americans and the Quest for Empire, 1898-1903,” Journal of Southern History, 38 (1972), 545-66; Julian Go and Anne L. Foster, eds., The American Colonial State in the Philippines (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2003); Frank H. Golay, ed., The United States and the Philippines (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1966); Thomas F. Gossett, Race: The History of an Idea in America (New York: Schocken, 1965), 210-338; Louis R. Harlan, “Booker T. Washington and the White Man’s Burden,” American Historical Review, 71 (1966, 441-67; Matthew Frye Jacobson, Barbarian Virtues: The United States Encounters Foreign Peoples at Home and Abroad, 1876-1917 (New York: Hill and Wang, 2000); Gregg Jones, Honor in the Dust: Theodore Roosevelt, War in the Philippines, and the Rise and Fall of America’s Imperial Dream (New York: Penguin, 2012); Stanley Karnow, In Our Image: America’s Empire in the Philippines (New York: 1989); Philip W. Kennedy, “Race and American Expansion in Cuba and Puerto Rico, 1895-1905,” Journal of Black Studies, 1 (1971), 306-16; Philip W. Kennedy, “The Racial Overtones of Imperialism as a Campaign Issue, 1900,” Mid-America, 48 (1966), 196-205; Paul A. Kramer, The Blood of Government: Race, Empire, the United States, and the Philippines (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006); Christopher Lasch, “The Anti-Imperialists, the Philippines, and the Inequality of Man,” Journal of Southern History, 24 (1958), 319-31; Eric T. L. Love, Race over Empire: Racism and US Imperialism, 1865-1900 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004); Simeon Man, Soldiering through Empire: Race and the Making of the Decolonizing Pacific (Oakland: University of California Press, 2018); George P. Marks, “Opposition of Negro Newspapers to American Philippine Policy, 1899-1900,”{ Midwest Journal, 4 (1951-52), 1-25; Michael C. Robinson and Frank N. Schubert, “David Fagen: An Afro-American Rebel in the Philippines, 1899-1901,” Pacific Historical Review, 44 (1975), 68-83; Thomas Schoonover, Uncle Sam’s War of 1898 and the Origins of Globalization (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2003); Angel Velasco Shaw and Luis H. Francia, eds., Vestiges of War: The Philippine-American War and the Aftermath of an Imperial Dream, 1899-1999 (New York: NYU Press, 2002); Peter W. Stanley, A Nation in the Making: The Philippines and the United States, 1899-1921 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974); James C. Thomson, Jr., Peter W. Stanley, and John Curtis Perry, Sentimental Imperialists: The American Experience in East Asia (New York: Harper and Row, 1981), 106-20; Richard E. Welch, Jr., Response to Imperialism: The United States and the Philippine-American War, 1899-1902 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979); Rubin Francis Weston, Racism in U.S. Imperialism (Columbia: University of South Carolina press, 1972).
63. I owe this argument to Matt Jacobson; see Barbarian Virtues, 175-77 and passim.
64. Congressional Record, Senate, January 9, 1900, 704-711; reprinted in Major Problems in Asian American History, ed. Lon Kurashige and Alice Yang Murray (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003), 139-42.  At the close of the Spanish-American War, the US also acquired Guam and Puerto Rico; see Laura Briggs, Reproducing Empire: Race, Sex, Science, and US Imperialism in Puerto Rico (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002); Ronald Fernandez, The Disenchanted Island: Puerto Rico and the United States in the Twentieth Century (New York: Praeger, 1993); Robert F. Rogers, Destiny’s Landfall: A History of Guam (Honolulu: University of Hawai`i Press, 1995), 108-26.
65. Edmund Wilson was writing during the war on Vietnam about American pretensions in mainland Southeast Asia, but he might easily have been writing about the Philippines at the end of the nineteenth century or Irzq at the dawn of the twenty-first when he wrote: “Our talk about bringing to backward peoples the processes of democratic government and of defending the ‘free world’ is as much an exploit of Anglo-Saxon hypocrisy as anything ever perpetrated by the English”; “Preface” to Europe without Baedeker (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1966).
66. Sources on US colonialism in Hawai‘i include: Helena G. Allen, The Betrayal of Lili‘uokalani, Last Queen of Hawai‘i (Honolulu: Mutual, 1982); Tom Coffman, Nation Within: The History of the American Occupation of Hawai‘i, rev. ed. (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2016); Michael Dougherty, To Steal a Kingdom: Probing Hawaiian History (Waimanalo, Hi.: Island Style Press, 1992); Michael Kioni Dudley and Keoni Kealoha Agard, A Call for Hawaiian Sovereignty (Honolulu: Na Kane O Ka Malo Press, 1993); Rona Tamiko Halualani, In the Name of Hawaiians: Native Identities and Cultural Politics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002); Lilikala Kame`eleihiwa, Native Land and Foreign Desires (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1992); Lili`uokalani, Hawai`i’s Story by Hawai`i’s Queen Rutland, Vt.: Tuttle, 1964); Jon Kamakawiwo`ole Osorio, Dismembering Lahui: A History of the Hawaiian Nation to 1887 (Honolulu: University of Hawai`i Press, 2002); Noenoe K. Silva, Aloha Betrayed: Native Hawaiian Resistance to American Colonialism (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2004); Haunani Kay Trask, From a native Daughter: Colonialism and Sovereignty in Hawai`i (Monroe, Me.: Common Courage Press, 1993); Isaiah Helekunihi Walker, Waves of Resistance: Surfing and History in Twentieth-Century Hawai‘i (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2011).
67. Candace Fujikane and Jonathan Y. Okamura, eds., Asian Settler Colonialism: From Local Governance to the Habits of Everyday Life in Hawai‘i (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2008).
68. Lori Pierce, “Creating a Racial Paradise: Citizenship and Sociology in Hawai`i,” in Race and Nation: Ethnic Systems in the Modern World, ed. Paul Spickard (New York: Routledge, 2005), 69-86.
69. The connection is the same as that frequently noted by North and West African-derived, European-born citizens.  It was enunciated by North African-descended French citizens with especial clarity in the wake of the Paris riots of fall 2005:  “We are here because you were there”; see Gregory Rodriguez, “We’re Here Because You Were There,” Los Angeles Times (November 20, 2005).  The riots were the result of European-descended Europeans making a racial distinction between themselves and the descendants of North African immigrants, and discriminating against those North African-descended citizens on that basis.
70. For similar development of racial systems in the process of empire making at various other points around the globe, see Spickard, Race and Nation, especially 14-16, 135-211; Patrick Wolfe, Traces of History: Elementary Structures of Race (London: Verso, 2016); Kornel Chang, Pacific Connections: The Making of the US-Canadian Borderlands (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012).
71. Omaha Progress (October 3, 1899), quoted in Rene G. Ontal, “Fagen and Other Ghosts: African-Americans and the Philippine-American War,” in Vestiges of War, ed. Shaw and Francia, 118-33; Robinson and Schubert, “David Fagen”; Marks, “Opposition of Negro Newspapers”; Paul A. Kramer, “Empires, Exceptions, and Anglo-Saxons: Race and Rule between the British and United States Empires, 1880-1910,” Journal of American History (March 2002), 1315-53.  For similar dynamics in Australia in the same years, see Gregory D. B. Smithers, “ ‘A Bloody Useless Blackfella’: Race and Miscegenation in the United States and Australia, 1890s-1930s” (paper presented to the American Historical Association/Pacific Coast Branch, Corvallis, Oregon, July 2005).
72. Ada Ferrer, Insurgent Cuba: Race, Nation, and Revolution, 1868-1898 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999); “Cuba: The Next Revolution” in Black in Latin America (DVD), dir. Henry Louis Gates, Jr. (Arlington, VA: PBS Studios, 2011).
73. Pablo R. Mitchell, Understanding Latino History (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO Greenwood, 2017): 83-84.
74. Some important legal milestones, such as Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) were treated in earlier sections; others, such as the Gentlemen’s Agreement (1907-08) and the Alien Land Law (1913), will appear later in this chapter. Sources for this section include: Kate Holladay Claghorn, The Immigrant’s Day in Court (New York: Harper, 1923); Ian F. Haney López, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York: NYU Press, 1996); Bill Ong Hing, Defining America Through Immigration Policy (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004); Bill Ong Hing, Making and Remaking Asian American Through Immigration Policy, 1850-1990 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1993); Kevin R. Johnson, The “Huddled Masses” Myth: Immigration and Civil Rights (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004); Erika Lee, “American Gatekeeping: Race and Immigration Law in the Twentieth Century,” Not Just Black and White: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Immigration, Race, and Ethnicity in the United States, ed. Nancy Foner and George M. Fredrickson (New York: Russell Sage, 2004), 119-44; Erika Lee, “Immigrants and Immigration Law: A State of the Field Assessment,” Journal of American Ethnic History, 18.9 (1999), 85-114; Eithne Luibhéid, Entry Denied: Controlling Sexuality at the Border (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002); John S. W. Park, Elusive Citizenship: Immigration, Asian Americans, and the Paradox of Civil Rights (New York: NYU Press, 2004); Lucy E. Salyer, Laws Harsh as Tigers: Chinese Immigrants and the Shaping of Modern Immigration Law (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995); Cheryl Shanks, Immigration and the Politics of American Sovereignty (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001).
75. Hing, Making and Remaking Asian America, 203.
76. “Cornelius Cole,” San Francisco Chronicle (October 23, 1870), quoted in Peffer, If
    They Don’t Bring Their Women, 75.
77. Transactions of the American Medical Association, 27 (1876)m 106-107, quoted in Stuart Creighton Miller, The Unwelcome Immigrant: The American Image of the Chinese, 1785-1882 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), 163.
78. Peffer, If They Don’t Bring Their Women, back cover; Mildred Crowl Martin, Chinatown’s Angry Angel: The Story of Donaldina Cameron (Palo Alto, Calif.: Pacific Books, 1977).  See also Leong, “Distinct and Antagonistic Race”; Nayan Shah, Contagious Divides: Epidemics and Race in San Francisco’s Chinatown (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001).
79. Michael LeMay and Elliott Robert Barkan, eds., US Immigration and Naturalization Laws and Issues (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1999), 99-100, 135-36.
80. Douglas C. Baynton, Defectives in the Land: Disability and Immigration in the Age of Eugenics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016), quote is from back cover; Margot Canaday, The Straight State: Sexuality and Citizenship in Twentieth-Century America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011); Pablo Mitchell, West of Sex: Making Mexican America, 1900-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012).
81. Deirdre M. Moloney, National Insecurities: Immigrants and US Deportation Policy Since 1882 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012); Adam Goodman, The Deportation Machine: America’s Long History of Expelling Immigrants (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2020): 1-37.
82. On the enduring advantages of Whiteness, see George Lipsitz, The Possessive Investment in Whiteness, rev. ed. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2000); Khyati Y. Joshi, White Christian Privilege: The Illusion of Religious Equality in America (New York: New York University Press, 2020).
83. In re Ah Yup, 1 F. Cas. 223 (C. C. D. Cal. 1878); Park, Elusive Citizenship, 59ff; Haney López, White by Law, 5-6, 209-12.  See also In re Hong Yen Chang, 84 Cal. 163, 24 Pac. 156 (1890); In re Gee Hop, 71 F. 274 (N. D. Cal. 1895); In re Fisher, 21 F. 2d 1007 (N. D. Cal. 1927).
84. Wong Kim Ark v. United States, 169 U.S. 649 (March 28, 1898); Carol Nackenoff and Julie Novkov, American by Birth: Wong Kim Ark and the Battle for Citizenship (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2021).
85. In re Halladjian, 174 F. 735 (C. C. D. Mass. 1909); United States v. Cartozian, 6 F. 3d 919 (D. Or. 1925).  Alex Fabros is writing a PhD dissertation at the University of California, Santa Barbara, on race and ethnic succession in Fresno.  For a rich evocation of Armenian American culture in this period, see William Saroyan, My Name Is Aram (New York: Harcourt, 1937).  See also Michael J. Arlen, Passage to Ararat (New York: Random House, 1975); Peter Balakian, Black Dog of Fate: An American Son Discovers His Armenian Past (New York: Basic, 1997); Berge Bulbulian, The Fresno Armenians (Fresno: California State University, 2000); Charles Mahakian, History of the Armenians in California (San Francisco: R and E Research Associates, 1974); Robert Mirak, “On New Soil: The Armenian Orthodox and Armenian Protestant Churches in the New World to 1915,” in Immigrants and Religion in Urban America, ed. Randall Miller and Thomas Marzik (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1977).
86. Ex parte Dow, 211 F. 486 (E. D. S. C. 1914); In re Dow, 213 F. 355 (E. D. S. C. 1914); Dow v. United States, 226 F. 145 (4th Cir. 1915).  See also In re Najour, 174 F. 735 (N. D. Ga. 1909); In re Mudarri, 176 F. 465 (C. C. D. Mass. 1910); In re Ellis, 1797 F. 1002 (D. Or. 1910); Ex parte Shahid, 205 F. 812 (E. D. S. C. 1913); Sarah Gualtieri, “Becoming ‘White’: Race, Religion and the Foundations of Syrian/Lebanese Ethnicity in the United States,” Journal of American Ethnic History, 20.4 (2001), 29-52; Gualtieri, Arab Routes: Pathways to Syrian California (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2020); Laila Lalami, Conditional Citizens: On Belonging in Ameriac (New York: Pantheon, 2020); Haney López, White By Law, 72-77; Gregory Orfalea, Before the Flames: A Quest for the History of Arab Americans (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1988); Therese Saliba, “Resisting Invisibility: Arab Americans in Academia and Activism,” in Arabs in America, ed. Michael W. Suleiman (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999), 304-19; Helen Hatab Samhan, “Not Quite White: Race Classification and the Arab-American Experience,” in Suleiman, Arabs in America, 209-26; Michael W. Suleiman, “Early Arab-Americans: The Search for Identity,” in Crossing the Waters: Arabic-Speaking Immigrants to the United States (Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1987).
87. In re Ahmed Hassan, 48 F. Supp. 843 (E. D. Mich. 1942); Ex parte Mohriez, 54 F. Supp 941 (D. Mass. 1944).
88. Yuji Ichioka, The Issei: The World of the First Generation Japanese Immigrants, 1885-1924 (New York: Free Press, 1988), 1-2; Haney López, White By Law, 79-86; Park, Elusive Citizenship, 121-24.  See also In re Saito, 62 F. 126 (C. C. D. Mass. 1894); In re Yamashita, 30 Wash. 234, 70 Pac. 482 (1902); In re Buntaro Kumagai, 163 F. 922 (W. D. Wash. 1908); In re Knight, 171 F. 299 (E. D. N. Y. 1909); Bessho v. United States, 178 F. 245 (4th Cir. 1910); In re Young, 195 F. 645 (W. D. Wash. 1912); In re Young, 198 F. 715 (W. D. Wash. 1912); Sato v. Hall, 191 Cal. 510, 217 Pac. 520 (1923).
89. In re Alverto, 198 F. 688 (E. D. Pa. 1912); In re Lampitoe, 232 F. 382 (S. D. N. Y. 1916); In re Mallari, 239 F. 416 (D. Mass. 1916); In re Rallos, 241 F. 686 (E. D. N. Y. 1917); United States v. Javier, 22 F. 2d 879 (D. C. Cir. 1927); De La Ysla v. United States, 77 F. 2d 988 (9th Cir. 1935); De Cano v. State, 110 P. 2d 627 (Wash. 1941).
90. Emphasis added.  Thind, by the way, was not a Hindu but a Sikh.  United States v. Thind, 261 U.X. 204 (1923); Haney López, White By Law, 86-94; Park, Elusive Citizenship, 124-27; Joan M. Jensen, Passage from India: Asian Indian Immigrants in North America (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1988), 246-69; Jennifer Snow, “The Civilization of White Men: The Race of the Hindu in United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind, in Race, Nation, and Religion in the Americas, ed. Henry Goldschmidt and Elizabeth McAlister (New York: Oxford, 2004), 259-80.  See also In re Balsara, 171 F. 294 (C. C. S. D. N. Y. 1909); United States v. Dolla, 177 F. 101 (5th Cir. 1910); United States v. Balsara, 180 F. 694 (2nd Cir. 1910); In re Akhay Kumar Mozumdar, 207 F. 115 (E. D. Wash. 1913); In re Sadar Bhagwab Singh, 246 F. 496 (E. D. Pa. 1917); In re Mohan Singh, 257 F. 209 (S. D. Cal. 1919); In re Thind, 268 F. 683 (D. Or. 1920); United States v. Akhay Kumar Mozumdar, 296 F. 173 (S. D. Cal. 1923); United States v. Ali, 7 F. 2d 728 (E. D. Mich. 1925); United States v. Gokhale, 26 F. 2d 360 (2nd Cir. 1928); Wadia v. United States, 101 F. 2d 7 (2nd Cir. 1939); Kharaiti Ram Samras v. United States, 125 F. 879 (9th Cir. 1942).
91. Bhagat Singh Thind died in 1967.  His books and pamphlets were mainly self-published, and many are still available from a website operated by his son David Bhagat Thind.  The books include:  Divine Wisdom, 3 vols. (2nd ed. 1929; orig. 1925); The Enlightened Life (2004); House of Happiness (2nd ed. 2003; orig. 1931); Jesus the Christ in the Light of Spiritual Science, 3 vols. (3rd ed. 2003); The Pearl of Greatest Price (2nd ed. 2003; orig. 1958); Radiant Road to Reality, (4th ed. 2003; orig. 1939); Science of Union with God (2nd ed. 2003; orig. 1953); Tested Universal Science of Individual Meditation in Sikh Religion (2005); Troubled Mind in a Troubling World and Their Conquest (2004); and Winners and Whiners in This Whirling World (2005).
92. Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans, rev. ed. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1998), 300.
93. Brenda Wong Aoki, “Uncle Gunjiro’s Girlfriend,” Nikkei Heritage (National Japanese American Historical Society), 10.4 (Fall 1998), 8-9; “Miss Emery, Her Mother And Her Japanese Fiancee,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer (March 27, 1909); “How American Women and Japanese Husbands Live in Lake Washington Colony,” Seattle Sunday Times (June 20, 1909), Magazine, p. 3; “US Judge Restores Citizenship to Wife in East-West Marriage,” San Francisco Chronicle (November 11, 1933), quoted in Aoki, “Uncle Gunjiro’s Girlfriend.”
94. In re Rodriguez, District Court, W. D. Texas (May 33, 1897); Neil Foley, The White Scourge: Mexicans, Blacks, and Poor Whites in Texas Cotton Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Ariela J. Gross, “Texas Mexicans and Whiteness,” Law and History Review, 21.1 (2003: 195-205; Thomas A. Guglielmo, “Fighting for Caucasian Rights: Mexicans, Mexican Americans, and the Transnational Struggle for Civil Rights in World War II Texas,” Journal of American History, 92.4 (2006), 1212-37; Benjamin Heber Johnson, Revolution in Texas: How a Forgotten Rebellion and Its Bloody Suppression Turned Mexicans into Americans (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003); Ilona Katzew and Susan Deans-Smith, eds., Race and Classification: The Case of Mexican America (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2009); George A. Martinez, “The Legal Construction of Race: Mexican-Americans and Whiteness,” Harvard Latino Law Review, 2 (1997): 321-47; Martha Menchaca, Recovering History, Constructing Race: The Indian, Black, and White Roots of Mexican Americans (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001); Natalia Molina, How Race Is Made in America: Immigration, Citizenship, and the Historical Power of Racial Scripts (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2014); Charles Montgomery, “The Trap of Race and Memory: The Language of Spanish Civility on the Upper Rio Grande,” American Quarterly, 52.3 (2000), 478-513; John M. Nieto-Phillips, The Language of Blood: The Making of Spanish-American Identity in New Mexico, 1880s-1930s (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2004); Vilma Ortiz and Edward Telles, “Racial Identity and Racial Treatment of Mexican Americans,” Race and Social Problems, 4.1 (2012): 41-56; Clara E. Rodríguez, Changing Race: Latinos, the Census, and the History of Ethnicity in the United States (New York: NYU Press, 2000); Rubén G. Rumbaut, “Pigments of Our Imagination: On the Racialization and Racial Identities of ‘Hispanics’ and ‘Latinos’,” in How the US Racializes Latinos: White Hegemony and Its Consequences, ed. José A. Cobas, et al. (Dubuque, IA: Paradigm, 2009): 15-36; George J. Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American (New York: Oxford, 1993).
95. Useful sources on the history of racial theory and pseudoscientific racialism include:  Bruce Baum, The Rise and Fall of the Caucasian Race (New York: NYU Press, 2006); Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze, ed., Race and the Enlightenment (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997); Thomas F. Gossett, Race: The History of an Idea in America (New York: Schocken, 1965); Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man, rev. ed. (New York: Norton, 1996); Joseph L. Graves, Jr., The Emperor’s New Clothes: Biological Theories of Race at the Millennium (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2001); John P. Jackson Jr., ed. Science, Race, and Ethnicity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002); Ibram X. Kendi, Stamped from the Beginning: The Definitive History of Racist Ideas in America (New York: Nation Books, 2016); James C. King, The Biology of Race (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981); Jonathan Marks, Human Biodiversity: Genes, Race, and History (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1995); Ashley Montagu, Man’s Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race (New York: World, 1964); Marion O’Callaghan, ed., Sociological Theories: Race and Colonialism (Paris: Unesco, 1980); Painter, History of White People; Audrey Smedley, Race in North America, 2nd ed. (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1999); Robert Wald Sussman, The Myth of Race: The Troubling Persistence of an Unscientific Idea (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014); Ian Tattersall and Rob DeSalle, Race? Debunking a Scientific Myth (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2011); William H. Tucker, The Science and Politics of Racial Research (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994); Michael Yudell, Race Unmasked: Biology and Race in the 20th Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 2014).  For earlier manifestations of racial ideas, see Geraldine Heng, The Invention of Race in the European Middle Ages (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2018); Benjamin Isaac, The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004).
96. Linneaus’s masterwork is Systema Naturae (1758), translated as The System of Nature (London: Lackington, Allen, 1806).
97. Georges-Louis Leclerc, comte de Buffon, A Natural History, General and Particular, 2nd ed. (London: Strahan and Cadell, 1785).
98. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, On the Natural Varieties of Mankind (New York: Bergman, 1969; orig. English 1865; orig. German 1775); Blumenbach, The Anthropological Treatises of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (Boston: Milford House, 1973, orig. 1865).
99. Georges Léopold Cuvier, Le Règne Animal (1817), translated into English as Animal Kingdom (London: W. S. Orr, 1840).  Quotation is taken from Eze, Race and the Enlightenment, 105.
100. Arthur de Gobineau, The Inequality of Human Races (New York: Fertig, 1999; English orig. 1915; French orig. 1853-55), v-v1, 151; Michael D. Biddiss, Father of Racist Ideology: The Social and Political Thought of Count Gobineau (New York: Weybright and Talley, 1970); Biddiss, ed., Gobineau: Selected Political Writings (New York: Harper and Row, 1970).
101. William Z. Ripley, The Races of Europe (New York: Appleton, 1899).
102. H. Keane, Ethnology (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1901), 224.
103. United States Commissioner-General of Immigration, Annual Report, 1904 (Washington, 1904), endpaper; United States Congress, Reports of the Immigration Commission (61st Congress, 3rd Session), Volume 5: Dictionary of Races or Peoples (Washington, 1910-11); Katherine Bento-Cohen, Inventing the Immigration Proglem: The Dillingham Commission and Its Legacy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018).
104. Alfred P. Schultz, Race or Mongrel? (Boston: Page, 1908).
105. Madison Grant, The Passing of the Great Race, or The Racial Basis of European History (New York: Scribner’s 1916); quote is from 80-81.  The German edition is Der Untergang der grossen Rasse: Die Rassen als Grundlage der Geschichte Europas (München: J. F. Lehmanns Verlag, 1925).  On Grant, see Jonathan Peter Spiro, Defending the Master Race: Conservation, Eugenics, and the Legacy of Madison Grant (Burlington: University of Vermont Press, 2009); Stefan Kühl, The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).
106. Lothrop Stoddard, The Rising Tide of Color Against White World Supremacy (New York: Scribner’s, 1920).
107. Francis Galton, Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry into its Laws and Consequences (London: World, 1869; repr. Ostara Publications, 2019); Francis Galton, Natural Inheritance (New York: Macmillan, 1894); B. L. Putnam Weale, The Conflict of Colour (New York: Macmillan, 1910); David Starr Jordan, The Blood of the Nation: A Study of the Decay of Races Through the Survival of the Unfit (Boston: American Unitarian Association, 1910); David Starr Jordan, War and the Breed: The Relation of War to the Downfall of Nations (Yonkers-on-Hudson, NY: World Book Company, 1922; repr. Honolulu: University Press of the Pacific, 2003); Lothrop Stoddard, The Revolt Against Civilization: The Menace of the Under Man (New York: Scribner’s, 1923); F. G. Crookshank, The Mongol in Our Midst (New York: Dutton, 1924); Lothrop Stoddard, Racial Realities in Europe (New York: Scribner’s, 1924); Maurice Muret, The Twilight of the White Races (New York: Scribner’s, 1926); Hans F. K. Günther, The Racial Elements in World History (London: Methuen, 1927); Madison Grant and Charles Stewart Davison, eds., The Alien in Our Midst, or “Selling our Birthright for a Mess of Pottage” (New York: Galton, 1930); Lothrop Stoddard, Clashing Tides of Colour (New York: Scribner’s, 1935); Earnest Albert Hooton, Apes, Men and Morons (New York: Putnam’s, 1937); Hooton, Twilight of Man (New York: Putnam’s, 1939).
108. Sources on eugenics include:  Edwin Black, War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America’s Campaign to Create a Master Race (New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, 2003); Laura Briggs, Reproducing Empire: Race, Sex, Science, and U.S. Imperialism in Puerto Rico (Berkeley: University of California, 2002); Debbie Challis, The Archaeology of Race: The Eugenic Ideas of Francis Galton and Flinders Petrie (London: Bloomsbury, 2013); Susan Currell and Christina Cogdell, eds., Popular Eugenics (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2006); Gregory Michael Dorr, Segregation’s Science: Eugenics and Society in Virginia (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2008); Amy L. Fairchild, Science at the Borders: Immigrant Medical Inspection and the Shaping of the Modern Industrial Labor Force (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003); Mark H. Haller, Eugenics (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1963); Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986); Nancy Ordover, American Eugenics: Race, Queer Anatomy, and the Science of Nationalism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003); Alexandra Minna Stern, Eugenic Nation: Faults and Frontiers of Better Breeding in Modern America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005); William H. Tucker, The Funding of Scientific Racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002); Tucker, Science and Politics of Racial Research; Tukufi Zuberi, Thicker Than Blood: How Racial Statistics Lie (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2001), esp. Chapters 3-5.
109. Angela Franks, Margaret Sanger’s Eugenic Legacy: The Control of Female Fertility  (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2005); Dorothy Roberts, Killing the Black Body: Race, Reproduction, and the Meaning of Liberty, 2nd ed. (New York: Penguin Random House, 2016): 56-103; Maria I. Diedrich, Cornelia James Cannon and the Future American Race (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2011).
110. Steven Moore, “ICE IS Accused of Sterilizing Detainees: That Echoes the US’s Long History of Forced Sterilizations,” Washington Post (September 25, 2020); Shilpa Jindia, “Belly of the Beast: California’s Dark History of Forced Sterilizations,” The Guardian (July 1, 2020); Hollie McKay, “New Documentary Highlights the Forced Sterilization of Women in California Prison,” Fox News (June 15, 2020); Nicole Novak and Natalie Lira, “California Once Targeted Latinas for Forced Sterilization,” Smithsonian (March 22, 2018); Alexandra Minna Stern, et al., “California’s Sterilization Survivors: An Estimate and Call for Redress,” American Journal of Public Health, 107.1 (2017): 50-54.
111. Sources on intelligence testing include:  Alfred Binet, The Development of Intelligence in Children, trans. Elizabeth S. Kite (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1916); N. J. Block and Gerald Dworkin, eds., The IQ Controversy (New York: Pantheon, 1976); Jeffrey M. Blum, Pseudoscience and Mental Ability (New York: Monthly Review, 1978); Paul L. Boynton, Intelligence: Its Manifestations and Measurement (New York: Appleton, 1933); Hans J. Eysenck, Intelligence (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1998); Jefferson M. Fish, ed., Race and Intelligence (Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2002); Henry H. Goddard, The Criminal Imbecile (New York: Macmillan, 1915); Goddard, Feeble-mindedness: Its Causes and Consequences (New York: Macmillan, 1914); Goddard, The Kallikak Family: A Study in Heredity of Feeble-Mindedness (New York: Macmillan, 1912); Goddard, School Training of Defective Children (Yonkers-on-Hudson, N.Y.: World Book, 1914); Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man, rev. ed. (New York: Norton, 1996); Seymour W. Itzkoff, The Decline of Intelligence in America (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1994); Nicholas Lemann, The Big Test: The Secret History of the American Meritocracy (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2000); Henry L. Minton, Lewis M. Terman: Pioneer in Psychological Testing (New York: NYU Press, 1988); Ashley Montagu, ed., Race and IQ (New York: Oxford, 1999); J. David Smith, Minds Made Feeble: The Myth and Legacy of the Kallikaks (Rockville, Md.: Aspen Systems, 1985); Theta H. Wolf, Alfred Binet (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973); Leila Zenderland, Measuring Minds: Henry Herbert Goddard and the Origins of American Intelligence Testing (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
112. Quoted in Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 81.
113. Henry H. Goddard, “Mental Tests and the Immigrant,” Journal of Delinquency, 2 (1917), 243-77; Gould, Mismeasure, 165.  Historian Patrick Miller writes, “Goddard claimed that he could spot a moron amidst the mass of immigrants coming through Ellis Island—not just with the test but by eye—which may give new meaning to the word ‘moron’.”  Private communication with the author, April 14, 2004.
114. Carl Campbell Brigham, A Study of American Intelligence (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1923), 197, quoted in Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 82-83. African Americans also were supposedly inferior to Whites.  But differential access to education played a part.  Midwestern Blacks scored higher on Brigham’s measures of intelligence than did Southern Whites.
115. Caroline Bond Day, A Study of Some Negro-White Families in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Peabody Museum, 1932).
116. Julie P. Kelley, “A Study of Eyefold Inheritance in Inter-Racial Marriages” (MS thesis, University of Hawai`i, 1960); Sidney L Gulick, Mixing the Races in Hawaii (Honolulu: Hawaiian Board, 1937).  See also Louis Wirth’s chapter on “The Jewish Type” in The Ghetto (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1926).
117. Frank H. Hankins, The Racial Basis of Civilization: A Critique of the Nordic Doctrine (New York: Knopf, 1926); Franz Boas, Race, Language, and Culture (New York: Free Press, 1940); Edward H. Beardsley, “The American Scientist as Social Activist: Franz Boas, Burt g. Wilder, and the Cause of Racial Justice,” Isis, 64 (1973), 50-66; Elazar Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Charles King, Gods of the Upper Air: How a Circle of Renegade Anthropologists Reinvented Race, Sex, and Gender in the Twentieth Century (New York: Penguin Random House, 2019).
118. Carleton Stevens Coon, The Races of Europe (New York: Macmillan, 1939); Coon, The Story of Man (New York: Knopf, 1954); Coon, The Origin of Races (New York: Knopf, 1962); Coon, The Living Races of Man (New York: Knopf, 1965); Coon, Racial Adaptations (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1982); Wesley Critz George, The Biology of the Race Problem (Richmond, Va.: Patrick Henry Press, 1962); John P. Jackson, Jr., Science for Segregation: Race, Law, and the Case Against Brown v. Board of Education (New York: NYU Press, 2005); Carleton Putnam, Race and Reason (Washington: Public Affairs, 1961); Putnam, Race and Reality (Washington: Public Affairs, 1967).
119. Pierre L. van den Berghe, The Ethnic Phenomenon (New York: Elsevier, 1981); J. Barkow, Leda Cosmides, and John Tooby, The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture (New York: Oxford, 1992).
120. Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press, 1994); Peter Brimelow, Alien Nation: Common Sense about America’s Immigration Disaster (New York: Random House, 1995); Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996); Jon Entine, Taboo: Why Black Athletes Dominate Sports and Why We’re Afraid to Talk About It (New York: Public Affairs, 2000); Patrick J. Buchanan, The Death of the West: How Dying Populations and Immigrant Invasions Imperil Our County and Civilization (New York: St. Martin’s, 2002); Nicholas Wade, A Troublesome Inheritance: Genes, Race, and Human History (New York: Penguin Random House, 2014).  Cultural historian Patrick Miller refers to these books as “airplane reading for bigots” (private communication with the author, 2006).
121. Sources on the anti-Japanese movement include:  Roger Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice: The Anti-Japanese Movement in California and the Struggle for Japanese Exclusion (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962); Montaville Flowers, The Japanese Conquest of American Opinion (New York: Doran, 1917); Bill Ong Hing, Making and Remaking Asian America Through Immigration Policy, 1850-1990 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1993); Yamato Ichihashi, Japanese in the United States (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1932); Ichioka, Issei; Charles McClain, ed., Japanese Immigrants and American Law (New York: Garland, 1994); Lon Kurashige, Two Faces of Exclusion: The Untold Story of Anti-Asian Racism in the United States (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019), esp. 86-111; Jesse F. Steiner, The Japanese Invasion (Chicago: McClurg, 1917); Azuma, In Search of Our Frontier; Tchan and Yeats, Yellow Peril.  Some of the language in this section is taken from Paul Spickard, Japanese Americans (New York: Twayne, 1996), 27-30, 57-63.
122. Asiatic Exclusion League of North America, Preamble and Constitution, 1905, quoted in Eliot G. Mears, Resident Orientals of the American Pacific Coast (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1928), 435.  It should be noted that, while much of the driving force behind the anti-Asian movements came from labor organizations and anti-Japanese sentiment came articulated in the language of twin defenses of American working people and the White race, one large labor organization—the Industrial Workers of the World—adamantly opposed race discrimination.
123. San Francisco Chronicle, February 13-March 13, 1095, passim, quoted in Roger Daniels, Asian America (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1988), 116.
124. Quoted in Daniels, Politics of Prejudice, 47.
125. Quoted in Robert Higgs, “Landless by Law: Japanese Immigrants in California Agriculture to 1941,” Journal of American Economic History, 38 (1978), 215.  See also Charles McClain, ed., Japanese Immigrants and American Law: The Alien land Laws and Other issues (New York: Garland, 1994).
126. Japanese were not the only Asians who came under attack in the first decades of the twentieth century.  Throughout the 1920s and into the 1930s, Filipinos were subject to repeated assaults and harassment by angry Whites.  See Bruno Lasker, Filipino Immigration (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1931), esp. 13-20; and Chapter 7.
127. Sources for this section include: James R. Barrett, “Americanization from the Bottom Up: Immigration and the Remaking of the Working Class in the United States, 1880-1930,” Journal of American History (1992), 996-1020; Cybelle Fox, three Worlds of Relief: Race, Immigration, and the American Welfare State from the Progressive Era to the New Deal (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012); Clifford S. Griffin, “Religious Benevolence as Social Control,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 44 (1957), 423-44; John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1998; orig. 1955), 234-63; Stephen Meyer, “Efforts at Americanization in the Industrial Workplace, 1914-1921,” Journal of Social History, 14.1 (1980); Anne-Elizabeth Murdy, Teach the Nation: Pedagogies of Racial Uplift in US Women’s Writing in the 1890s (New York: Routledge, 2002); Eileen H. Tamura, Americanization, Acculturation, and Ethnic Identity: The Nisei Generation in Hawai`i (Honolulu: University of Hawai`i Press, 1994); Frank Van Nuys, Americanizing the West: Race, Immigrants, and Citizenship, 1890-1930 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2002).  See also note 13.
128. David Brion Davis, ed., Ante-Bellum Reform (New York: Harper and Row, 1967); Paul E. Johnson, A Shopkeeper’s Millennium: Society and Revivals in Rochester, New York, 1815-1837 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1978); Henry F. May, Protestant Churches and Industrial America (New York: Harper, 1967); Timothy L. Smith, Revivalism and Social Reform (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980); Ronald G. Walters, American Reformers (New York: Hill and Wang, 1978).
129. Meyer, “Efforts at Americanization.”
130. Published by Harper and Brothers between 1920 and 1924, the volumes were:  Frank V. Thompson, Schooling of the Immigrant; John Daniels, America via the Neighborhood; William I. Thomas, Old World Traits Transplanted; Peter A. Speek, A Stake in the Land; Michael M. Davis, Jr., Immigrant Health and the Community; Sophonsba B. Breckinridge, New Homes for Old; Robert E. park, The Immigrant Press and Its Control; John Palmer Gavit, Americans by Choice; Kate Holladay Claghorn, The Immigrant’s Day in Court; and William M. Leiserson, Adjusting Immigrant and Industry.
131. Examples of these studies, many of them quite distinguished, include: Romanzo C. Adams, Interracial Marriage in Hawai`i (New York: Macmillan, 1937); Adams, The Peoples of Hawai`i (Honolulu: Institute for Pacific Relations, 1933); Emory S. Bogardus, Essentials of Americanization (Los Angeles: University of Southern California press, 1919); Jean-Michel Chapoulie, Chicago Sociology (New York: Columbia University Press, 2020); St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1945); Clarence E. Glick, Sojourners and Settlers: Chinese Migrants in Hawai`i (Honolulu: University Press of Hawai`i, 1980); Sarah Griffith, The Fight for Asian American Civil Rights: Liberal Protestant Activism, 1900-1950 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2018): 34-53; Rose Hum Lee, The Chinese in the United States of America (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1960); Andrew W. Lind, Hawai`i’s Japanese (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1946); Lind, Hawai`i’s People (Honolulu: University of Hawai`i Press, 1955); Jitsuichi Masaoka and Preston Valien, eds., Race Relations (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1961); Mears, Resident Orientals; S. Frank Miyamoto, Social Solidarity among the Japanese in Seattle (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1984; orig. 1939); Robert Ezra Park, Race and Culture (New York: Free Press, 1964); Park and Herbert Miller, Old World Traits Transplanted (New York: Harper, 1921); Edward B. Reuter, Race Mixture (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1931); Paul C. P. Siu, The Chinese Laundryman (New York: NYU Press, 1987; orig. 1953); William Carlson Smith, “Changing Personality Traits of Second Generational Orientals in America,” American Journal of Sociology, 33 (1928); Steiner, Japanese Invasion; William I. Thomas and Florian Znaniecki, The Polish Peasant in Europe and America, 4 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago press, 1918-1920).  Each of these scholars nurtured dozens of students in similar tasks; some, such as Bogardus and Lind, built student factories that put out dozens of studies.  For analysis, see Lori Pierce, “Creating a Racial Paradise: Citizenship and Sociology in Hawai`i,” in Race and Nation: Ethnic Systems in the Modern World, ed., Paul Spickard (New York: Routledge, 2005), 69-86; Henry Yu, Thinking Orientals: Migration, Contact, and Exoticism in Modern America (New York: Oxford, 2001),
132. Robert MacNeil and William Cran, Do You Speak American? (New York: Harcourt, 2005), 95-96.
133. Sources on the anti-immigration movement include:  pre-eminently, Roger Daniels, Guarding the Golden Door: American Immigration Policy and Immigrants since 1882  (New York: Hill and Wang, 2004); and Erika Lee, America for Americans: A History of Xenophobia in the United States (New York: Basic Books, 2019).  See also Benton-Cohen, Inventing the Immigration Problem; Patrick Ettinger, Imaginary Lines: Border Enforcement and the Origins of Undocumented Immigration, 1882-1930 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2009); Susie Cagle, “‘Bees, Not Refugees’: The Environmentalist Roots of Anti-Immigrant Bigotry,” The Guardian (August 16, 2019); Otis L. Graham, Unguarded Gates: A History of America’s Immigration Crisis (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2004); John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1992; orig. 1955); Kevin R. Johnson, The “Huddled Masses” Myth: Immigration and Civil Rights (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004); Desmond King, Making Americans: Immigration, Race, and the Origins of the Diverse Democracy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000); Dale T. Knobel, America for the Americans: The Nativist Movement in the United States (New York: Twayne, 1996); Lon Kurashige, Two Faces of Exclusion: The Untold History of Anti-Asian Racism in the United States (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2016); Eithne Luihéid, Entry Denied: Controlling Sexuality at the Border (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002); Maddalena Marinari, Unwanted: Italian and Jewish Mobilization against Restrictive Immigration Laws, 1882-1965 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019); Mae M. Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2004); Daniel Okrent, The Guarded Gate: Bigotry, Eugenics, and the Lawa That Kept Two Generations of Jews, Italians, and Other Immigrants Out (New York: Scribner, 2020); Peter Schrag, Not Fit for Our Society: Nativism and Immigration (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010).  For a contrasting view, see Son-Thierry Ly and Patrick Weil, “The Antiracist Origin of the Quota System,” Social Research, 77.1 (2010): 45-77.
134. Reports of the Immigration Commission, 42 vols. (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1911); Robert F. Zeidel, Immigrants, Progressives, and Exclusion Politics: The Dillingham Commission, 1900-1927 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2004); Benton-Cohen, Inventing the Immigration Problem.
135. Reports of the Immigration Commission, vol. 1, pp. 45-48.
136. Michael LeMay and Elliott Robert Barkan, eds., US Immigration and Naturalization Laws and Issues (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1999), 133-35.
137. LeMay and Barkan, US Immigration and Naturalization Laws and Issues, 141-44.
138. Calvin Coolidge, “Whose Country Is This?” Good Housekeeping (February 1921): 13ff.
139. Speech by Ellison DuRant Smith, April 9, 1924, Congressional Record, 68th Congress, 1st Session, vol. 65 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1924), 5961-62.
140. Quoted in Hing, Defining America Through Immigration Policy, 3.
141. See Appendix, Tables 2, 6, 12, 13, 31.
142. Sources on Orientalism include: Herodotus, The Persian Wars, trans. Aubrey de Selincourt (Baltimore: Penguin, 1954); Christina Klein, Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945-1961 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003; Robert G. Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in Popular Culture (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999); Karen J. Leong, The China Mystique: Pearl S. Buck, Anna May Wong, Mayling Soong, and the Transformation of American Orientalism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005); Douglas Little, American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East since 1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002; Sheng-Mei Ma, The Deathly Embrace: Orientalism and Asian American Identity (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000); A. L. Macfie, Orientalism (London: Longman, 2002); A. L. Macfie, ed., Orientalism: A Reader (New York: NYU Press, 2000); Stuart Creighton Miller, The Unwelcome Immigrant: The American image of the Chinese, 1785-1882 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969); Orientalism and the Legacy of Edward Said, special issue of Amerasia Journal, 31.1 (2005); Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Pantheon, 1978); Tchen and Yeats, Yellow Peril!; Mia Tuan, Forever Foreigners or Honorary Whites? The Asian Ethnic Experience Today (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1998); Mari Yoshihara, Embracing the East: White Women and American Orientalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).
143. Karl Wittfogel, Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1957).
144. Ellen D. Wu, The Color of Success: Asian Americans and the Origins of the Model Minority (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014); Madeline Y. Hsu, The Good Immigrants: How the Yellow Peril Became the Model Minority (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015); Rosalind S. Chou and Joe R. Feagin, Myth of the Model Minority: Asian Americans Facing Racism, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2016); Vivian S. Louie, Compelled to Excel: Immigration, Education, and Opportunity among Chinese Americans (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2004); Amy Chua, Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mother (New York: Penguin, 2011).
145. Jamali: Mystical Expressionism (Boston: Rizolli International Publications, 1997).  Needless to say, this characterization of Sufis is wildly off the mark.
146. James A. Michener, Hawaii (New York: Random House, 1959); Sayonara (New York: Random House, 1954); Tales of the South Pacific ((New York: Macmillan, 1946); Arthur Golden, Memoirs of a Geisha (New York: Knopf, 1997).
147. Sources on ethnic festivals include:  Olivia Cadaval, Creating a Latino Identity in the Nation’s Capital: The Latino Festival (New York: Garland, 1998); Pamela R. Frese, ed., Celebrations of Identity: Multiple Voices in American Ritual Performance (Westport, Conn.: Bergin and Garvey, 1993); David Glassbert, American Historical Pageantry: The Uses of Tradition in the Early Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990); Rosemary Gong, Good Luck Life: The Essential Guide to Chinese American Celebrations and Culture (New York: Harper Collins, 2005); Ramón Gutiérrez and Geneviève Fabre, eds., Feasts and Celebrations in North American Ethnic Communities (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995); Lon Kurashige, Japanese American Celebration and Conflict: A History of Ethnic Identity and Festival in Los Angeles, 1934-1990 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002); Shelley Sang-Hee Lee, Claiming the Oriental Gateway: Prewar Seattle and Japanese America (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2011); Kenneth H. Marcus, “Ethnic Identity on Stage: The Art of the Mexican Players and the Ramona Pageant,” paper presented to the Pacific Coast Branch-American Historical Association, Corvallis, Ore. (August 6, 2005); Valerie Menard, The Latino Holiday Book (New York: Marlowe, 2000); Lori Pierce, “‘The Whites Have Created Modern Honolulu’: Ethnicity, Racial Stratification, and the Discourse of Aloha,” in Racial Thinking in the United States, ed. Paul Spickard and G. Reginald Daniel (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 2004), 124-54; April R. Schultz, Ethnicity on Parade: Inventing the Norwegian American through Celebration (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1995); Dorothy Gladys Spicer, Folk Festivals and the Foreign Community (New York: The Womans Press, 1923); Jace Weaver, The Red Atlantic: American Indigenes and the Making of the Modern World, 1000-1927 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014): 189-215; Chiou-ling Yeh, Making an American Festival: Chinese New Year and San Francisco’s Chinatown (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008).
148. Kwanzaa is one of these, created in 1966 as a pan-African American alternative to Christmas and Hanukah.  Elizabeth Pleck, “Kwanzaa: The Making of a Black nationalist Tradition, 1966-1990,” Journal of American History, 20.4 (2001), 3-28.
149. Sources for this section include: Rosemarie K. Bank, “Representing History: Performing the Columbian Exposition,” Theatre Journal, 54 (2002), 589-606; Phillips Verner Bradford and Harvey Blume, Ota Benga: The Pygmy in the Zoo (New York: Dell, 1992); Janet M. Davis, The Circus Age: Culture and Society Under the American Big Top (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002); Joy S. Kasson, Buffalo Bill’s Wild West (New York: Hill and Wang, 2000); Theodora Kroeber, Ishi in Two Worlds: A Biography of the Last Wild Indian in North America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961); Pamela Newkirk, Spectacle: The Astonishing Life of Ota Benga (New York: HarperCollins, 2015); Robert W. Rydell, All the World’s a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876-1916 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984); The Secret Museum of Mankind (Salt Lake City: Gibbs Smith, 1999; orig. 1941?); Carol Spindel, Dancing at Halftime: Sports and the Controversy over American Indian Mascots (New York: NYU Press, 2000); Judith Snodgrass, Presenting Japanese Buddhism to the West: Orientalism, Occidentalism and the Columbian Exposition (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina press, 2003); Louis S. Warren, Buffalo Bill’s America: William Cody and the Wild West Show (New York: Knopf, 2005); Orin Starn, Ishi’s Brain: In Search of America’s Last “Wild” Indian (New York: Norton, 2005);Roslyn Poignant, Professional Savages: Captive Lives and Western Spectacle (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004); Robert W. Rydell, World of Fairs: The Century-of-Progress Expositions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993); Robert W. Rydell, Buffalo Bill in Bologna: The Americanization of the World, 1869-1922 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012).
150. On North Africa, see Taoufik Djebali, “Ethnicity and Power in North Africa: Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco,” in Race and Nation: Ethnic Systems in the Modern World, ed. Paul Spickard (New York: Routledge, 2005), 135-54).
151. Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998); Karen Brodkin, How Jews Became White Folks and What That Says About Race in America (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1998).
152. David Gerber, Anti-Semitism in America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986); Leonard Dinnerstein, Uneasy at Home (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987); Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform (New York: Knopf, 1955), 70-81; Deborah E. Lipstadt, Antisemitism: Here and Now (New York: Schocken, 2019).
153. Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color, 63-68; Jeffrey Melnick, Black-Jewish Relations on Trial: Leo Frank and Jim Conley in the New South (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2000); Steve Oney, And the Dead Shall Rise: The Murder of Mary Phagan and the Lynching of Leo Frank (New York: Pantheon, 2003).
154. On the racialization of religion, see Henry Goldschmidt and Elizabeth McAlister, eds., Race, Nation, and Religion in the Americas (New York: Oxford, 2004); Grace Yukich and Penny Edgell, eds., Religion Is Raced (New York: New York University Press, 2020); Joshi, White Christian Privilege.

Images

Notes

1. Appendix, Table 31.  See also Jia Lynn Yang, One Mighty and Irresistible Tide: The Epic Struggle Over American Immigration, 1924-1965 (New York: Norton, 2020); Daniel Okrent, The Guarded Gate: Bigotry, Eugenics, and the Law That Kept Two Generations of Jews, Italians, and Other European Immigrants Out of America (New York: Scribner, 2019).
2. For literary treatments, see:  Julia Alvarez, How the García Girls Lost Their Accents (New York: Workman, 1991); Sandra Cisneros, Caramelo (New York: Knopf, 2002); Cisneros, The House on Mango Street (New York: Vintage, 1989); Cisneros, Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories (New York: Vintage, 1991); Alfred Kazin, A Walker in the City (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1951); Maxine Hong Kingston, The Woman Warrior (New York: Knopf, 1976); C. Y. Lee, The Flower Drum Song (New York: Farrar, Straus and Cudahy, 1957); Gus Lee, China Boy (New York: Dutton, 1991); Pardee Lowe, Father and Glorious Descendant (Boston: Little, Brown, 1943); Lin Yutang, Chinatown Family (New York: John Day, 1948); Bernard Malamud, The Assistant (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1957); Toshio Mori, Yokohama, California (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1985; orig. 1949); John Okada, No-No Boy (Rutland, Vt.: Tuttle, 1957); Chaim Potok, The Chosen (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1967); Richard Rodriguez, Days of Obligation: An Argument with My Mexican Father (New York: Viking, 1992); Rodriguez, Hunger of Memory (New York: Godine, 1982); Henry Roth, Call It Sleep (New York: Cooper Square, 1934); Ramon Eduardo Ruiz, Memories of a Hyphenated Man (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2005); R. A. Sasaki, The Loom and Other Stories (Minneapolis: Graywolf Press, 1991); Monica Sone, Nisei Daughter (Boston: Little, Brown, 1953); Amy Tan, The Joy Luck Club (New York: Putnam’s, 1989); Yoshiko Uchida, A Jar of Dreams (New York: Macmillan, 1981); Uchida, The Best Bad Thing (New York: Macmillan, 1983); Jade Snow Wong, Fifth Chinese Daughter (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1989; orig. 1945); Anzia Yezierska, Bread Givers (New York: Doubleday, 1925).

Analytical treatments include:  Richard D. Alba, Italian Americans (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1985); John J. Bukowczyk, An My Children Did Not Know Me (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); Niles Carpenter, Immigrants and Their Children, 1920 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1917); Mary Yu Danico, The 1.5 Generation: Becoming Korean American in Hawai`i (Honolulu: University of Hawai`i Press, 2004); Mario T. García, Mexican Americans: Leadership, Ideology and Identity, 1930-1960 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1989); Bill Hosokawa, Nisei: The Quiet Americans (New York: Morrow, 1969); Harry H. L. Kitano, Japanese Americans, 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1976); Shelley Sang-Hee Lee, Claiming the Oriental Gateway: Prewar Seattle and Japanese Americans (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2010); Karen Isaaksen Leonard, Making Ethnic Choices: California’s Punjabi Mexican Americans (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992): Daisuke Kitagawa, Issei and Nisei (New York: Seabury, 1967); Lon Kurashige, Japanese American Celebration and Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002); Timothy J. Meagher, Inventing Irish America: Generation, Class, and Ethnic Identity in a New England City, 1880-1928 (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 2001); Deborah Dash Moore, At Home in America: Second Generation New York Jews (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981); Alejandro Portes and Rubén G. Rumbaut, Legacies: The Story of the Immigrant Second Generation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001); George J. Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American (New York: Oxford, 1993); George J. Sánchez, Boyle Heights: How a Los Angeles Neighborhood Became the Future of American Democracy (Oakland: University of California Press, 2021); Miri Song, Helping Out: Children’s Labor in Ethnic Businesses (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999); Paul Spickard, “The Nisei Assume Power: The Japanese American Citizens League, 1941-1942,” Pacific Historical Review, 52 (1983), 147-74; Everett V. Stonequist, The Marginal Man: A Study in Personality and Culture Conflict (New York: Scribner’s, 1937), 96-106; Edward K. Strong, The Second-Generation Japanese Problem (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1934); W. Lloyd Warner, J. O. Low, Paul S. Lunt, and Leo Srole, Yankee City, abr. ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1963), 425; Judy Yung, Unbound Feet: A Social History of Chinese Women in San Francisco (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).

3. Don Normark, Chávez Ravine, 1949 (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1999), 76.
4. Leo Rosten, The Joys of Yiddish (New York: Pocket Books, 1968), ix-xiv and passim; Robert MacNeil and William Cran, Do You Speak American? (New York: Harcourt, 2005).
5. Alba, Italian Americans, 59-60.
6. Potok, The Chosen; Wong, Fifth Chinese Daughter.
7. Spickard, “Nisei Assume Power.”
8. Yezierska, Bread Givers, 171-72.
9. Okada, No-No Boy, 34-35; Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American; Bukowczyk, And My Children Did Not Know Me, 65.  They were not, in my estimate moving “into the twilight of ethnicity”; cf. Alba, Italian Americans: Into the Twilight of Ethnicity.
10. Marcus Lee Hansen, “The Problem of the Third Generation Immigrant,” Augustana Historical Society Publications (Rock Island, Ill.: Augustana Historical Society, 1938), 5-20; Michael Novak, The Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics (New York: Macmillan, 1973).
11. Sources for Mexican migrants in this period include: Rodolfo E. Acuña, A Community Under Siege: A Chronicle of Chicanos East of the Los Angeles River, 1945-1975 (Los Angeles: UCLA Chicano Studies Center, 1984); John H. Burma, ed., Mexican-Americans in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman, 1970); William D. Carrigan and Clive Webb, Forgotten Dead: Mob Violence Against Mexicans in the United States, 1848-1928 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013); Edward J. Escobar, Race, Police, and the Making of a Political Identity: Mexican Americans and the Los Angeles Police Department, 1900-1945 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999); Neil Foley, The White Scourge: Mexicans, Blacks, and Poor Whites in Texas Cotton Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Ernesto Galarza, Barrio Boy (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1971); García, Mexican Americans; Richard Griswold del Castillo, La Familia: Chicano Families in the Urban Southwest 1848 to the Present (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1984); David G. Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); Patrick D. Lukens, A Quiet Victory for Latino Rights: FDR and the Controversy over “Whiteness” (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2012); Monica Muñoz Martinez, The Injustice Never Leaves You: Anti-Mexican Violence in Texas (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018); Carey McWilliams, North from Mexico (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1948); David Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836-1986 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987); Vicki L. Ruiz, From Out Of The Shadows: Mexican Women in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Oxford, 1998); Salt of the Earth, dir. Herbert Biberman (Oak Forest, Ill.: MPI Home Video, 1987; orig. 1953); Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American; Zaragosa Vargas, Labor Rights Are Civil Rights: Mexican American Workers in Twentieth-Century America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2005); Zaragosa Vargas, ed., Major Problems in Mexican American History (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1999).
12. David Vermette, A Distinct Alien Race: The Untold Story of Franco-Americans: Industrialization, Immigration, and Religious Strife (Montreal: Baraka Books, 2018).
13. Grant McConnell, The Decline of Agrarian Democracy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1953).
14. Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors.
15. McWilliams, North from Mexico, 215; McWilliams, Factories in the Field: The Story of Migratory Farm Labor in California (Santa Barbara: Peregrine Smith, 1971; orig. 1935).
16. McWilliams, North from Mexico, 215-16.
17. David Torres-Rouff, Before LA: Race, Space and Municipal Power in Los Angeles, 1791-1894 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013); Alicia Rivera, “The Lemon Grove Case and School Segregation in the Southwest,” Journal of Latino-Latin American Studies, 1.3 (2004), 105-18.
18. Sources for the repatriation interlude include: Francisco E. Balderrama and Raymond Rodríguez, Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995); Fernando Saúl Alanís Enciso, “The Repatriation of Mexicans from the United States and Mexican Nationalism, 1929-1940,” in Beyond La Frontera: The History of Mexico-US Migration, ed. Mark Overmyer-Velázquez (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011): 51-78; Fernando Saúl Alanís Enciso, They Should Stay There: The Story of Mexican Migration and Repatriation During the Great Depression, trans Russ Davidson (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017); Adam Goodman, The Deportation Machine: America’s Long History of Expelling Immigrants (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2020); Camille Guerin-Gonzales, Mexican Workers and the American Dream: Immigration, Repatriation, and California Farm Labor, 1900-1939 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1994); Abraham Hoffman, Unwanted Mexican Americans in the Great Depression: Repatriation Pressures, 1929-1939 (Tucson: University of Arizona press, 1974).
19. Carey McWilliams, “Getting Rid of the Mexicans,” American Mercury, 28 (March 1933).
20. Gregg Jones, “Apology Sought for Latino ‘Repatriation’ Drive in ‘30s,” Los Angeles Times (July 15, 2003).
21. Melissa Block and Joe Dunn, “Remembering California’s Repatriation Program,” National Public Radio (January 2, 2006); Teresa Cisneros, “Repatriation Victims to Be Recognized Sunday in Los Angeles,” Orange County Register (February 25, 2012).
22. Sources on the Bracero program include: Henry P. Anderson, The Bracero Program in California (Berkeley: School of Public Health, University of California, 1961); Kitty Calavita, Inside the State: The Bracero Program, Immigration, and the INS (New York: Routledge, 1992); Deborah Cohen, “Caught in the Middle: The Mexican State’s Relationship with the United States and Its Own Citizen-Workers, 1942-1954,” Journal of American Ethnic History, 20.3 (Spring 2001), 110-32; Deborah Cohen, Braceros: Migrant Citizens and Transnational Subjects in the Postwar United State and Mexico (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011); Richard B. Craig, The Bracero Program: Interest Groups and Foreign Policy (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1971); Barbara A. Driscoll, The Tracks North: The Railroad Bracero Movement of World War II (Austin: CMAS Books, 1999); Ernesto Galarza, Strangers in Our Fields, 2nd ed. (Washington: Joint United States-Mexico Trade Union Committee, 1956); Erasmo Gamboa, Bracero Railroaders: The Forgotten World War II Story of Mexican Workers in the US (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2016); Erasmo Gamboa, Mexican Labor and World War II: Braceros in the Pacific Northwest, 1942-1947 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990); Richard H. Hancock, The Role of the Bracero in the Economic and Cultural Dynamics of Mexico (Stanford, Calif.: Hispanic American Society, 1959); Gilbert G. Gonzalez, Guest Workers or Colonized Labor? Mexican Labor Migration to the United States (New York: Routledge, 2006); Mireya Loza, Defiant Braceros: How Migrant Workers Fought for Racial, Sexual, and Political Freedom (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2016; Ronald L. Mize, The Invisible Workers of the US-Mexico Bracero Program: Obreros Olividados (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2016); Ronald Mize and Alicia C. S. Swords, Consuming Mexican Labor: From the Bracero Program to NAFTA (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2011); Ana Elizabeth Rosas, Abranzando el Espíritu: Bracero Families Confront the US-Mexico Border (Oakland: University of California Press, 2014).
23. Fredrick B. Pike, FDR’s Good Neighbor Policy (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1995).
24. Ibrahim Abubaker, et al., “The UCL-Lancet Commission on Migration and Health,” Lancet, 392 (2018): 2606-54; Jack Herrera, “Studies Show Fears about Migration and Disease are Unfounded,” Pacific Standard (May 15, 2019); Howard Markel, Quarantine! East European Jewish Immigrants and the New York City Epidemics of 1892 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997); Howard Markel, When Germs Travel: Six Major Epidemics That Have Invaded America and the Fears They Have Unleashed (New York: Random House, 2004); Howard Markel and Alexandra Minna Stern, “The Foreignness of Germs: The Persistent Association of Immigrants and Disease in American Society,” Millbank Quarterly, 80.4 (2002): 757-88; Natalia Molina, Fit to Be Citizens? Public Health and Race in Los Angeles, 1879-1939 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006); Nayan Shah, Contagious Divides: Epidemics and Race in San Francisco’s Chinatown (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001).
25. Appendix, Table 36.
26. Gariot Louima, “Bracero Protest ‘Caravan’ Comes to LA,” Los Angeles Times (April 11, 2002); “Mexican Migrants Who Worked in US Push for Old Savings,” New York Times (February 15, 2004); James F. Smith, “Ex-Migrants Sought for Class-Action,” Los Angeles Times (March 15, 2001); Laura Wides, “Braceros Rally for Drive to Recover Millions in Missing Wages,” Los Angeles Times (February 5, 2001); “Bracers Will Get $3,500,” Los Angeles Times (October 28, 2005).
27. “A symbolic embrace of migrant workers,” Los Angeles Times (March 9, 2018).
28. Mae Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2004); Lytle Hernandez, Migra!;  Clifford Alan Perkins, Border Patrol: With the US Immigration Service On the Mexican Boundary 1910-54 (El Paso: Texas Western Press, 1978); Mary Kidder Rak, Border Patrol (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1938); Rak, They Guard the Gates (Evanston, Ill.: Row, Peterson, 1941).  See also Joseph Nevins, Operation Gatekeeper: The Rise of the “Illegal Alien” and the Making of the US-Mexico Boundary (New York: Routledge, 2002).
29. The numbers of Border Patrol agents did not jump dramatically again until the 1990s; they went from 3,651 in 1991 to 9,212 in 2000 and nearly 20,000 in 2019; Nevins, Operation Gatekeeper, 197; www.cbp.gov  (January 10, 2006); www.statista.com (January 20, 2021).  Sui Sin Far wrote a vivid account of smuggling Chinese workers across the Canadian border into upstate New York in “The Smuggling of Tie Co,” a 1912 story that was reprinted in Mrs. Spring Fragrance and Other Writings (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995), 104-09.
30. Normark, Chávez Ravine, 54.
31. Sources on the borderlands and border culture include:  Katherine Benton-Cohen, Borderline Americans: Racial Division and Labor War in the Arizona Borderlands (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009); Ramiro Burr, Tejano and Regional Mexican Music (New York: Billboard Books, 1999); Rosa Linda Fregoso, MeXican Encounters: The Making of Social Identities on the Borderlands (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003); Jefferson Morgenthaler, The River Has Never Divided Us (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2004); Manuel Peña, Música Tejana (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1999); Manuel Peña, The Texas-Mexican Conjunto: History of a Working-Class Music (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985); Dorothy Lee Pope, Rainbow Era on the Rio Grande (Brownsville, Tex.: Springman-King, 1971), 89-128; Guadalupe San Miguel, Jr., Tejano Proud: Tex-Mex Music in the Twentieth Century (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2002); Andrew Grant Wood, ed., On the Border: Society and Culture Between the United States and Mexico (Lanham, Md.: SR Books, 2004).
32. Rudy P. Guevarra Jr., Becoming Mexipino: Multiethnic Identities and Communities in San Diego (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2012); Rudy P. Guevarra Jr., “Burritos and Bagoong: Mexipinos and Multiethnic Identity in San Diego, California,” in Crossing Lines: Race and Mixed Race Across the Geohistorical Divide, ed. Marc Coronado, Rudy P. Guevarra, Jr., Jeffrey Moniz, and Laura Furlan Szanto (Santa Barbara: University of California Santa Barbara Multiethnic Student Outreach, 2003), 73-96; Craig Scharlin and Lilia V. Villanueva, Philip Vera Cruz (Los Angeles: UCLA Labor Center, 1994).
33. Carlos Bulosan, America Is in the Heart (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1973; orig. 1946), 143-45.
34. Linda España-Maram, Creating Masculinity in Los Angeles’s Little Manila: Working-Class Filipinos and Popular Culture, 1920s-1950s (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006); Barbara M. Posadas, The Filipino Americans (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1999); James C. Thomson, Peter W. Stanley, and John Curtis Perry, Sentimental Imperialists: The American Experience in East Asia (New York: Harper and Row, 1981).
35. So were workers from Barbados, Jamaica, and British Honduras—all of these countries sent workers to the United States under the Bracero Program.  Anke Birkenmaier, ed., Caribbean Migrations: The Legacies of Colonialism (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2020).  Sources on Puerto Rican immigration include: Joseph P. Fitzpatrick, Puerto Rican Americans (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1987); Ismael García-Colón, Colonial Migrants at the Heart of Empire: Puerto Rican Workers on US Farms (Oakland: University of California Press, 2020); History Task Force, Centro de Estudios Puertorrriqueños, Labor Migration Under Capitalism: The Puerto Rican Experience (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1979); Joan Moore and Harry Pachon, Hispanics in the United States (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1985); Clara E. Rodríguez, Puerto Ricans: Born in the USA (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1991); Edward Rivera, Family Installments (New York: Morrow, 1982); Virginia E. Sánchez Korol, From Colonia to Community: The History of Puerto Ricans in New York City, rev. ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); Stan Steiner, The Islands: The Worlds of the Puerto Ricans (New York: Harper and Row, 1974); Lorrin Thomas, “Foreign, Dark, Young, Citizen: Puerto Rican Youth and the Forging of an American Identity, 1920-70,” in Nation of Nations, ed. Marinari, et al., 213-30.  On Jamaicans, See Cindy Hahamovich, No Man’s Land: Jamaican Guestworkers in America and the Global History of Deportable Labor (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011).
36. Census figures for Puerto Rican Americans were:

1930	52,774
1940	69,967
1950	301,375
1960	887,661
1970	1,391,463
1980	2,013,945
1990	2,651,815

Sánchez Korrol, From Colonia to Community, 213, 216.

37. Sources on American Indians in this period include: Daniel M. Cobb, ed., Say We Are Nations: Documents of Politics and Protest in Indigenous America since 1887 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015): 9-152; Vine Deloria, Jr., and Clifford Lytle, The Nations Within: The Past and Future of American Indian Sovereignty (New York: Pantheon, 1984); Brian W. Dippie, The Vanishing American: White Attitudes and US Indian Policy (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1982); Frederick E. Hoxie, Peter C. Mancall, and James H. Merrell, eds., American Nations: Encounters in Indian Country, 1850 to the Present (New York: Routledge, 2001); Albert L. Hurtado and Peter Iverson, eds., Major Problems in American Indian History, 2nd ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001); Mark Edwin Miller, Forgotten Tribes: Unrecognized Indians and the Federal Acknowledgment Process (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004); Peter Nabokov, Native American Testimony, rev. ed. (New York: Penguin Putnam, 1999); James S. Olson and Raymond Wilson, Native Americans in the Twentieth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984); Donald L Parman, Indians and the American West in the Twentieth Century (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994); Francis Paul Prucha, The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians, abridged ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986); David Treuer, The Heartbeat of Wounded Knee: Native America from 1890 to the Present (New York: Riverhead Books, 2019): 177-280.
38. Carlos Montezuma, “The Duty of Every Indian Soldier Who Entered the War,” Wassaja (February 1919), quoted in Hurtado and Iverson, Major Problems in American Indian History, 359-60.  See also Michael T. Smith, “The History of Indian Citizenship,” Great Plains Journal, 10 (Fall 1970), 25-35.
39. Additional sources on the Indian New Deal include: Thomas Biolsi, Organizing the Lakota: The Political Economy of the New Deal on the Pine Ridge and Rosebud Reservations (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1992); John S. Blackman, Oklahoma’s Indian New Deal (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2013); John Collier, From Every Zenith: A Memoir and Some Essays on Life and Thought (Denver: Sage, 1963); Randolph C. Downes, “A Crusade for Indian Reform, 1922-1934,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 32 (1945), 331-54; Laurence M. Hauptman, The Iroquois and the New Deal (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1981); Lawrence C. Kelly, The Assault on Assimilation: John Collier and the Origins of Indian Policy Reform (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1983); Donald L. Parman, The Navajos and the New Deal (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1976); Kenneth Philp, ed., Indian Self Rule (Salt Lake City: Howe Brothers, 1986); Renya K. Ramirez, Standing Up to Colonial Power: The Lives of Henry Roe and Elizabeth Bender Cloud (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2018); John C. Savagian, “The Tribal Reorganization of the Stockbridge-Munsee: Essential Conditions in the Re-Creation of a Native American Community, 1930-1942,” Wisconsin Magazine of History (August 1993), 39-62; Graham D. Taylor, The New Deal and American Indian Tribalism: The Administration of the Indian Reorganization Act, 1934-1945 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980).
40. Lewis Meriam, The Problem of Indian Administration (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1928), 3-8.
41. Nabokov, Native American Testimony, 327-29.
42. Additional sources on the termination campaign include: Richard Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps: Dillon S. Myer and American Racism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); Donald L. Fixico, Termination and Relocation: Federal Indian Policy, 1940-1960 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1990); Peter Iverson, “Building Toward Self-Determination in the 1940s and 1950s,” Western Historical Quarterly, 16.2 (1985), 163-73; Harry A. Kersey, Jr. An Assumption of Sovereignty: Social and Political Transformation among the Florida Seminoles, 1953-1979 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1996); League of Women Voters, “The Menominee: A Case Against Termination,” The National Voter, 22.5 (Jan.-Feb. 1973), 17-20; John Wooden Legs, “Back on the War Ponies,” Indian Affairs (1960), 3-4.
43. Dippie, Vanishing American, 337.
44. Nabokov, Native American Testimony, 344-47.
45. Donald L. Fixico, The Urban Indian Experience in America (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2000); Lawney L. Reyes, Bernie Whitebear: An Urban Indian’s Quest for Justice (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2006).
46. Sources on Black and White migration during these years include:  Keith E. Collins, Black Los Angeles: The Maturing of the Ghetto, 1940-1950 (Saratoga, Calif.: Century Twenty One Publishing, 1980); Sherna Berger Gluck, Rosie the Riveter Revisited: Women, the War and Social Change (New York: Twayne, 1987); James N. Gregory, American Exodus: The Dust Bowl Migration and Okie Culture in California (New York: Oxford, 1989); Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1983); Amy Kesselman, Fleeting Opportunities: Women Shipyard Workers in Portland and Vancouver During World War II and Reconversion (Albany: SUNY Press, 1990); Gretchen Lemke-Santangelo, Abiding Courage: African American Migrant Women and the East Bay Community (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); Shirley Ann Wilson Moore, To Place Our Deeds: The African American Community in Richmond, California, 1910-1963 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000); Gerald D. Nash, The American West Transformed: The Impact of the Second World War (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986), 37-55, 88-107; Josh Sides, LA City Limits: African American Los Angeles from the Great Depression to the Present (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003); Quintard Taylor, In Search of the Racial Frontier: African Americans in the American West (New York: Norton, 1998), 251-77; Isabel Wilkerson, The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America’s Great Migration (New York: Random House, 2010).
47. Beth Tompkins Bates, Pullman Porters and the Rise of Protest Politics in Black America, 1925-1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001); Clete Daniel, Chicano Workers and the Politics of Fairness: The FEPC in the Southwest (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991); Elizabeth R. Escobedo, From Coveralls to Zoot Suits: The Lives of Mexican American Women on the World War II Home Front (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013); Andrew Karsten, Race, Jobs, and the War: The FEPC in the Midwest, 1941-46 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000); Ira Katznelson, Fear Itself: The New Deal and the Origins of Our Time (New York: Liveright, 2014); Ira Katznelson, When Affirmative Action Was White: An Untold Story of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Norton, 2005); Brad Pulmer and Nadja Popovich, “How Decades of Racist Housing Policy Left Neighborhoods Sweltering,” New York Times (August 24, 2020); Richard Rothstein, “The Neighborhoods We Will Not Share,” New York Times  (January 20, 2020).
48. Sources on the Zoot Suit phenomenon include: Patricia Rae Adler, “The 1943 Zoot-Suit Riots: Brief Episode in a Long Conflict,” in An Awakened Minority: Mexican-Americans, ed. Mauel P. Servín, 2nd ed. (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Glencoe, 1974), 142-58; Luis Alvarez, The Power of the Zoot: Youth Culture and Resistance During World War II (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008); Stuart Cosgrove, “An Interpretation of the Causes of the Zoot Suit Wars,” History Workshop Journal, no. 18 (Autumn 1984), 77-91; Edward J. Escobar, Race, Police, and the Making of a Political Identity: Mexican Americans and the Los Angeles Police Department, 1900-1945 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 155-290; Escobedo, From Coveralls to Zoot Suits; Mauricio Mazón, The Zoot-Suit Riots: The Psychology of Symbolic Annihilation (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1984); McWilliams, North From Mexico, 227-58; Eduardo Obregón Pagán, Murder at the Sleepy Lagoon: Zoot Suits, Race, and Riot in Wartime LA (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); Catherine S. Ramírez, The Woman in the Zoot Suit: Gender, Nationalism, and the Cultural Politics of Memory (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2009); Vargas, Labor Rights Are Civil Rights, 203-51; Mark A. Weitz, The Sleepy Lagoon Murder Case: Race Discrimination and Mexican-American Rights (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2010); Daniel Yi, “Zoot Suits Dress Up His Memories of Wartime,” Los Angeles Times (June 2, 2003).
49. Robin D. G. Kelley, Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York: Free Press, 1996), 163-66; for corrections to some of Kelley’s more extreme flights of fancy, see Paul Spickard, “Not Just the Quiet People: The Nisei Underclass,” Pacific Historical Review, 68.1 (1999), 78-94.
50. McWilliams, North From Mexico, 245.
51. David Stannard describes an eerily similar 1931 precursor to the Sleepy Lagoon murder and the Zoot Suit Riots in Honor Killing: How the Infamous “Massie Affair” Transformed Hawai‘i (New York: Viking, 2005); John Chock Rose, Local Story: The Massie/Kahahawai Case and the Culture of History (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2005).
52. Harvard Sitkoff, “The Detroit Race Riot of 1943,” Michigan History, 53 (1969), 183-206; Rachel Marie-Crane Williams, Run Home If You Don’t Want to Be Killed: The Detroit Uprising of 1943 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2021); Amy Collins, All Hell Broke Loose: American Race Riots from the Progressive Era through World War II (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2012); John Morton Blum, V Was for Victory: Politics and Culture During World War II (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976), 199-207; Robert L. Allen, The Port Chicago Mutiny (New York: Amistad, 1993); Raúl Morín, Among the Valiant: Mexican Americans in World War II and Korea (Los Angeles, Borden, 1963); Myrna Oliver, “Jose M. Lopez, 94; Battle of the Bulge Hero Killed 100 German Soldiers,” Los Angeles Times (May 18, 2005).
53. Lloyd L. Brown, “Brown v. Salina, Kansas,” New York Times (February 26, 1973), 31.
54. The literature on the Japanese American concentration camp episode is voluminous.  Concise summaries are found in Paul Spickard, Japanese Americans, rev. ed. (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2009): 101-43, 203-06; and Alice Yang Murray, What Did the Internment of Japanese Americans Mean? (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2000), 1-26.  The best single introduction to the subject is Roger Daniels, Prisoners Without Trial: Japanese Americans in World War II, rev. ed. (New York: Hill and Wang, 2004).  Other essential treatments include: Selfa A. Chew, Uprooting Community: Japanese Mexicans, World War II, and the US-Mexico Borderlands, 2nd ed. (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2015); Roger Daniels, The Japanese American Cases: The Rule of Law in Time of War (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2013); Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps; Louis Fiset, Imprisoned Apart: The World War II Correspondence of an Issei Couple (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997); Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston and James D. Houston, Farewell to Manzanar (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973); Peter Irons, Justice at War: The Story of the Japanese American Internment Cases (New York: Oxford, 1983); Daisuke Kitagawa, Issei and Nisei: The Internment Years (New York: Seabury, 1967); Kurashige, Two Faces of Exclusion; Lee, America for Americans, 183-220; Alexander H. Leighton, The Governing of Men (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1945); Richard S. Nishimoto, Inside an American Concentration Camp: Japanese American Resistance at Poston, Arizona, ed. Lane Ryo Hirabayashi (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1995); Greg Robinson, By Order of the President: FDR and the Internment of Japanese Americans (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001); George Takei, They Called Us Enemy (Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2019); Dorothy S. Thomas and Richard Nishimoto, The Spoilage: Japanese-American Evacuation and Resettlement During World War II (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1946); US Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, Personal Justice Denied (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1982); Yoshiko Uchida, Desert Exile: The Uprooting of a Japanese-American Family (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1982); Michi Weglyn, Years of Infamy: The Untold Story of America’s Concentration Camps (New York: Morrow, 1976); Duncan Ryuken Williams, American Sutra: A Story of Faith and Freedom in the Second World War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2019).  The best film treatment is Rabbit in the Moon, dir. Emiko Omori (POV/National Asian American Telecommunications Association, 1999).
55. Eugene V. Rostow, “The Japanese American Cases—A Disaster,” Yale Law Journal, 54 (194_), 489-533.
56. Quoted in Leighton, Governing of Men, 19.
57. Daniels, Prisoners Without Trial, 28.
58. Quoted in Roger Daniels, Concentration Camps USA:  Japanese Americans and World War II (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971), 33-34.
59. Quoted in Morton Grodzins, Americans Betrayed: Politics and the Japanese Evacuation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1949), 27.  Cf. Kenneth c. Hough, “Rising Sun Over America: Imagining a Japanese Conquest of the United States, 1900-1945” (PhD dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara, 2014).
60. Quoted in Jacobus tenBroek, Edward N. Barnhart, and Floyd W. Matson, Prejudice, War and the Constitution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1954), 75.
61. Quoted in Allan R. Bosworth, America’s Concentration Camps (New York: Norton, 1967), 171.
62. Quoted in Audrie Girdner and Anne Loftis, The Great Betrayal (New York: Macmillan, 1969), 115.
63. Miné Okubo, Citizen 13660 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1946), 33-36.
64. Korematsu v. United States, 323 US 233, quoted in Major Problems in Asian American History, ed. Lon Kurashige and Alice Yang Murray (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003), 299.  Murphy pointed to what James Michener much later called “a hideous circumlocution” in the exclusion order—“aliens or nonaliens.”  Michener continued: “What in the hell is a nonalien?  What could he possibly be but a citizen?  I had read this pompous phrase years ago without catching its irony” (in forward to American in Disguise, by Daniel I. Okimoto (New York: Weatherhill, 1971), ix.  Historian Benjamin Zulueta responded:  “Why [don’t we] catch it until decades later?  The only people who really catch the irony are the ones who get caught in it, and for them calling it an irony borders on the insulting” (personal communication with the author, September 4, 2003).
65. George S. Schuyler, “Views and Reviews” Pittsburgh Courier (May 29, 1943).  Schuyler cited Congressmember John Rankin of Mississippi and Senator Tom Stewart of Tennessee as two who had introduced bills to take away the Nisei’s citizenship and expatriate them to Japan.  He likened them to “Nazis” and warned that they might support the efforts of Mississippi Senator Theodore Bilbo to take away Black citizenship as well.
66. On these cases and their ultimate reversal decades later because of misconduct on the part of government prosecutors, see Peter Irons, Justice at War: The Story of the Japanese American Internment Cases (New York: Oxford, 1983); Irons, ed., Justice Delayed: The Record of the Japanese American Internment Cases (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1989).  Yasui received a posthumous apology in the form of a Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2015; Matt Pearce, “A Long Fight Against Racism,” Los Angeles Times (November 20, 2015).  On the wider issue of resistance, see Paul Spickard, “The Nisei Assume Power: The Japanese American Citizens League, 1941-1942” Pacific Historical Review, 52 (1983): 147-74.
67. The role of the JACL in collaborating with the WRA is documented in Spickard, “Nisei Assume Power.”
68. They did not object to military service, and some of them served with honor in the Korean War and during the 1950s, but they did refuse to join the Army while their families were in jail without charge.  William Minoru Hohri, Resistance: Challenging America’s Wartime Internment of Japanese-Americans (Lomita, Calif.: Epistolarian, 2001).
69. Masayo Umezawa Duus, Unlikely Liberators: The Men of the 100th and 442nd (Honolulu: University of Hawai`i Press, 1987); Franklin Odo, No Sword to Bury: Japanese Americans in Hawai‘i during World War II (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004).
70. Shirley Ann Higuchi, Setsuko’s Secret: Heart Mountain and the Legacy of the Japanese American Incarceration (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2020); Greg Robinson, After Camp: Portraits of Midcentury Japanese American Life and Politics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012); Donna K., Nagata, Legacy of Injustice: Exploring the Cross-Generational Impact of the Japanese American Internment (New York: Plenum Press, 1993).
71. Daniel K. Inouye, Journey to Washington (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1968), 207-08.
72. Sources on 1940s-era European refugees include: Joseph Berger, Displaced Persons: Growing Up American After the Holocaust (New York: Scribner, 2001); Silvia Foti, “No More Lies. My Grandfather Was a Nazi,” New York Times (January 27, 2021; Libby Garland, After They Closed the Gates: Jewish Illegal Immigration to the United States, 1921-1965 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014); Haim Genizi, America’s Fair Share: The Admission and Resettlement of Displaced Persons, 1945-1952 (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1993); Ella E. Schneider Hilton, Displaced Person: A Girl’s Life in Russia, Germany, and America (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2004); Anna D. Jaroszynska-Kirchmann, “Displaced Persons, Émigrés, Refugees, and Other Polish Immigrants,” in Polish Americans and Their History, ed. John J. Bukowczyk (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1996), 152-79; Tony Kushner and Katharine Knox, Refugees in an Age of Genocide (London: Frank Cass, 1999); Michael R. Marrus, The Unwanted: European Refugees in the Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford, 1985); David Nasaw, The Last Million: Europe’s Displaced Persons from World War to Cold War (New York: Penguin, 2020); Sarah A. Ogilvie and Scott Miller, Refuge Denied: The St. Louis Passengers and the Holocaust (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2006); Mark Wyman, DP: Europe’s Displaced Persons, 1945-1951 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998).
73. Donald Fleming and Bernard Bailyn, eds., The Intellectual Migration: Europe and America, 1930-1960 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1969), 675-720.
74. Benjamin C. Zulueta, Forging the Model Minority: Chinese Immigrants, American Science, and the Cold War (unpublished manuscript, courtesy of the author, 2006).
75. Roger Daniels, Coming to America, 2nd ed. (New York: Harper Collins, 2002), 296.
76. Ogilvie and Miller, Refuge Denied.
77. June Namias, First Generation, rev. ed. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), 109-19.
78. Michael LeMay and Elliott Robert Barkan, eds., US Immigration and Naturalization Laws and Issues (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1999), 204-05.
79. On Rwanda: Philip Gourevitch, We Wish to Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed With Our Families: Stories from Rwanda (New York: Picador, 1998); Linda Melvern, A People Betrayed: The Role of the West in Rwanda’s Genocide, 2nd ed. (London: Zed, 2019); Mahmoud Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide of Twanda (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001).  On Darfur: Eyal Mayroz, Reluctant Interveners: America’s Failed Responses to Genocide from Bosnia to Darfur (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2019); Gérard Prunier, Darfur: The Ambiguous Genocide, rev. ed. (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2007).
80. LeMay and Barkan, Immigration and Naturalization Laws, 211-13.
81. Elie Wiesel, All Rivers Run to the Sea: Memoirs (New York: Schocken, 1996).
82. Elizabeth Olson, “Documents Show US Relationship With Nazis During Cold War,” New York Times (May 14, 2004); Robert Breitman, Norman Goda, Timothy Naftali, and Robert Wolfe, US Intelligence and the Nazis (Washington: National Archives Trust Fund for the Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Agency, 2004); Annie Jackson, Operation Paperclip: The Secret Intelligence Program that Brought Nazi Scientists to America (New York: Back Bay Books, 2014); Monique Laney, “Setting the Stage to Bring in the ‘Highly Skilled’: Project Paperclip and the Recruitment of German Specialists after World War II,” in Nation of Immigrants Reconsidered, ed. Marinari, et al., 144-60.
83. Lawrence Douglas, The Right Wrong Man: John Demjanjuk and the Last Great Nazi War Crimes Trial (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016); Richard Rashke, Useful Enemies: America’s Open Door Policy for Nazi War Criminals (New York: Delphinium, 2015); Eric Lichtblau, The Nazis Next Door: How America Became a Safe Haven for Hitler’s Men (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2015).
84. “US Asks for Deportation of Demjanjuk,” New York Times (December 18, 2004); “Suspected Nazi Guard to Be Deported,” Los Angeles Times (December 29, 2005); Richard B. Schmitt, “Nazi Concentration Camp Guard Arrested in Michigan.” Los Angeles Times (July 3, 2003); Richard A. Serrano, “A Nazi’s Day of Judgment,” Los Angeles Times (July 12, 2005).  For a moving account of the emotional weight carried by many German postwar migrants, see Ursula Hegi, Tearing the Silence: On Being German in America (New York: Touchstone, 1998).
85. Paul R. Spickard, Mixed Blood: Intermarriage and Ethnic Identity in Twentieth-Century America (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989), 123-58; Evelyn Nakano Glenn, Issei, Nisei, War Bride: Three Generations of Japanese American Women in Domestic Service (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986; Elfrieda Berthiaume Shukert and Barbara Smith Scibetta, war Brides of World War II (New York: Penguin, 1989); Xiaojian Zhao, Remaking Chinese America: Immigration, Family, and Community, 1940-1965 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2002), 78-123; Lily Anne Yumi Welty, “Advantage Through Crisis: Mixed Race American Japanese in Post-World War II Japan, Okinawa, and America, 1945-1972” (PhD dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara, 2012); Ji-Yeon Yuh, Beyond the Shadow of Camptown: Korean Military Brides in America (New York: New York University Press, 2002); Susie Woo, Framed by War: Korean Children and Women at the Crossroads of US Empire (New York: New York University Press, 2019).  See Appendix, Table 37.
86. Sources on immigration policy and race during the Cold War include: Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the global Arena (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001); Rachel Ida Buff, Against the Deportation Terror: Organizing for Immigrant Rights in the Twentieth Century (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2018); Cindy I-Fen Cheng, Citizens of Asian America: Democracy and Race during the Cold War (New York: New York University Press, 2013); Daniels, Guarding the Golden Door, 81-128; Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000); Michael Gill Davis, “The Cold War, Refugees, and US Immigration Policy, 1952-1965” (PhD diss., Vanderbilt University 1996); Graham, Unguarded Gates; Hing, Defining America Through Immigration Policy, 73-92; Michael L. Krenn, ed., Race and US Foreign Policy during the Cold War (New York: Garland, 1998); Kathleen López, “Gatekeeping in the Tropics: US Immigration Policy and the Cuban Connection,” in Nation of Immigrants, ed. Marinari, et al., 45-64; Jenna M. Lloyd and Slison Mountz, Boats, Borders, and Bases: Race, the Cold War, and the Rise of Migration Detention in the United States (Oakland: University of California Press, 2018); Laura Madokoro, “Contested Terrain: Debating Refugee Admissions in the Cold War,” in Nation of Immigrants, ed. Marinari, et al.,65-82; Ngai, Impossible Subjects; Brenda Gayle Plummer, Rising Wind: Black Americans and US Foreign Affairs, 1935-1960 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); Plummer, ed., Window on Freedom: Race, Civil Rights, and Foreign Affairs (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); Mayme Sevander with Laurie Hertzel, They Took My Father: Finnish Americans in Stalin’s Russia (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004; orig. 1992); Reed Ueda, Postwar Immigrant America (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 1994); US Senate Judiciary Committee, US Immigration Law and Policy: 1952-1986 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1988).
87. Michael J. Ybarra, Washington Gone Crazy: Senator Pat McCarran and the Great American Communist Hunt (Hanover, N.H.: Steerforth, 2004).
88. Quoted in Hing, Defining America Through Immigration Policy, 74.  See United States Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952, 205.
89. Harry S. Truman, “Veto of McCarran-Walter Act” (June 25, 1952), Public Papers of the Presidents (June 25, 1952), 441-47; reprinted in Michael LeMay and Elliott Robert Barkan, eds., US Immigration and Naturalization Laws and Issues (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1999), 228-31.
90. Information about Sara Harb Quiroz in this paragraph comes primarily from Pablo Mitchell, Understanding Latino History: Excavating the Past, Examining the Present (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO Greenwood, 2018), pp. 120-121. For more specific information about Sara Harb Quiroz, see: Eithne Luibhéid, "'Looking like a Lesbian': The Organization of Sexual Monitoring at the United States-Mexico Border." Journal of the History of Sexuality, Vol. 8, No. 3 (Jan. 1998), pp. 477-506; and Luibhéid, Entry Denied: Policing Sexuality at the Border (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002). For more about the experiences of LGBTQ migrants from Latin America, see Horacio Roque Ramírez, "Introduction: Homoerotic, Lesbian, and Gay Ethnic and Immigrant Histories." Journal of American Ethnic History, Vol. 29, No. 4 (Summer 2010), pp. 5-21.
91. For more on this, see Marc Stein, "All the Immigrants Are Straight, All the Homosexuals Are Citizens. But Some of Us Are Queer Aliens" Genealogies of Legal Strategy in Boutilier v. INS." Journal of American Ethnic History, Vol. 29, No. 4 (Summer 2010), pp. 45-77.
92. US. Presidential Commission on Immigration and Naturalization, Whom Shall We Welcome (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953).  The commission reflected some of the views of the Progressive Party, which carried on New Deal ideals into the first years of the Cold War.  A 1948 party statement said in part:

—The Progressive Party advocates the right of the foreign born to obtain citizenship without discrimination.
—The Progressive Party advocates the repeal of discriminatory immigration laws based upon race, national origin, religion, or political belief.
—The Progressive Party recognizes the just claims of Japanese Americans for indemnity for the losses suffered during their wartime internment, which was an outrageous violation of fundamental concepts of justice.
—The Progressive Party supports legislation facilitating naturalization of Filipinos, Koreans, Japanese, Chinese, and other national groups now discriminated against by law.
Campaign Handbook of the Progressive Party (New York: Progressive Party National Headquarters, 1948), reprinted in US Immigration and Naturalization Laws and Issues, ed. LeMay and Barkan, 216.

93. Benjamin C. Zulueta, Forging the Model Minority: Chinese Immigrants, American Science, and the Cold War (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, forthcoming; advance copy of manuscript courtesy of the author); Iris Chang, Thread of the Silkworm (New York: Basic Books, 1995); William L. Ryan and Sam Summerlin, The China Cloud: America’s Tragic Blunder and China’s Rise to Nuclear Power (Boston: Little, Brown, 1968); Anjali Sahay, Indian Diaspora in the United States: Brain Drain or Gain? (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2009); Uzma Quraishi, Redefining the Immigrant South: Indian and Pakistani Immigration to Houston During the Cold War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina press, 2020); Chi-tine Peng, “The Taiwanese People’s Cold War:  Elite Migration, Transnational Advocacy, Networks, and the Making of Taiwan’s Democracy, 1977-1987” (PhD dissertation, University oof California, Santa Barbara, 2020).
94. Geraldine Fitch, “Brains at a Bargain,” Rotarian, 89 (December 1956), 17-19.
95. Another episode in Cold War interventionism is the rise in those years of an international adoption industry.  This effort was frequently characterized by its advocates as an attempt to save Asian or East European babies from Communism, sometimes to bring children from backward places the benefits of superior, White American civilization.  E. Wayne Carp, Family Matters: Secrecy and Disclosure in the History of Adoption (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000); Carp, ed., Adoption in America: Historical Perspectives (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2004); Barbara Melosh, Strangers and Kin: The American Way of Adoption (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002).  Sociological analyses include:  Joyce Ladner, Mixed Families: Adopting Across Racial Boundaries (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1978); Adam Pertman, Adoption Nation: How the Adoption Revolution is Transforming America (New York: Basic Books, 2000); Rita J. Simon and Rhonda M. Roorda, In Their Own Voices: Transracial Adoptees Tell Their Stories (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000); Catherine Ceniza Choy, Global Families: A History of Asian International Adoption in America (New York: New York University Press, 2013); Eleana J. Kim, Adopted Territory: Transnational Korean Adoptees and the Politics of Belonging(Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010); Kim Park Nelson, Invisible Asians: Korean American Adoptees, Asian American Experiences, and Racial Exceptionalism (New Brunswick, NJ:  Rutgers University Press, 2016); Andrea Louie, How Chinese Are You? Adopted Chinese Youth and their Families Negotiate Identity (New York: New York University Press, 2015); Woo, Framed by War; Arissa H. Oh, To Save the Children of Korea: The Cold War Origins of International Adoption (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2015).

On Korean international adoptions in this period, moving personal expressions can be found in: Tanya Bishoff and Jo Rankin, eds., Seeds from a Silent Tree: An Anthology By Korean Adoptees (Glendale, Calif.: Pandal Press, 1997); Thomas Park Clement, The Unforgotten War (published by the author, 1998); Susan Soon-Keum Cox, Voices from Another Place (St. Paul: Yeong and Yeong, 1999); Sara Dorow, ed., I Wish for You a Beautiful Life: Letters from the Korean Birth Mothers of Ae Ran Won to Their Children (St. Paul: Yeong and Yeong, 1999); Heinz Insu Fenkl, Memories of My Ghost Brother (New York: Dutton, 1996); Elizabeth Kim, Ten Thousand Sorrows (New York: Doubleday, 2000); Jane Jeong Trenka, The Language of Blood (St. Paul, Minn.: Borealis Books, 2003); Nicole Chung, All You Can Ever Know (New York: Catapult, 2018).

96. Sources on Cuban migration include:  Cheris T. Brewer, “‘Castro’s Loss Is Our Gain’: Accepting, Assisting, and Resettling Cuban Refugees, 1959-1978,” (MA thesis, Washington State University, 2005); María Cristina García, Havana USA: Cuban Exiles and Cuban Americans in South Florida, 1959-1994 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); Alejandro Portes And Robert L. Bach, Latin Journey: Cuban and Mexican Immigrants In the United States (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985); Frank Andre Gundy, Forging Diaspora: Afro-Cubans and African Americans in a World of Empire and Jim Crow (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010).
97. García, Havana USA, 17-19.
98. Silvia Pedraza-Bailey, Political and Economic Migrants in America: Cubans and Mexicans (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985).
99. Often, scholars use the terms Black Freedom Movement/Black Freedom Struggle and Civil Rights Movement interchangeably. However, when looking at the recent widening of topics and new depth in scholarship about African American and other social movements and rights movements in the twentieth century, a pattern emerges in the use of these terms. We are using these terms in accordance with these subtle changes in scholarship. The term Civil Rights can be limiting. Although many scholars now recognize the need to talk about a long Civil Rights Movement to connect to earlier time periods, some scholars struggle with where to end discussions of the movement because so much of the later aspects of the movements focused beyond the concerns that were addressed in part with the Civil and Voting Rights Acts in the mid-1960s. The term “Civil Rights” also implies a national focus, and many studies of the African American Civil Rights Movement are still national in scope. Many books that focus on local activism and local activists, like Barbara Ransby’s Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement: A Radical Democratic Vision (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), refer to the movement for Black freedom to talk about the locally-focused and organized activism that sought much more than civil rights change. As Yohuru Williams in Rethinking the Black Freedom Movement (New York: Routledge, 2015) notes, although some scholars and activists have raised concern over bringing the Civil Rights and Black Power struggles under one banner as the Black Freedom Struggle, discussing African American movements as one larger conversation does not diminish the uniqueness of each part of the struggle, but in fact allows scholars to highlight similarities and differences between each branch of the movement. The use of the term Civil Rights Movement can also be more expansive, then, as it can include other rights movements during the era, including many of the movements discussed in chapter 9.
100. Places to begin on the Black freedom movement include: Daisy Bates, The Long Shadow of Little Rock (New York: David McKay, 1962); Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years: 1954-63 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988); Brown v. Board of Education, Fifty Years After, special issue of Journal of American History, 91.1 (June 2004); Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981); William H. Chafe, Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom (New York: Oxford, 1981); Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights; Glenn Feldman, ed., Before Brown: Civil Rights and White Backlash in the Modern South (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2004); David J. Garrow, Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (New York: Morrow, 1986); Thomas C. Holt, The Movement: The African American Struggle for Civil Rights (New York: Oxford University Press, 2021); Richard Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of “Brown v. Board of Education” and Black America’s Struggle for Equality (New York: Knopf, 1976); Chana Kai Lee, For Freedom’s Sake: The Life of Fannie Lou Hamer (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999); Patrick B. Miller, Elisabeth Schäfer-Wünsche, and Therese Frey Steffen, eds., The Civil Rights Movement Revisited (Münster, Germany: Lit Verlag, 2001); Anne Moody, Coming of Age in Mississippi (New York: Dial, 1968); James T. Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and its Troubled Legacy (New York: Oxford, 2000); Charles M. Payne, I’ve Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); Howell Raines, My Soul Is Rested: Movement Days in the Deep South Remembered (New York: Putnam, 1977); Reporting Civil Rights: American Journalism, 1941-1973, 2 vols. (New York: Library of America, 2003); Jo Ann Gibson Robinson, The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Women Who Started It (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1987); Harvard Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality, 1954-1992, rev. ed. (New York: Hill and Wang, 1993); Juan Williams, Eyes on the Prize: America’s Civil Rights Years, 1954-1965 (New York: Viking, 1987); Juan Williams, Thurgood Marshall (New York: Times, 1998); Yohuru Williams, Rethinking the Black Freedom Movement (New York: Routledge, 2016).
101. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York: Harper and Row, 1962; orig. 1944), 60-61 (italics in original); Rayford W. Logan, ed., What the Negro Wants (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 2001; orig. 1944).
102. Stokely Carmichael, “Power and Racism,” New York Review of Books (September 22, 1966); see also Floyd B. Barbour, ed., The Black Power Revolt (Boston: Extending Horizons Books, 1968); Stokely Carmichael and Charles V. Hamilton, Black Power (New York: Knopf, 1967).
103. Walter Mosley, Little Scarlet (Boston: Little, Brown, 2004), 50-51, 82-83, 271.
104. On Perez v. Sharp, Loving v. Virginia, and the other cases where couples succeeded in overturning the states’ anti-miscegenation laws, see: Sheryll Cashin, Loving: Interracial Intimacy in America and the Threat to white Supremacy (Boston: Beacon, 2017); Kevin R. Johnson, ed., Mixed Race America and the Law (New York: NYU Press, 2003); Randall Kennedy, Interracial Intimacy: Sex, Marriage, Identity, and Adoption (New York: Pantheon, 2003); Loving [movie] dir. Jeff Nichols (Big Beach and Rain Dog Films, 2016); Rachel F. Moran, Interracial Intimacy: The Regulation of Race and Romance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001); Dana Orenstein, “Void for Vagueness: Mexicans and the Collapse of Miscegenation Law in California,”  Pacific Historical Review, 74.3 (2005), 367-407; Peggy Pascoe, What Comes Naturally: Miscegenation Laws and the Making of Race in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009); Charles F. Robinson II,  Dangerous Liaisons: Sex and Love in the Segregated South (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2003); Renee C. Romano, Race Mixing: Black-White Marriage in Postwar America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2003); Spickard, Mixed Blood; Peter Wallenstein, Tell the Court I Love My Wife: Race, Marriage, and the Law—An American History (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002).
105. Sources on the 1965 act include: Gabriel J. Chin and Rose Cuison Villazor, eds., The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965: Legislating a New America (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2015); Daniels, Guarding the Golden Door; Graham, Unguarded Gates; Hing, Defining America Through Immigration Policy; “The Immigration Act of 1965 and the Creation of a Modern, Diverse America,” Huffpost (October 28, 2016); Lee, America for Americans, 221-50; Margaret Sands Orchowski, The Law that Changed the Face of America: The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2015); John S. W. Park, Immigration Law and Society (Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 2018): 28-49; Shanks, Immigration and the Politics of American Sovereignty; US Senate, US Immigration Law and Policy; Jia Lynn Yang, One Mighty and Irresistible Tide: The Epic Struggle Over Immigration, 1924-1965 (New York: Norton, 2020).
106. Roger Daniels, Coming to America, 2nd ed. (New York: Harper Collins, 2002), 338.
107. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights; Borstelmann, Cold War and the Color Line.
108. John F. Kennedy, A Nation of Immigrants, rev. ed. (New York: Harper and Row, 1964), x, 102-03.
109. Daniels, Coming to America, 344.

Images

Notes

1. Sources for this section include:  Nancy Foner, From Ellis Island to JFK: New York’s Two Great Waves of Immigration (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2000); David A. Gerber, American Immigration: A Very Short Introduction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011); Nathan Glazer, ed., Clamor at the Gates: The New American Immigration (San Francisco: ICS Press, 1985); Darrell Y. Hamamoto and Rodolfo D. Torres, eds., New American Destinies: Contemporary Asian and Latino Immigration (New York: Routledge, 1997); Guillermina Jasso and Mark R. Rosenzweig, The New Chosen People: Immigrants in the United States (New York: Russell Sage, 1990); Tomás Jiménez, The Other Side of Assimilation: How Immigrants Are Changing American Life (Oakland: University of California Press, 2017); Cecilia Manjivar, et al., Immigrant Families (Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 2016); Eva Morawska, A Sociology of Immigration: (Re)Making Multifaceted America (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009); Alejandro Portes and Rubén G. Rumbaut, Immigrant America, 2nd ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); Alejandro Portes and Rubén G. Rumbaut, Legacies: The Story of the Immigrant Second Generation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001); David M. Reimers, Other Immigrants: The Global Origins of the American People (New York: NYU Press, 2005); David M. Reimers, Still the Golden Door: The Third World Comes to America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); Rubén G. Rumbaut and Alejandro Portes, eds., Ethnicities: Children of Immigrants in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001).  Sources of numbers include: Jeffrey S. Passel and Roberto Suro, “Rise, Peak, and Decline: Trends in US Immigration 1992-2004” (report by Pew Hispanic Research Center, Washington, DC, 2005); Population Projections Program, US Census Bureau, “Projections of the Total Resident Population by 5-Year Age Groups, Race, and Hispanic Origin with Special Age Categories” (Washington: US Bureau of the Census, 2000).
2. See Appendix, Table 2.
3. See Appendix, Table 2.  Steven A. Camarota, “Immigrants in the United States—2000,” on website of the Center for Immigration Studies, a non-partisan information-gathering service (www.cis.org/articles/2001/back101.html, June 27, 2002).  See also Jeffrey S. Passel and Roberto Suro, “Rise, Peak, and Decline: Trends in US Immigration, 1992-2004,” (report by Pew Hispanic Center, Washington, DC, September 27, 2005)
4. Appendix, Table 31 and Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD Data: “Foreign-born Population,” https://data.oecd.org/foreign-born-population.htm, retrieved February 26, 2021.
5. www.migrationinformation.org/globaldata/.
6. Others we considered for this section include: Lieutenant Colonel (ret.) Alexander Vindman, a Ukrainian American infantry officer who served on the National Security Council and blew the whistle on President Donald Trump’s attempts to get the government of Ukraine to intervene in an American election (Alexander S. Vindman, Here, Right Matters: An American Story [New York: HarperCollins, 2021]); Somali American Congressmember Ilhan Omar (Ilhan Omar with Rebecca Paley, This Is What America Looks Like: My Journey from Refugee to Congresswoman [New York: Morrow, 2021]); British American comedian John Oliver (Terry Gross, “John Oliver Finds Humor in the News No One Wants to Hear About” [interview] NPR [March 7, 2018]); First Lady Melania Trump, an immigrant from Slovenia (Carol D. Leonnig, et al., “Melania Trump’s Parents are Legal Permanent Ressidents, Raising Questions about Whether They Relied on ‘Chain Migration’,” Washington Post [February 21, 2018]; Aaron Blake, “The Huge Questions about Melania Trump’s Immigration History Nobody Will Answer,” New York Times [February 21, 2018]; Mary Jordan, “Questions Linger about How Melania Trump, a Slovenian Model, Scored ‘the Einstein Visa’,” New York Times [March 1, 2018]); actor and Asian American gay activist George Takei (George Takei, et al., They Called Us Enemy [Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions, 2019]; George Takei, To the Stars: The Autobiography of George Takei, Star Trek’s Mr. Sulu [New York: Pocket Books, 1994]); Filipino American journalist and undocumented activist Jose Antonio Vargas (Jose Antonio Vargas, Dear America: Notes of an Undocumented Citizen [New York: Morrow, 2018]); South African American late-night comedian Trevor Noah (Trevor Noah, Born a Crime: Stories from a South African Childhood [New York: Spiegel and Grau, 2016]).
7. Sources on Murdoch include:  Neil Chenoweth, Rupert Murdoch: The Untold Story of the World’s Greatest Media Wizard (New York: Crown, 2002); David Folkenflik, Murdoch’s World: The Last of the Old Media Empires (New York: Public Affairs, 2013); Thomas Kiernan, Citizen Murdoch (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1986); John Lanchester, “Bravo l’artiste,” London Review of Books (February 5, 2004), 3-7; Outfoxed: Rupert Murdoch’s War on Journalism, dir. Robert Greenwald (Cinema Libre Studio, 2004); Bruce Page, The Murdoch Archipelago (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2003); William Shawcross, Murdoch: The Making of a Media Empire, rev. ed. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997); Jerome Tuccille, Rupert Murdoch (New York: Fine, 1989); Michael Wolff, Autumn of the Moguls: My Misadventures with the Titans, Poseurs and Money Guys who Mastered and Messed up Big Media (New York: Harper, 2003); Wolff, The Man Who Owns the News: Inside the Secret World of Rupert Murdoch (New York: Broadway Books, 2010).
8. Sources on Soros include:  Eric Alterman, “Target: George Soros,” The Nation (December 29, 2003), 10; Michael T. .Kaufman, Soros: The Life and Times of a Messianic Billionaire (New York: Knopf, 2002); Richard Rainey, “Financing His Own Anti-Bush Campaign,” Los Angeles Times (September 29, 2004); Robert Slater, Soros: The Unauthorized Biography (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997); George Soros, The Bubble of American Supremacy:Correcting the Misuse of American Power (New York: Public Affairs, 2003); Soros, The Crisis of Global Capitalism (New York: Public Affairs, 1998); Soros, On Globalization (New York: Public Affairs, 2002); Soros, Open Society: Reforming Global Capitalism (New York: Public Affairs, 2000); Soros, Opening the Soviet System (London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1990); Soros, Underwriting Democracy: Encouraging Free Enterprise and Democratic Reform Among the Soviets and in Eastern Europe (New York: Free Press, 2004); Soros, In Defense of Open Society (New York: Public Affairs, 2019); Emily Tamkin, The Influence of Soros: Politics, Power, and the Struggle for an Open Society (New York: HarperCollins, 2020).
9. Sources on Schwarzenegger include:  Laurence Learner, Fantastic: The Life of Arnold Schwarzenegger (New York: St. Martin’s, 2005); Arnold Schwarzenegger, Total Recall: My  Unbelievably True Life Story (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2012); and the daily Los Angeles Times throughout the first two decades of this millennium.
10. Alan Zarembo, “Slow but Steady Approach Has Served Bustamante Well,” Los Angeles Times (August 30, 2003).
11. As yet there has been no biography of Gary Locke. Helen Zia has considerable material on Locke in Asian American Dreams: The Emergence of an American People (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2000), 280-300.  Paul Spickard has known Locke and his family since 1963 and worked in his gubernatorial campaigns.  We also use materials here from many issues of the Seattle Times (see especially the first section of the July 23, 2003, issue; and other newspaper accounts, such as Edward Wong, “Photo Turns US Envoy Into a Lesson for Chinese,” New York Times (August 17, 2011).
12. “Democrats Respond to Bush’s State of the Union,” Washington Post (January 28, 2003).
13. Sources on Asian immigration include:  Karin Aguilar-San Juan, ed., The State of Asian America (Boston: South End Press, 1994); Angelo N. Ancheta, Race, Rights, and the Asian American Experience (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1998); Tony Carnes and Fenggang Yang, eds., Asian American Religions (New York: NYU Press, 2004); Pawan Dhingra and Robyn Magalit Rodriguez, Asian America (Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 2014); Jane Naomi Iwamura and Paul Spickard, eds., Revealing the Sacred in Asian and Pacific America (New York: Routledge, 2003); Erika Lee, The Making of Asian America (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2015): 283-370; Mai Na M. Lee, Dreams of the Hmong Kingdom:The Quest for Legitimation in French Indochina, 1850-1960 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2015); Lisa Lowe, Immigrant Acts: On Asian American Cultural Politics (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1996); Simeon Man, Soldiering through Empire: Race and the Making of the Decolonizing Pacific (Oakland: University of California Press, 2018); Pyong Gap Min and Jung Ha Kim, eds., Religions in Asian America (Walnut Creek, Calif.: AltaMira Press, 2001); Paul Ong, Edna Bonacich, and Lucie Cheng, eds., The New Asian Immigration in Los Angeles and Global Restructuring (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994); Edward J. W. Park and John S, W. Park, Probationary Americans: Contemporary Immigration Policies and the Shaping if Asian American Communities (New York: Routledge, 2005); Lisa Sun-Hee Park, Consuming Citizenship: Children of Asian Immigrant Entrepreneurs (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2005); Joanne L. Rondilla and Paul Spickard, Is Lighter Better? Skin-Tone Discrimination among Asian Americans (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2007); Cathy Schlund-Vials, et al., eds., Keywords for Asian American Studies (New York: New York University Press, 2015); Khatharya Um, From the Land of Shadows: War, Revolution, and the Making of the Cambodian Diaspora (New York: New York University Press, 2015); Linda Trinh Vo and Rick Bonus, eds., Contemporary Asian American Communities (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2002); Jean Wu and Min Song, eds., Asian American Studies (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2000); Jean Wu and Thomas Chen, eds., Asian American Studies Now (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2010); Philip Q. Yang, Asian Immigration to the United States (Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 2011); David K. Yoo, ed., New Spiritual Homes: Religion and Asian Americans (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1999); Min Zhou and James V. Gatewood, eds., Contemporary Asian America (New York: NYU Press, 2000); Min Zhou and Anthony C. Ocampo, eds., Contemporary Asian America, 3rd ed. (New York: New York University Press, 2016); Helen Zia, Asian American Dreams (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2000); and the full runs of Amerasia Journal and the Journal of Asian American Studies.
14. Sources on ethnic minorities in mainland Southeast Asia include:  Paul J. Bold, China and Southeast Asia’s Ethnic Chinese (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2000); David Brown, The State and Ethnic Politics in Southeast Asia (New York: Routledge, 1994); Cam Truong, The Thai in the Northwestern Region of Vietnam (Hanoi: Social Science Publishing House, 1978); Ethnic Minorities in Vietnam (Hanoi: Culture Publishing House, 1959); Clifford Geertz, The Religion of Java (Gelncoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1960); Institute of Ethnology, Handbook on Ethnic Groups in Vietnam (Hanoi: Social Science Publishing House, 1983); Institute of ethnology, Ethnic Minorities in Vietnam (Northern Provinces) (Hanoi: Social Science Publishing House, 1978); Institute of ethnology, Ethnic Minorities in Vietnam (Southern Provinces) (Hanoi: Social Science Publishing House, 1984); Joel S. Kahn, ed., Southeast Asian Identities (New York: St. Martin’s, 1998); Khong Dien, Population and Ethno-Demography in Vietnam (Chiang Mai, Thailand: Silkworm Books, 2002); Meng Tarr Chou, “The Vietnamese Minority in Cambodia,” Race and Class, 34 (1992), 33-48; Sherri Prasso, Violence, Ethnicity, and Ethnic Cleansing: Cambodia and the Khmer Rouge (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University, 1995); Christine Su, “Becoming Cambodian: Ethnicity and the Vietnamese in Kampuchea,” in Race and Nation: Ethnic Systems in the Modern World, ed. Paul Spickard (New York: Routledge, 2005), 273-96; Leo Suryadinata, ed., Ethnic Chinese as Southeast Asians (New York: St. Martin’s, 1997); W. E. Wilmott, The Chinese in Cambodia (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Publications Center, 1968.
15. See Appendix B, Table 21.  Books on Southeast Asian immigrants often embody examination and comparison of Vietnamese, Cambodian, and Laotian American experiences.  Those used here include:  Nathan Caplan, John K. Whitemore, and Marcella H. Choy, The Boat People and Achievement in America: A Study of Family Life, Hard Work, and Cultural Values (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1989); Daniel F. Detzner, Elder Voices: Soutneast Asian Families in the United States (Walnut Creek, Calif.: AltaMira, 2004); David W. Haines, ed., Refugees as Immigrants: Cambodians, Laotians, and Vietnamese (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1989); Jeremy Hein, From Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia: A Refugee Experience in the United States (New York: Twayne, 1995).

a. Sources on Vietnamese immigrants include: Thi Bui, The Best We Could Do (New York: Abrams Comic Arts, 2017); Sucheng Chan, The Vietnamese American 1.5 Generation (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2006); Duong Van Mai Elliott, The Sacred Willow: Four Generations in the Life of a Vietnamese Family (New York: Oxford, 1999); Yen Le Espiritu, Body Counts: The Vietnamese War and Militarized Refuge(es) (Oakland: University of California Press, 2014); James M. Freeman, Changing Identities: Vietnamese Americans, 1975-1995 (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1995); Freeman, Hearts of Sorrow: Vietnamese-American Lives (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1989); Freeman and Nguyen Dinh Huu, Voices from the Camps: Vietnamese Children Seeking Asylum (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2003); Bruce Grant, The Boat People (New York: Penguin, 1979); Le Ly Hayslip, When Heaven and Earth Changed Places (New York: Doubleday, 1989); Nazli Kibria, Family Tightrope: The Changing Lives of Vietnamese Americans (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993); Patrick Du Phuoc Long and Laura Ricard, The Dream Shattered: Vietnamese Gangs in America (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1996); Robert S. McKelvey, A Gift of Barbed Wire: America’s Allies Abandoned in South Vietnam (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002);  Paul James Rutledge, The Vietnamese Experience in America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992); Allison J. Truitt, Pure Land in the Making: Vietnamese Buddhism in the US Gulf South (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2021); Nguyen Van Vu and Bob Pittman, At Home in America (Nashville: Broadman, 1979); Min Zhou and Carl L. Bankston III, Growing Up American: How Vietnamese Children Adapt to Life in the United States (New York: Russell Sage, 1998).

16. Sources on US-Vietnam relations and the Vietnam War are many.  Among those used here are:  Mark Philip Bradley, Imagining Vietnam and America: The Making of Postcolonial Vietnam, 1919-1950 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000); Frances Fitzgerald, Fire in the Lake: The Vietnamese and the Americans in Vietnam (Boston: Little, Brown, 2002; orig. 1973); Max Hastings, Vietnam: An Epic Tragedy, 1945-1975 (New York: Harper, 2019); George C. Herring, America’s Longest War: United States and Vietnam, 1950-1975, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1985); Hugh Higgins, Vietnam, 2nd ed. (London: Heinemann, 1982); Frederik Logevall, Choosing War: The Lost Chance for Peace and the Escalation of War in Vietnam (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999); Frederik Logevall, The Origins of the Vietnam War (New York: Longman, 2001); Robert J. McMahon, ed., Major Problems in the History of the Vietnam War (Lexington, Mass.: Heath, 1990); Charles E. Neu, America’s Lost War: Vietnam, 1945-1975 (Arlington Heights, Ill.: Harlan Davidson, 2005); James S. Olson and Randy Roberts, Where the Dominos Fell: America and Vietnam, 1945-1990 (New York: St. Martin’s, 1991); Gareth Porter, ed., Vietnam: A History in Documents (New York: New American Library, 1981); Harrison E. Salisbury, ed., Vietnam Reconsidered (New York: Harper and Row, 1984); Geoffrey C. Ward and Ken Burns, The Vietnam War: An Intimate History (New York: Knopf, 2017); Marilyn B. Young, Vietnam Wars, 1945-1990 (New York: Harper, 1991); Marilyn B. Young, John J. Fitzgerald, and A. Tom Grunfeld, eds., The Vietnam War: A History in Documents (New York: Oxford, 2003).  The parallels between the American misadventure in Vietnam and the disaster in Iraq a generation later are so many and so obvious that they would appear crudely comical, were their consequences not so tragic.
17. Lang Ngan, “The Success Story,” in Asian American Experiences in the United States, ed. Joann Faung Jean Lee (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1991), quoted in Major Problems in Asian American History, ed., Lon Kurashige and Alice Yang Murray (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003), 390-92.
18. Le Tan Si, “A Terrifying Escape,” in The Far East Comes Near, ed. Lucy Nguyen Hong-Nhiem and Joel Martin Halpern (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1989), quoted in Major Problems, ed. Kurashige and Yang Murray, 294-97.  See also Nghia M. Vo, The Vietnamese Boat People, 1954 and 1975-1992 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2006); Mary Terrell Cargill and Jade Quang Huynh, eds., Voices of Vietnamese Boat People (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2000).
19. Sources on Amerasians in Vietnam and the United States include:  Thomas A. Bass, Vietnamerica: The War Comes Home (New York: Soho, 1996); Steve DeBonis, Children of the Enemy: Oral Histories of Vietnamese Amerasians and Their Mothers (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2017); Robert S. McKelvey, The Dust of Life: America’s Children Abandoned in Vietnam (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1999); Kien Nguyen, The Unwanted: A Memoir (Boston: Little, Brown, 2001); Kieu-Linh Caroline Valverde, “Doing the Mixed-Race Dance: Negotiating Social Spaces Within the Multiracial Vietnamese American Class Typology,” in The Sum of Our Parts: Mixed Heritage Asian Americans, ed. Teresa Williams-León and Cynthia L. Nakashima (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001), 131-44; Valverde, “From Dust to Gold: The Vietnamese Amerasian Experience,” in Racially Mixed People in America, ed., Maria P. P. Root (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1992), 144-61; US Government Accountability Office, Vietnamese Amerasian Resettlement: Education, Employment, and Family Outcomes in the United States )PEMD-94-15, July 29, 2013); Trin Yarborough, Surviving Twice: Amerasian Children of the Vietnam War (Washington, DC: Potomac Books, 2005).  For a haunting evocation of these people’s experience, see The Beautiful Country, dir. Hans Peter Moland (Sony Pictures Classics, 2004).
20. Sources on Cambodian Americans include: Sucheng Chan, Survivors: Cambodian Refugees in the United States (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004); Sucheng Chan and Audrey U. Kim, eds., Not Just Victims: Conversations with Cambodian Community Leaders in the United States (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003); Chanrithy Him, When Broken Glass Floats: Growing Up Under the Khmer Rouge (New York: Norton, 2000); The Killing Fields, dir. Roland Joffé (Warner Home Video, 1984); Jonathan X. Lee, ed., Cambodian American Experiences (Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt, 2017); Aihwa Ong, Buddha Is Hiding: Refugees, Citizenship, the New America (Berkeley: University of California Press 2003); Robert Proudfoot, Even the Birds Don’t Sound the Same Here: The Laotian Refugees Search for Heart in American Culture (New York: Peter Lang, 1990); Cathy J. Schlund-Vials, War, Genocide, and Justice: Cambodian American Memory Work (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2012); Nancy J. Smith-Hefner, Khmer American (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999); Eric Tang, Unsettled: Cambodian Refugees in the New York City Huperghetto (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2015); Usha Welaratna, Beyond the Killing Fields (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1993).

a. Sources on other Southeast Asian peoples in the US and elsewhere in diaspora include: Mary Beth Mills, Thai Women in the Global Labor Force (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2009); Mark Padoongpatt, Flavors of Empire: Food and the Making of Thai America (Oakland: University of California Press, 2017); Pascal Khoo Thwe, From the Land of Green Ghosts (London: HarperCollins, 2003); Chia Youyee Vang, et al., Invisible Newcomers: Refugees from Burma/Myanmar and Bhutan in the United States (Washington, DC: Asian and Pacific Islander American Scholarship Fund, 2014).

1. Caplan, Boat People and Achievement, 7-8.
2. Ibid., 13-14.
3. The literature on Hmong in Laos, Vietnam, and the United States grows—some might say all out of proportion to the size of the Hmong population.  But the Hmong are a remarkable people, and this literature includes some of the best writing on any Southeast Asian people in the US, including: William A. Smalley, Chia Koua Vang, and Gnia Yee Yang, Mother of Writing: The Origin and Development of a Hmong Messianic Script (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); Anne Fadiman, The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down: A Hmong Child, Her American Doctors, and the Collision of Two Cultures (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1997); Kao Kalia Yang, the Latehomecomer: A Hmong Family Memoir (Minneapolis: Coffee House Press, 2008); Sucheng Chan, et al., Hmong Means Free: Life in Laos and America (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994); Nancy D. Donnelly, Changing Lives of Refugee Hmong Women (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1994); Lillian Faderman and Ghia Xiong, I Begin My Life All Over: The Hmong and the American Immigrant Experience (Boston: Beacon Press, 1998); Jo Ann Koltyk, New Pioneers in the Heartland: Hmong Life in Wisconsin (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1998); Tim Pfaff, Hmong in America: Journey from a Secret War (Eau Claire, Wis.: Chippewa Valley Museum Press, 1995); Mark Edward Pfeiffer, Monica Chu, and Kou Yang, eds., Diversity in Diaspora: Hmong Americans in the Twenty-First Century (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2013; Keith Quincy, Harvesting Pa Chay’s Wheat: The Hmong and America’s Secret War in Laos (Spokane, Wash.: Eastern Washington University Press, 2000); Quincy, Hmong: History of a People (Spokane, Wash.: Eastern Washington University Press, 1995); Chia Youyee Vang, Hmong America: Reconstructing Community in Diaspora (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2010).
4. Xang Mao Xiong and Maijue Xiong, “The Xiong Family of Lompoc,” in Chan, Hmong Means Free, 101-02.
5. Southeast Asia Resource Action Center, Southeast Asian Americans At A Glance (Washington, DC: SEARAC, 2011): 5.
6. T. C. Huo tells the story of a boy who was a member of just such a multinational refugee family in his powerful novel, Land of Smiles (New York: Penguin, 2000).
7. Sources on Filipino immigrants include:  Peter Bacho, Dark Blue Suit and Other Stories (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997); Benjamin V. Cariño, “The Philippines and Southeast Asia: Historical Roots and Contemporary Linkages,” in Pacific Bridges: The New Immigraiton from Asia and the Pacific Islands, ed. James T. Fawcett and Benjamin V. Cariño (Staten Island, N.Y.: Center for Migration Studies, 1987), 305-25; Catherine Ceniza Choy, Empire of Care: Nursing and Migration in Filipino American History (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2003); Jason DeParle, A Good Provider Is One Who Leaves: One Family and Migration in the 21st Century (New York: Penguin, 2020); Yen Le Espiritu, Filipino American Lives (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995); Espiritu, Home Bound: Filipino American Lives Across Cultures, Communities, and Countries (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003); Stephen Griffiths, Emigrants, Entrepreneurs, and Evil Spirits (Honolulu: University of Hawai`i Press, 1988); Rudy P. Guevarra Jr., Becoming Mexipino: Multiethnic Identities and Communities in San Diego (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2012); Jessica Hagedorn, Dogeaters (New York: Pantheon, 1990); Hagedorn, The Gangster of Love (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996); Melinda L. de Jesús, ed., Pinay Power (New York: Routledge, 2005); Martin Manalansan, Global Divas: Filipino Gay Men in the Diaspora (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003); Diedre McKay, Global Filipinos: Migrants’ Lives in the Virtual Village (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2014); Anthony Christian Ocampo, The Latinos of Asia: How Filipino Americans Break the Rules of Race (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2016); Paul Ong and Tania Azores, “The Migration and Incorporation of Filipino Nurses,” in The New Asian Immigration in Los Angeles and Global Restructuring, ed., Ong, Edna Bonacich, and Lucie Cheng (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994), 164-95; Ong, Lucie Chang, and Leslie Evans, “Migration of Highly Educated Asians and Global Dynamics,” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, 1 (1992); Richard C. Paddock, “The Overseas Class—The New Foreign Aid: Philippines,” Los Angeles Times (April 20, 2006); JoAnna Poblete, Islanders in the Empire: Filipino and Puerto Rican Laborers in Hawai‘i (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2014); Barbara M. Posadas, The Filipino Americans (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1999); Robyn Magalit Rodriguez, Migrants for Export: How the Philippine State Brokers Labor to the World (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010); James A. Tyner, “The Global Context of Gendered Labor Migration from the Philippines to the United States,” American Behavioral Scientist, 42.4 (1999); Jose Antonio Vargas, Dear America: Notes of an Undocumented Citizen (New York: Morrow, 2018).
8. Jose V. Fuentecilla, Fighting from a Distance: How Filipino Exiles Helped Topple a Dictator (Urbana: university of Illinois Press, 2013).
9. Choy, Empire of Care, 89-90.
10. Elaine Woo, “Dr. Josefina B. Magno, 83; Pioneer of Hospice Care for Dying Patients in the US,” Los Angeles Times (August 3, 2003).
11. Rhacel Salazar Parreñas, Servants of Globalization: Women, Migration, and Domestic Work (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2001), 1, 119, 155; Nigel Harris, The New Untouchables: Immigration and the New World Worker (New York: Penguin, 1995), 15; Rhacel Salazar Parreñas, The Force of Domesticity: Filipina Migrants and Globalization (New York: New York University Press, 2008).
12. David Pierson, “Filipino Vets Battle for Benefits,” Los Angeles Times (May 28, 2001); Richard Simon, “Filipino Veterans of WWII Win a Battle in Struggle for Benefits,” Los Angeles Times (December 17, 2003); Rick Rocamora, et al., Filipino World War II Soldiers: America’s Second-Class Veterans (San Francisco: Veterans Equity Center, 2008).
13. Sources on Korean immigrants include: Edward T. Chang and Carol K. Park, Korean Americans: A Concise History (Riverside, CA: Young Oak Kim Center for Korean American Studies, University of California, Riverside, 2019); Grace M. Cho, Haunting the Korean Diaspora: Shame, Secrecy, and the Forgotten War (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008);Mary Yu Danico, The 1.5 Generation: Becoming Korean American in Hawai`i (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2004); Cathy Park Hong, Minor Feelings: An Asian American Reckoning (New York: One World, 2020); Won Moo Hurh and Kwang Chung Kim, Korean Immigrants in America (Rutherford, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1984); Elaine H. Kim and Eui-Young Yu, East to America: Korean American Life Stories (New York: New Press, 1996); Ilsoo Kim, New Urban Immigrants: The Korean Community in New York (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981); Ho-Youn Kwon, Kwang Chung Kim, and R. Stephen Warner, eds., Korean Americans and Their Religion (University Park:  Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001); Pyong Gap Min, Caught in the Middle: Korean Merchants in America’s Multiethnic Cities (Berkeley: Uniiversity of California Press; Min, Changes and Conflicts: Korean Immigrant Families in New York (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1998); Sumie Okazaki and Nancy Abelmann, Korean American Families in Immigrant America (New York: New York University Press, 2018); Sharon A. Suh, Being Buddhist in a Christian World: Gender and Community in a Korean American Temple (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2004).
14. The reasons for Korea having the highest percentage of Christians of any Asian nation except the Philippines have to do with the fact that colonialism in Korea came not at the hands of the West, but from Japan.  On Korean American Christianity, see: Karen J. Chai, “Competing for the Second Generation: English-Language Ministry at a Korean Protestant Church,” in Gatherings in Diaspora: Religions Communities and the New Immigration, ed. R. Stephen Warner and Judith G. Wittner (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998), 295-332; Won Moo Hurh and Kwang Chung Kim, “Religions Participation of Korean Immigrants in the United States,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 29 (1990), 19-34; Ai Ra Kim, Women Struggling for a New Life: The Role of Religion in the Cultural Passage from Korea to America (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1996); Grace Ji-Sun Kim, The Grace of Sophia: A Korean North American Women’s Christology (Cleveland: Pilgrim Press, 2002); Illsoo Kim, New Urban immigrants, 187-207; Jung Ha Kim, Bridge-makers and Cross-bearers: Korean-American Women and the Church (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997); Sharon Kim, A Faith of Our Own: Second-Generation Spirituality in Korean American Churches (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2010); Ho-Youn Kwon, Kwang Chung Kim, and R. Stephen Warner, eds., Korean Americans and Their Religions (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001); Pyong Gap Min, “A Comparison of Korean Immigrant Protestant, Catholic, and Buddhist Congregations in New York,” in Religion and Incorporation of Immigration of Immigrants, ed. Jose Casanova and Aristide Zolberg (New York: NYU Press, forthcoming; advance copy courtesy of the author); Min, “Immigrants’ Religion and Ethnicity: A Comparison of Korean Christian and Indian Hindu Immigrants,” in Revealing the Sacred in Asian and Pacific America, ed. Jane Naomi Iwamura and Paul Spickard (New York: Routledge, 2003), 125-41; Min, “The Structure and Social Functions of Korean Immigrant Churches in the United States,” International Migration Review, 26 (1992), 1370-94; Pyong Gap Min and Jung Ha Kim, eds., Religions in Asian America (Walnut Creek, Calif.: AltaMira Press, 2001); Andrew Sung Park, Racial Conflict and Healing: An Asian-American Theological Perspective (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis, 1996); Soyoung Park, “‘Korean American Evangelical’: A Resolution of Sociological Ambivalence among Korean American College Students,” in Asian American Religions, ed. Tony Carnes and Fenggang Yang (New York: NYU Press, 2004)182-203; Eui-Hang Shin and Hyung Park, “An Analysis of Causes of Schisms in Ethnic Churches: The Case of Korean-American Churches,” Sociological Analysis, 49 (1988), 234-48; Sharon A. Suh, Being Buddhist in a Christian World: Gender and Community in a Korean American Temple (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2004); David K. Yoo, Contentious Spirits: Religion in Korean American History, 1903-1945 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010); David K. Yoo and Ruth H. Chung, Religion and Spirituality in Korean America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2008).
15. On Black-Korean tensions and the Los Angeles riots, see: Nancy Abelmann and John Lie, Blue Dreams: Korean Americans and the Los Angeles Riots (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995); Edward T. Chang and Jeannette Diaz-Veizades, Ethnic Peace in the American City (New York: NYU Press, 1999); Moon H. Jo, “Korean Merchants in the Black Community: Prejudice Among the Victims of Prejudice,” Ethnic and Racial Studies, 15 (1992), 395-410; Heon Cheol Lee, “Black-Korean Convlict in New York City” (PhD dissertation, Columbia University, 1993); Kyeyoung Park, “Use and Abuse of Race and Culture: Black-Korean Tension in America,” American Anthropologist, 98 (1996), 492-99; In-Jin Yoon, On My Own: Korean Businesses and Race Relations in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997).
16. Ashley Dunn, “Looters, Merchants Put Koreatown Under the Gun,” Los Angeles Times (May 2, 1992).
17. Helie Lee, Still Life With Rice (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996); Gordon Y. K. Pang, “Group Hopes to Reunite Families,” Honolulu Advertiser (March 21, 2006).
18. The term seems to have been invented in the 1970s (accounts conflict), but it became widely used only later.
19. Danico, 1.5 Generation, 179.
20. Susie Woo, Framed by War: Korean Children and Women at the Crossroads of US Empire (New York: New York University Press, 2019); Kim Park Nelson, Invisible Asians: Korean American Adoptees, Asian American Experiences, and Racial Exceptionalism (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2016); Eleana J. Kim, Adopted Territory: Transnational Korean Adoptees and the Politics of Belonging (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010); Jane Jeong Trenka, et al., eds., Outsiders Within: Writing on Transracial Adoption (Boston: South End Press, 2005); Ji-Yeon Yuh, Beyond the Shadow of Camptown: Korean Military Brides in America (New York: New York University Press, 2002); SooJin Pate, From Orphan to Adoptee: US Empire and Genealogies of Korean Adoption (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2014); Arissa H. Oh, To Save the Children of Korea: The Cold War Origins of International Adoption (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2015); John D. Palmer, The Dance of Identities: Korean Adoptees and Their Journey toward Empowerment (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2010); Kimberly D. McKee, Disrupting Kinship: Transnational Politics of Korean Adoption in the United States (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2019); Mia Tuan and Jiannbin Lee Shiao, Choosing Ethnicity, Negotiating Race: Korean Adoptees in America (New York: Russell Sage, 2013); Catherine Ceniza Choy, Global Families: A History of Asian International Adoption in America (New York: New York University Press, 2013.
21. Sources on South Asian immigrants include: Margaret Abraham, Speaking the Unspeakable: Marital Violence among South Asian Immigrants in the United States (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2000); Ahmed Afzal, Lone Star Muslims: Transnational Lives and the South Asian Experience in Texas (New York: New York University Press, 2014); Shamita Das Dasgupta, ed., A Patchwork Shawl: Chronicles of South Asian Women in America (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1988); Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni, Arranged Marriage (New York: Doubleday, 1995); Pawan Dhingra, Life Behind the Lobby: Indian American Motel Owners and the American Dream (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2012); Margaret A. Gibson, Accommodation Without Assimilation: Sikh Immigrants in an American High School (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1988); Deepa Iyer, We Too Sing America: South Asian, Arab, Muslim, and Sikh Immigrants Shape Our Multiracial Future (New York: New Press, 2015); S. Mitra Kalita, Suburban Sahibs: Three Immigrant Families and Their Passage from India to America (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2003); Madhulika S. Khandelwal, Becoming American, Being Indian: An Immigrant Community in New York City (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2002); Prema A. Kurien, Kaleidoscopic Ethnicity: International Migration and the Reconstruction of Community Identities in India (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2002); Jhumpa Lahiri, Interpreter of Maladies (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1999); Johanna Lessinger, From the Ganges to the Hudson (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1995); Mississippi Masala, dir. Mira Nair (Columbia TriStar Home Video, 1991);  Aminah Mohammad-Arif Salaam America: South Asian Muslims in New York (London: Anthem, 2002); Bharati Mukherjee, Jasmine (New York: Ballantine, 1989); Vijay Prashad, The Kharma of Brown Folk (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000); Bandana Purkayastha, Negotiating Ethnicity: Second-Generation South Asian Americans Traverse a Transnational World (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2005); Uzma Quraishi, Redefining the Immigrant South: Indian and Pakistani Immigration to Houston During the Cold War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2020); Padma Rangaswamy, Namasté America: Indian Immigrants in an American Metropolis (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000); Sharmila Rudrappa, Ethnic Routes to Becoming American: Indian Immigrants and the Cultures of Citizenship (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2004); Lavina Dhingra Shankar and Rajini Srikanth, eds., A Part, Yet Apart: South Asians in Asian America (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998); Gurinder Singh Mann, Paul David Numrich, and Raymond B. Williams, Buddhists, Hindus, and Sikhs in America (New York: Oxford, 2002).
22. Lessinger, From the Ganges to the Hudson, 17-18.
23. Rangaswamy, Namasté America, xiii; 55, 81.
24. Chris O’Brien, “Hailing the New Chief: Indians in Silicon Valley are Bursting with Pride Over Microsoft CEO,” Los Angeles Times (February 5, 2014).
25. Sources on Chinese immigrants include:  Iris Chang, The Chinese in America (New York: Viking, 2003); Shenglin Chang, The Global Silicon Valley Home: Lives and Landscapes within Taiwanese American Culture (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2006); Ko-Lin Chin, Smuggled Chinese: Clandestine Immigration to the United States (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999); Timothy P. Fong, The First Suburban Chinatown (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994); Kenneth J. Guest, God in Chinatown (New York: NYU Press, 2003); Peter Kwong, Forbidden Workers: Illegal Chinese Immigrants and American Labor (New York: New Press, 1997); Kwong, The New Chinatown (New York: Noonday, 1987); Jan Lin, Reconstructing Chinatown (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); Chalsa M. Loo, Chinese America: Mental Health and Quality of Life in the Inner City (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1998); Haiming Lu, From Canton Restaurant to Panda Express: A History of Chinese Food in the United States (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2015); Victor G. and Brett DeBary Nee, Longtime Californ’ (New York: Pantheon, 1973); Nicole DeJong Newendorp, Chinese Senior Migrants and the Globalization of Retirement (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2020); Wanning Sun, Leaving China: Media, Migration, and Transnational Imagination(Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002); Xiaojian Zhao, the New Chinese America: Class, Economy, and Social Hierarchy (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2010); Min Zhou, Contemporary Chinese America: Immigration, ethnicity, and Community Transformation (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2009).
26. Nee and Nee, Longtime Californ’, 279-80.
27. Nee and Nee, Longtime Californ’, 290-95.
28. Miri Song begins to explore the junior mama phenomenon in Helping Out: Children’s Labor in Ethnic Businesses (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999), but the main focus of her analysis is elsewhere.  This important subject awaits examination.
29. Sources on illegal Chinese migrants include: Chin, Smuggled Chinese; Kwong, Forbidden Workers; Sam Howe Verhovek, “22 Chinese Stowaways found at Cargo Facility in Seattle,” Los Angeles Times (April 6, 2006); Xiao-huang Yin, “The Invisible Illegal Immigrants,” Los Angeles Times (April 2, 2006).
30. Fong, First Suburban Chinatown; Chang, Global Silicon Valley Home; David Pierson, “Dragon Roars in San Gabriel,” Los Angeles Times (March 31, 2006).
31. Newendorp, Chinese Senior Migrants; E. Scott Reckard and Andrew Khouri, “Rich Chinese Sold on LA” Los Angeles Times (March 24, 2014); Ching-Ching Ni, “Chinese Mothers, US Babies: Pregnant Women Came to Center to Give Birth in US,” Los Angeles Times (March 25, 2011).
32. On the model minority myth, its provenance and consequences, see: Rudy V. Busto, “The Gospel According to the Model Minority? Hazarding an Interpretation of Asian American Evangelical College Students,” New Spiritual Homes, ed. David Yoo (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1999); Caplan, Whitmore, and Choy, Boat People and Achievement; Lucie Cheng and Philip Q. Yang, “The ‘Model Minority’ Deconstructed,” in Ethnic Los Angeles, ed. Roger Waldinger and Mehdi Bozorgmehr (New York: Russell Sage, 1996), 305-44; Rosalind S. Chou and Joe R. Feagin, The Myth of the Model Minority: Asian Americans Facing Racism, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2015); Anh Do, “Asian Americans Reach High-Water Mark in Congress,” Los Angeles Times (April 20, 2012); Timothy P. Fong, The Contemporary Asian American Experience: Beyond the Model Minority (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1998); Charles Hirschman and Morrison G. Wong, “The Extraordinary Educational Attainment of Asian Americans,” Social Forces, 65 (1986), 1-27; Jayjia Hsia and Samuel S. Peng, “Academic Achievement and Performance,” in Handbook of Asian American Psychology, ed. Lee C. Lee and Nolan W. S. Zane (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1998), 325-58; Madeline Y. Hsu, The Good Immigrants: How the Yellow Peril Became the Model Minority (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015); Won Moo Hurh and Kwang Chung Kim, “The Success Image of Asian Americans,” Racial and Ethnic Studies, 12 (1984), 512-38; Stacey J. Lee, Unraveling the “Model Minority” Stereotype: Listening to Asian American Youth (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1996); Vivian S. Louie, Compelled to Excel: Immigration, Education, and Opportunity among Chinese Americans (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2004); Keith Osajima, “Asian Americans as the Model Minority: An Analysis of the Popular Press Image in the 1960s and 1980s,” in Reflections on Shattered Windows: Promises and Prospects for Asian American Studies, ed. Gary Y. Okihiro (Pullman: Washington State University Press, 1988), 165-74; Lisa Sun-Hee Park, Consuming Citizenship: Children of Asian Immigrant Entrepreneurs (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2005); William Petersen, Japanese Americans: Oppression and Success (New York: Random House, 1971); Mia Tuan, Forever Foreigner or Honorary White? The Asian Ethnic Experience Today (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1999); Wendy Walker-Moffat, The Other Side of the Asian American Success Story (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995); Deborah Woo, Glass Ceilings and Asian Americans (Walnut Creek, Calif.: AltaMira Press, 2000); Ellen Wu, The Color of Success: Asian Americans and the Origins of the Model Minority (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014); David K. Yoo, “Testing Assumptions: IQ, Japanese Americans, and the Model Minority Myth in the 1920s and 1930s,” in Remapping Asian American History, ed. Sucheng Chan (Walnut Creek, Calif.: AltaMira, 2003), 69-86; Benjamin Zulueta, Forging the Model Minority: Chinese Immigrants, American Science, and the Cold War (to be published by the University of Hawai‘i Press, advance copy courtesy of the author).
33. Petersen, “Success Story, Japanese-American Style,” New York Times Magazine (January 9, 1966); William Caudill and George DeVos, “Achievement, Culture, and Personality: The Case of the Japanese Americans,” American Anthropologist, 58 (1956), 1102-26.  Hard on the heels of Petersen’s paean to Japanese American wonderfulness, another writer lauded similar virtues in Chinese Americans: “Success Story of One Minority in the US,” US News and World Report (December 26, 1966), 73-78.  The theme continued: “Asian-Americans: A Model Minority,” Newsweek (December 6, 1982), 39-51; D. A. Bell, “The Triumph of Asian-Americans,” New Republic, 22(July 15, 1985), 24-31; Robert B. Oxnam, “Why Asians Succeed Here, New York Times Magazine (November 30, 1986); D. Divorky, “The Model Minority Goes to School, Phi Delta Kappan, 70 (1988), 219-22; Stephen G. Graubard, “Why Do Asian Pupils Win Those Prizes,” New York Times (January 29, 1988).
34. Rebecca Trounson, “UC System Accepts Record 55,242 Calif. Applicants for Fall Term,” Los Angeles Times (April 20, 2006).  Asians had outnumbered all other groups for several years at the top two campuses in the system, Berkeley and UCLA, as well as at UC Irvine.  Asians also amounted to more than a quarter of Harvard’s entering class.
35. US Commission on Civil Rights, Civil Rights Issues Facing Asian Americans in the 1990s (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1992).
36. Thomas Sowell, Ethnic America (New York: Basic Books, 1981).  See also Nathan Glazer and Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Beyond the Melting Pot (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1975)
37. Jachinson Chan, Chinese American Masculinities (New York: Routledge, 2001).
38. Fong, Contemporary Asian American Experience, 57.
39. Better Luck Tomorrow, dir. Justin Lin (Paramount Home Entertainment, 2003); Hemmy So, “Koreans Stunned by Tragedy,” Los Angeles Times (April 8, 2006).
40. “Modern Immigration Wave Brings 59 Million to U.S., Driving Population Growth and Change Through 2065,” Pew Research Center (September 28, 2015).
41. Luis Noe-Bustamante, Antonio Flores, and Sono Shah, “Facts on Hispanics of Mexican origin in the United States, 2017,” Pew Research Center (September 16, 2019).
42. In the 2010s anti-immigrant and nativist groups continued to refer to Mexican immigrants as “invaders”; at the same time, they began projecting this racist lie onto Central American refugees and asylum seekers. President Donald Trump was perhaps the most vocal supporter of this racist depiction: Alexia Fernández Campbell, “Trump described an imaginary ‘invasion’ at the border 2 dozen times in the past year,” Vox (August 7, 2019); Meagan Flynn, “An ‘invasion of illegal aliens’: The oldest immigration fear-mongering metaphor in America,” Washington Post (November 2, 2018); John Fritze, “Trump used words like ‘invasion’ and ‘killer’ to discuss immigrants at rallies 500 times: USA TODAY analysis,” USA Today (August 21, 2019); Remarks by President Trump on the Illegal Immigration Crisis and Border Security. Whitehouse.org. November 1, 2018.
43. Charles Bowden, Murder City: Ciudad Juárez and the Global Economy’s New Killing Fields (New York: Norton, 2010); Nancy Pineda-Madrid, Suffering and Salvation in Ciudad Juárez (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2010); Teresa Rodriguez, et al., The Daughters of Juárez (New York: Atria Books, 2007); Kathleen Staudt, violence and Activism at the Border: Gender, Fear, and Everyday Life in Ciudad Juárez (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2008).
44. In 2018 Canada, the United States, and Mexico signed the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA), a new free trade agreement between the three North American countries that went into effect in 2020, replacing NAFTA. For sources on the impact and historical legacy of NAFTA see: Julián Aguilar, “Twenty Years Later, Nafta Remains a Source of Tension,” New York Times (December 7, 2012); David Bacon, Illegal People: How Globalization Creates Migration and Criminalizes Immigrants (Boston: Beacon Press, 2019); David Bacon, The Children of NAFTA: Labor Wars on the US/Mexico Border (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004); David Bacon, The Right to Stay Home: How US Policy Drives Mexican Migration (Beacon Press, 2014); Aviva Chomsky, “They Take Our Jobs!” and 20 Other Myths about Immigration, expanded edition (Boston: Beacon Press, 2018); Celia W. Dugger, “Report Finds Few Benefits for Mexico in NAFTA,” New York Times (November 19, 2003); Marla Dickerson, “Placing Blame for Mexico’s Ills: The Economic Policies of the US,” Los Angeles Times (July 1, 2006); Alyshia Gálvez, Eating NAFTA: Trade, Food Policies, and the Destruction of Mexico (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2018); Rachel Kamel and Anya Hoffman, eds., The Maquiladora Reader: Cross-Border Organizing Since NAFTA (Philadelphia: American Friends Service Committee, 1999); Frederick W. Mager, Interpreting NAFTA (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998); “Mexico Adrift,” (editorial) New York Times (December 28, 2003); “Rural Mexico: Indigenous Peasants Abused, Amnesty Says,” Seattle Times (June 26, 2004); AP, “NAFTA: 20 years later: Success or failure?” USA TODAY (December 31, 2013); Ana Swanson and Emily Cochrane, Trump Signs Trade Deal With Canada and Mexico,” New York Times (January 29, 2020, updated July 1, 2020); Sidney Weintraub, NAFTA’s Impact on North America: The First Decade (Washington: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2001).
45. Recent publications on the US-Mexican border include: Justin Akers Chacón and Mike Davis, No One is Illegal: Fighting Racism and State Violence on the U.S.-Mexico Border (Revised edition: Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2018); Geraldo L. Cadava, Standing on Common Ground: The Making of a Sunbelt Borderland (Reprint edition: Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016); Miroslava Chávez-García, Migrant Longing: Letter Writing across the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2018); Selfa A. Chew, Uprooting Community: Japanese Mexicans, World War II, and the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2016); Maurice S. Crandall, These People Have Always Been a Republic: Indigenous Electorates in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019); Sonia Hernández, Working Women into the Borderlands (College Station: Texas A&M University, 2014); Roberto D. Hernández, Coloniality of the US/Mexico Border: Power, Violence, and the Decolonial Imperative (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2019); S. Deborah Kang, The INS on the Line: Making Immigration Law on the US-Mexico Border, 1917-1954 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019); Julian Lim, Porous Borders: Multiracial Migrations and the Law in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2020); Kelly Lytle Hernández, Migra!: A History of the U.S. Border Patrol (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010); Eric V. Meeks, Border Citizens: The Making of Indians, Mexicans, and Anglos in Arizona (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2007); Monica Perales, Smeltertown: Making and Remembering a Southwest Border Community (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010); Raúl A. Ramos, Beyond the Alamo: Forging Mexican Ethnicity in San Antonio, 1821-1861 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010); Rachel St. John, Line in the Sand: A History of the Western U.S.-Mexico Border (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012); Alicia Schmidt Camacho, Migrant Imaginaries: Latino Cultural Politics in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (New York: NYU Press, 2008); Jeffrey M. Schulze, Are We Not Foreigners Here? Indigenous Nationalism in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2018); Denise A. Segura and Patricia Zavella, eds., Women and Migration in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (Durham: Duke University Press, 2007); Omar S. Valerio-Jiménez, River of Hope: Forging Identity and Nation in the Rio Grande Borderlands (Durham: Duke University Press, 2013); Samuel Truett, Fugitive Landscapes: The Forgotten History of the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008). We are also grateful to students who have written papers and told us stories about their own experiences crossing over.
46. Alicia Alarcón, The Border Patrol Ate My Dust (Houston: Arte Publico, 2004), pp. 1-15.
47. Samuel Gilbert, “2020 was deadliest year for migrants crossing unlawfully into US via Arizona,” The Guardian (January 30, 2021); American Immigration Council, “The Cost of Immigration Enforcement and Border Security” (www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org, January 20, 1921).
48. Luis Alberto Urrea, The Devil’s Highway: A True Story (New York: Bay Back Books, 2004).
49. Alex Pulaski, “Borders and Legalities Multiply Oregon Family’s Grief,” Oregonian (April 24, 2004).
50. Recent books that discuss the expansion and effect of border security and militarization of the US-Mexico border since the 1990s include: D. Robert DeChaine, ed., Border Rhetorics: Citizenship and Identity on the US-Mexico Frontier (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2012); Jason De León, The Land of Open Graves: Living and Dying on the Migrant Trail (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2015); Timothy J. Dunn, Blockading the Border and Human Rights: The El Paso Operation that Remade Immigration Enforcement (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2010); Ken Ellingwood, Hard Line: Life and Death on the US-Mexico Border (New York: Pantheon, 2004); Todd Miller, Border Patrol Nation: Dispatches from the Front Lines of Homeland Security (San Francisco: City Light Publishers, 2014); Joseph Nevins, Operation Gatekeeper and Beyond: The War on “Illegals” and the Remaking of the U.S.-Mexico Boundary (Second edition: New York: Routledge, 2010); Ronald Rael, Borderwall as Architecture: A Manifesto for the U.S.-Mexico Boundary (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2017); Nicole I. Torres, Walls of Indifference: Immigration and the Militarization of the US-Mexico Border (New York: Routledge, 2016); Urrea, The Devil’s Highway.
51. Britain, France, Germany, Spain, Austria, Sweden, Ireland, Denmark, and Italy are among the European nations that had repeated, escalating political and humanitarian crises over immigration and membership through the 1990s and 2000s.  See, e.g.: Alessandro Portelli, “The Problem of the Color-Blind,” in Race and Nation: Ethnic Systems in the Modern World, ed. Paul Spickard (New York: Routledge, 2005), 355-63; Charles A. Kupchan, “Europe Turns Back the Clock,” Los Angeles Times (May 30, 2006); Judy Dempsey, “Racial Attack on Politician Angers Germans,” International Herald Tribune (May 22, 2006); A. Eatwell, “Ministers Rush Through Urgent Plan as Migrants Sail 1,200 Kilometers to Spain,” El Pais (May 16, 2006); Renwick McLean, “A Surge of Migrants Hits Canary Islands,” International Herald Tribune (May 16, 2006); Miguel Gonzalez, “Military Embarks on Migrant Early Warning Patrols,” El Pais (May 18, 2006); Meg Clothier, “Racism in Russia is Out of Control,” Reuters (May 4, 2006); Jeffrey Fleishman, “Cultural, Religious Discord Shades European Need for Immigrants,” Los Angeles Times (April 28, 2006); Tracy Wilkinson, “A Sister’s Sacrifice,” Los Angeles Times (April 22, 2006); Jeffrey Fleishman, “In Germany, Citizenship Tests Stir Up Muslims, and Cultural Debate,” Los Angeles Times (April 9, 2006); Jeffrey Fleishman, Ralph Frammolino, and Sebastian Rotella, “Outraged Europeans Take Dimmer View of Diversity,” Los Angeles Times (September 5, 2005); Graham Bowley, “European Commission Seeks Faster Repatriation of Some Migrants,” International Herald Tribune (September 2, 2005); Katrin Bennhold, “French Police Evict 40 Africans,” International Herald Tribune (September 3, 2005); Ranwick, “Five Killed in Mass Attempt to cross From Morocco to Spanish Enclave,” New York Times (September 30, 2005); Craig S. Smith, “Morocco Again Expels Africans Trying Risky Path to Europe,” New York Times (October 17, 2005); Michael Kamber and Marc Lacey, “For Mali Villagers, France Is a Workplace and Lifeline,” New York Times (September 11, 2005); Tracy Wilkinson, “Muslims’ Slice of Italy’s Life,” Los Angeles Times (October 28, 2005); “French Riots Rage for Ninth Night,” Los Angeles Times (November 5, 2005); Richard Bernstein, “Officials Cautious on Violence in Germany and Belgium,” New York Times (November 7, 2005); Craig S. Smith, “Spain’s African Enclaves Are Migrants’ Portals to Europe,” New York Times (November 5, 2005); Jeffrey Fleishman, “A Mutual Suspicion Grows in Denmark,” Los Angeles Times (November 12, 2005); Olivier Roy, “Get French or Die Trying,” New York Times (November 9, 2005); Craig S. Smith, “What Makes Someone French?” New York Times (November 11, 2005); Jeffrey Fleishman, “In Berlin, a Cultural Wall Sets Turks Apart,” Los Angeles Times (December 22, 2005); Elisabeth Rosenthal, “A Poor Fit for an Immigrant: After 20 Years of Hard Work in Italy, Still Not Italian,” New York Times (January 1, 2006); Ian Fisher, “Flow of Muslim Immigrants Strains the Reputation for Tolerance of a Small Italian Town,” New York Times (August 27, 2005); John Daniszewski, “Britain Issues Criteria for Deportation,” Los Angeles Times (August 25, 2005).
52. Esmeralda Bermudez, “Blanca Aguilar: Child Labor Crusade Springs from Fields,” Oregonian (May 10, 2004); Frank Cancian, Orange County Housecleaners (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006); Lisa Girion, “Once Surrounded by Asbestos, Now Surrounded by Their Fears,” Los Angeles Times (September 25, 2004); Daniel Hernandez, “For Some, Avalon Is Alcatraz,” Los Angeles Times (February 24, 2005); Jerry Hirsch, “Farm Labor Contractor, Union in Pact,” Los Angeles Times (April 12, 2006); James C. McKinley, Jr., “Mexican Pride and Death in US Service,” New York Times (March 22, 2005); Zeke Minaya, “Marine Corps Pfc. Fernando Hannon, Wildomar; Killed in Explosion,” Los Angeles Times (August 22, 2004); Julian E. Barnes, “Newest US Citizens Take Oath in Iraq,” Los Angeles Times (July 5, 2006); Sam Quinones, “Drifting In on Katrina’s Wind, Laborers Alter the Streetscape,” Los Angeles Times (May 1, 2006); Real Women Have Curves, dir. Patricia Cardoso (HBO Films, 2003); Rone Tempest, “Saddened Town Adds Name to Monument Honoring War Dead,” Los Angeles Times (November 12, 2003); Kevin Thomas, “The Political Is Personal in ‘Bread and Roses,’” Los Angeles Times (May 11, 2001); Catherine Trevison, “From Wanting Out to Getting Out,” Oregonian (November 17, 2003); Paula L. Woods, “Seen but Not Seen,” Los Angeles Times (June 11, 2006); Sandra Tsing Loh quote is from Héctor Tobar, Translation Nation (New York: Riverhead, 2005), 343.
53. Sharon Bernstein, “HIV on the Rise Among Migrants,” Los Angeles Times (November 2, 2004); Marla Cone, “DDT Study Finds New Hazard,” Los Angeles Times (July 5, 2006); Girion, “Once Surrounded by Asbestos”; Kathleen Hennessey, “Barriers to Latino Home Buying,” Los Angeles Times (September 15, 2004); Claire Hoffman, “Grape Grower Agrees to Settle EEOC Sexual Harassment Case,” Los Angeles Times (June 16, 2005); Lee Romney, “Poor Neighborhoods Left Behind,” Los Angeles Times (September 18, 2005); “No Indictment in Death of Immigrant,” Los Angeles Times (May 3, 2002).
54. These stereotypes are reinforced by the popularity of telenovelas (soap operas) that glorify drug trafficking and that are immensely popular among viewers Spanish-speaking and casual English-speaking viewers in the US. An example is La Reina del Sur, which inspired the US produced English-language version, Queen of the South.
55. On the press’s and the politicians’ fascination with Mexican American gangs, see: Nick Anderson, “Ad Brings Stereotype Charge,” Los Angeles Times (October 9, 2004); Arian Campo-Flores, “Gangland’s New Face,” Newsweek (December 8, 2003); Chris Kraul, Robert J. Lopez, and Rich Connell, “LA Violence Crosses the Line,” Los Angeles Times (May 15, 2005); Claudia Kolker, “Dancing for Pay, Dying by the Hand of a Demon,” Los Angeles Times (July 31, 1999); Charlie LeDurr, “100 Members of Immigrant Gang Are Held,” New York Times (March 15, 2005); Anne-Marie O’Connor, “Past Haunts Immigrant Who Says He Cut Gang Ties,” Los Angeles Times (April 21, 2000); Tony Perry, “Mexican Mafia Charges Filed,” Los Angeles Times (June 17, 2006); Dan Weikel, “INS Frees Man After Nine Months,” Los Angeles Times (May 24, 2000).
1. On the persistent fascination with the image of immigrants as criminals, see Francis Fasani, et al., Does Immigration Cause Crime? (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2019); Ramiro Martinez and Abel Valenzuela, Jr., eds., Immigration and Crime: Ethnicity, Race, and Violence (New York: New York University Press, 2006); Charles E. Kubrin, et al., eds. Punishing Immigrants: Policy, Politics, and Injustice (New York: New York University Press, 2012); Wesley S. McCann and Francis D. Boateng, National Security and Policy in America: Immigrants, Crime, and the Securitization of the Border (New York: Routledge, 2020).
56. See Julie M. Weise, Corazón de Dixie: Mexicanos in the U.S. South since 1910 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015).
57. Genaro C. Armas, “Hispanic Population Still Burgeoning,” Oregonian (October 8, 2003); Esmeralda Bermudez, “Five Men Arrested in Housing Scam,” Oregonian (March 15, 2004); Esmeralda Bermudez, “Hillsboro Survey Finds Gripes on Gain in Latino Population,” Oregonian (November 18, 2003); Steven Bodzin, “Latino Immigrants Filling Southern Niches, Study Finds,” Los Angeles Times (July 27, 2005); “A Chance to Reach Out,” New York Times (April 24, 2005); Mike Davis, “Magical Urbanism: Latinos Reinvent the US Big City,” National Labor Review, no. 234 (March April 1999), 3-43; Lawrence Downes, “The 185 Tequilas of Alida Yougez,” New York Times (January 8, 2006); Leon Fink, The Maya of Morgantown: Work and Community in the Nuevo New South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); Stephen Franklin, “‘Jobs that Americans Won’t Do’ Filled by Desperate Migrants,” Chicago Tribune (January 17, 2005); Jeffrey Gettleman, “Obscure Law Used to Jail Day Laborers in Georgia,” Los Angeles Times (August 21, 2001); William Grimes, “In This Small Town in Iowa the Future Speaks Spanish,” New York Times (September 14, 2005); “A High Death Rate for Hispanic Pedestrians in the South,” New York times (December 4, 2005); Peter Y. Hong, “Latinos Finding New Home in Suburbs, Study Shows,” Los Angeles Times (July 31, 2002); “Hope and Ashes in Farmingville,” New York Times (June 27, 2004); “In Georgia, Immigrant Recalls Night of Death and Violence,” New York Times (October 2, 2005); John McCormick and John Keilman, “Latinos Drive Growth,” Chicago Tribune (August 11, 2005); Robin Pogrebin, “Lured by the Work, but Struggling to Be Paid,” New York Times (October 17, 2005); Grogory Rodriguez, “La Nueva New Orleans,” Los Angeles Times (September 25, 2005); Ann M. Simmons, “Latinos in New Orleans, Suburb Feel Slighted,” Los Angeles Times (September 20, 2005); Stephanie Simon, “Latinos Take Root in Midwest,” Los Angeles Times (October 24, 2002); Stephen Striffler, “We’re All Mexicans Here: Poultry Processing, Latino Migration, and the Transformation of Class in the South,” paper presented to anthropology department, University of California, Santa Barbara (February 5, 2004); Zaragosa Vargas, Proletarians of the North: A History of Mexican Industrial Workers in Detroit and the Midwest, 1917-1933 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Víctor Zúñiga and Rubén Hernández-León, eds., New Destinations: Mexican Immigration in the United States (New York: Russell Sage, 2005).
58. Duke Helfand, “Nearly Half of Blacks, Latinos Drop Out, School Study Shows,” Los Angeles Times (March 24, 2005); Ruben Navarette, “Latino Immigrants Have Done Just Fine in Pursuing Dreams,” Los Angeles Times (May 27, 2003); Rand Corporation, “Rand Study Shows Hispanic Immigrants Move Up Economic, Educational Ladder As Quickly As Other Immigrant Groups” press release (May 22, 2003); Dianne Solis, “Latinos Lag Whites in Job Growth Recovery,” Oregonian (October 8, 2003).
59. Arlene Dávila, Latinos Inc.: The Marketing and Making of a People (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001); “Latin USA: How Young Hispanics Are Changing America,” Brook Larmer, “Latino America,” John Leland and Veronica Chambers, “Generation Ñ,” “Critical Más,” Christy Haubegger, “The Legacy of Generation Ñ,” Newsweek (July 12, 1999); Aliert Brown-Gort, “As American as Cinco de Mayo,” Chicago Tribune (May 4, 2005); Jennifer Delson, “Parade Caps Celebration of Mexican Culture,” Los Angeles Times (September 26, 2005).
60. Stuart Silverstein, “Chancellor Tackles Image Problems,” Los Angeles Times (May 27, 2003); “A New Campus ‘Vida’,” Newsweek (September 13, 2004); Lisa Helm, “Greeks Go Latin—Or Vice Versa,” Newsweek (November 1, 2004); “Academe’s Hispanic Future,” Chronicle of Higher Education, 50.14 (November 28, 2003); Kimi Yoshino, “Love of the Game Brings Angels’ Buyer to Baseball,” Los Angeles Times (May 15, 2003); Bill Plashke, “Touched by Moreno,” Los Angeles Times (May 23, 2003); “This Is American Soccer?” Los Angeles Times March 13, 2005); Paul Gutierrez, “Bachelors of Starts,” Los Angeles Times (May 28, 2005); Lauren Gustus, “Trying to Make a Connection: Real Salt Lake’s Relationship with Utah’s Latinos,” Salt Lake Tribune (August 3, 2005); Meg James, “Nielsen Bows to Latino Viewers,” Los Angeles Times (December 20, 2005); Meg James, “Networks Have an Ear for Spanish,” Los Angeles Times (September 11, 2005); Reed Johnson, “A Post-NAFTA Star,” Los Angeles Times (May 28, 2006).
61. See Kemper Diehl and Jan Jarboe, Cisneros: Portrait of a New American (San Antonio: Corona Publishing, 1985); Mario T. García, The Making of a Mexican American Mayor: Raymond L. Telles of El Paso and the Origins of Latino Political Power (Revised edition: Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2018); Rodney E. Hero, “The Elections of Federico Peña,” in Hero, Latinos and the U.S. Political System: Two-Tiered Pluralism (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992), pp. 116-130; Carlos Muñoz and Charles P. Henry, “Coalition Politics in San Antonio and Denver: The Cisneros and Peña Mayoral Campaigns,” in Rufus P. Browning, ed., Dale Rogers Marshall, ed., and David H. Tabb, ed., Racial Politics in American Cities (White Plains: Longman, 1990).
62. Noam N. Levey, “Q & A: Supervisor Gloria Molina,” Los Angeles Times (April 14, 2006); Jenifer Warren and Dan Morain, “His Is a Tale of Timing and Gradual Change,” Los Angeles Times (September 7, 2003); Steve Lopez, “Shedding Some Light on Bustamante’s Dark Activist Past,” Los Angeles Times (September 3, 2003); Patrick McGreevy, “Latinos, Flexing Political Muscle, Come of Age in LA,” Los Angeles Times (June 27, 2005); Nicolle Gaouette, “Latino Clout at Polls Lagging, study Says,” Los Angeles Times (June 28, 2005); Steve Hymon, “Sons Live Out a Dream,” Los Angeles Times (May 7, 2006); Jim Newton, “Speaker Villaraigosa Enters Race for Mayor,” Los Angeles Times (October 17, 1999); several articles on Villaraigosa victory, Los Angeles Times (May 19, 2005); “Latino Power: LA’s New Mayor—and How Hispanics Will Change American Politics,” cover story, Newsweek (May 30, 2005); John M. Broder, “New Mayor talks His Way Across Los Angeles’s Divides,” New York Times (May 30, 2005); Patrick McGreevy, “Villaraigosa Wins Over Crowds in Nation’s Capital,” Los Angeles Times (June 2, 2005); Jessica Garrison and Daniel Hernandez, “World Press Fits Villaraigosa Into the Big Picture,” Los Angeles Times (June 30, 2005); several articles on Villaraigosa taking office, Los Angeles Times (July 2, 2005); Daniel Hernandez, “Villaraigosa Aims to Make Most of ‘Latino Mayor’ Role,” Los Angeles Times (October 12, 2005).
63. Geraldo Cadava, The Hispanic Republican: The Shaping of an American Political Identity, From Nixon to Trump (New York: HaperCollins, 2020), p. xi.
64. David Kelly, “He’s the Non-Candidate on Everyone’s Radar,” Los Angeles Times (September 4, 2003); Jennifer Senior, “The Life of the Party?” New York Times (May 9, 2004); Mark Z. Barabak, “A New New Democrat Looks West and Forward,” Los Angeles Times (August 14, 2005); Ronald Brownstein, “Latino Clout, Improved Economy Soften GOP Stance on Immigration,” Los Angeles Times (July 19, 1999); Rubén Martínez, “The Ties That Bind Latinos,” Los Angeles Times (August 5, 2001); Sarah Kershaw, “A Vital Bloc, Realizing Its Power, Measures Its Suitors,” New York Times (February 2, 2004); James Rainey, “‘Hope Is On the Way,’ Edwards Assures Latinos in Los Angeles,” Los Angeles Times (July 17, 2004); Ronald Brownstein and Kathleen Hennessey, “Latino Vote Still Lags Its Potential,” Los Angeles times (September 25, 2004); Ricardo Alonso-Zaldivar, “Bush Snags Much More of the Latino Vote, Exit Polls Show,” Los Angeles Times (November 4, 2004); “Hispanic Voters Think Again,”  Los Angeles Times (November 11, 2004); David Stout, “Senate Rift Deep in Debate Over Attorney General Nominee,” New York Times (February 1, 2005); Richard B. Schmitt, “Ethnic roots to Show at Hearings,” Los Angeles Times January 6, 2005); Fernando J. Guerra, “The ‘Browning’ of US Politics,” Los Angeles Times (May 3, 2005).
65. Sources on Cuban immigration include: Cheris Brewer Current, Questioning the Cuban Exile Model: Race, Gender, and Resettlement, 1959-1979 (El Paso: LFB Scholarly Publishing, 2010); Elizabeth Campisi, Escape to Miami: An Oral History of the Cuban Rafter Crisis (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016); María de los Angeles Torres, In the Land of Mirrors: Cuban Exile Politics in the United States (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001); María de los Angeles Torres, The Lost Apple: Operation Pedro Pan, Cuban Children in the US, and the Promise of a Better Future (Boston: Beacon, 2004); Kathleen Dupes Hawk, Ron Villella, Adolfo Leyva de Varona, Florida and the Mariel Boatlift of 1980 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2014); Susan Eckstein, The Immigrant Divide: How Cuban Americans Changed the U.S. and Their Homeland (New York: Routledge, 2009); María Cristina García, Havana USA: Cuban Exiles and Cuban Americans in South Florida, 1959-1994 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); José Manuel García, Voices from Mariel: Oral Histories of the 1980 Cuban Boatlift (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2018); Guillermo J. Greiner, Lisandro Pérez, and Nancy Foner, The Legacy of Exile: Cubans in the United States (London: Pearson, 2002); Mirta Ojito, Finding Manana: A Memoir of a Cuban Exodus (New York: Penguin Books, 2006); James S. Olson and Jidith E. Olson, Cuban Americans (New York: Twayne, 1995); Alex Stepick, Guillermo Grenier, Max Castro, and Marvin Dunn, This Land Is Our Land: Immigrants and Power in Miami (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003); Victor Andres Triay, Fleeing Castro: Operation Pedro Pan and the Cuban Children’s Program (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1999); Victor Andres Triay, The Mariel Boatlift: A Cuban-American Journey (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2019).
66. Cuban Immigrants in the United States in 2013. Migration Policy Institute, April 7, 2015.
67. John-Thor Dahlburg, “Cuban Americans Applaud Ruling by High Court,” Los Angeles Times (January 15, 2005); Linda Greenhouse, “Supreme Court Rejects Mariel Cubans’ Detention,” New York Times (January 13, 2005); Alex Larzelere, The 1980 Cuban Boatlift (Washington: National Defense University Press, 1988).
68. Arian Campo-Flores, “Dance of the Cubans,” Newsweek (March 10, 2003); John-Thor Dahlburg, “Plea for Unity Among Cuban Exiles,” Los Angeles Times (January 14, 2003); John Pain, “Cuban Americans Try to Beat Trip Limits,” Oregonian (June 30, 2004); John M. Glionna, “Bush’s Cuban American Support May Be Slipping,” Los Angeles Times (September 21, 2004); Miguel Bustillo, “Some Cuban Exiles Give Up the Wait,” Los Angeles Times (August 2, 2006); Carol J. Williams, “Change in Cuba Policy Floated,” Los Angeles Times (August 10, 2006); Carol J. Williams, “In Miami, Graying Anti-Castro Movement Is Losing Steam,” Los Angeles Times (August 11, 2006).
69. Les Neuhaus, “When Obama dropped the wet foot, dry foot policy, he also snuffed out another program few Americans knew about,” Los Angeles Times (January 15, 2017).
70. CBS 12 News, “Vote 2020: Cuban Americans in Miami-Dade County support President Trump” (November 4, 2020); Nora Gámez Torres, “‘Invisible campaign’ and the specter of socialism: Why Cuban Americans fell hard for Trump,” Miami Herald (November 19, 2020); Jens Manuel Krogstad, “Most Cuban Americans voters identify as Republican in 2020,” Pew Research Center (October 2, 2020); “Vote Choice of Latino Voters in the 2020 Presidential Election,” UCLA Latino Policy and Politics Initiative (January 18, 2021), https://latino.ucla.edu/research/latino-voters-in-2020-election/?fbclid=IwAR1l_aTXdj9ATrkgdvtfI4itNmMUfd6DAgwodP7V2h0wthmlgjW_lYx0WxU
71. Yes, it is true that a young Fidel Castro possessed a good enough curve ball that he was drafted and offered a bonus by the New York Giants.  He chose instead to go to law school and pursue a career in revolution.
72. The Elián Gonzalez controversy was a daily news feature for several months.  See, e.g.: Joseph Contreras and Russell Watson, “A Little Boy in the Middle,” Newsweek (December 20, 1999); “Miami Kin File Petition to Fight Boy’s Return to Cuba,” Los Angeles Times (January 8, 2000); John J. Goldman, “Elian’s Grandmothers Fly to NY, Ask for His Release,” Los Angeles Times (January 22, 2000); Jack Kelley, “Quest for Freedom Knows No Bounds,” USA Today (March 10, 2000); Hector Tobar and Mike Clary, “Many Latinos Resent Exiles’ Clout, Favor Elian’s Return,” Los Angeles Times (April 15, 2000); Richard Serrano and Mike Clary, “Stalemate Over Fate of Elian Continues,” Los Angeles Times (April 15, 2000); Esther Schrader, “‘Cult of Elian’ Devotees Hold Out Hope for a Miracle,” Los Angeles Times (April 16, 2000); “Elián’s Ordeal,” cover story, Newsweek (April 17, 2000); Mike Downey, “With Friends Like These, Little Elian Needs No Enemies,” Los Angeles Times (April 19, 2000); Richard Serrano and Eric Lichtblau, “Elian’s Father Asks Public to Urge Reunion,”  Los Angeles Times (April 21, 2000); Richard A. Serrano, “Elian, Dad Reunited After Raid,” Los Angeles Times (April 23, 2000); Anna Quindlen, “The Sins of the Fathers,” Newsweeek (April 24, 2000); Robert Scheer, “Everyone Is Using the Little Boy,” Los Angeles Times (April 25, 2000); “Seizing Elian,” cover story, Newsweek (May 1, 2000); Evan Thomas, “Cashing In on Little Elián,” Newsweek (May 8, 2000); Mike Clary, “Cuban Americans United in Frustration,” Los Angeles Times (May 23, 2000); Esther Schrader, “Elian Returns to Cuba After Appeal Rejected,” Los Angeles Times (June 29, 2000); John-Thor Dahlberg, “Little Havana Hasn’t Forgiven or Forgotten the Seizure of Elian,” Los Angeles Times (February 1, 2005).
73. García, Havana USA, 163.
74. Kate Linthicum, “President Obama is coming to Cuba today: So why are so many Cubans leaving?” Los Angeles Times (March 19, 2016).
75. Les Neuhaus, “For decades, Cuban Americans have longed to return to a post-Castro Cuba. But now that Fidel is dead, many aren’t so eager to go, ” Los Angeles Times (November 27, 2016).
76. John Hudson, Anthony Failoa, and Karen DeYoung, “On its way out the door, Trump administration names Cuba a state sponsor of terrorism.” Washington Post (January 11, 2021).
77. “On its way out the door, Trump administration names Cuba a state sponsor of terrorism.”
78. Allison O’Connor, Jeanne Batalova, and Jessica Bolter, “Central American Immigrants in the United States,” Migration Policy Institute (August 15, 2019); Jie Zong and Jeanne Batalova, “Caribbean Immigrants in the United States,” Migration Policy Institute (February 13, 2019).
79. See the following books on Central American immigration to the US: Leisy J. Abrego, Sacrificing Families: Navigating Laws, Labor, and Love Across Borders (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 2014); J. P. Bone, Illegals (Second Edition: Berkeley: Mindfield, 2014); María Cristina García, Seeking Refuge: Central American Migration to Mexico, the United States, and Canada (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006); Roberto Lovato, Unforgetting: A Memoir of Family, Migration, Gangs, and Revolution in the Americas (New York: HarperCollins, 2020); Sonia Nazario, Enrique’s Journey (New York: Random House, 2006); Sonia Nazario, “Enrique’s Journey,” series, Los Angeles Times (September 29-October 7, 2002); El Norte; Stephen Kinzer, “The Trouble with Costa Rica,” New York Review of Books (June 8, 2006); Héctor Tobar, The Tattooed Soldier: A Novel (New York: Picador, 2014).
80. Sources on Puerto Rican migrants include: María Teresa Babín and Stan Steiner, eds., Borinquen: An Anthology of Puerto Rican Literature (New York: Knopf, 1974); Llana Barber, Latino City: Immigration and Urban Crisis in Lawrence, Massachusetts, 1945-2000 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017); Arlene Dávila, Barrio Dreams: Puerto Ricans, Latinos, and the Neoliberal City (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004); Lilia Fernndez, Brown in the Windy City: Mexicans and Puerto Ricans in Postwar Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014); Juan Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire: A History of Latinos in America (Revised Edition: London: Penguin Books, 2011); Edgardo Meléndez, Sponsored Migration: The State and Puerto Rican Postwar Migration to the United States (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2017); Aurora Levins Morales, Remedios: Stories of Earth and Iron from the History of Puertorriqueñas (Cambridge, Mass.: South End Press, 2001); Edward Rivera, Family Installments: Memories of Growing Up Hispanic (New York: Morrow, 1982); Clara E. Rodríguez, Puerto Ricans: Born in the USA (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1991); Virginia E. Sánchez Korrol, From Colonia to Community: The History of Puerto Ricans in New York City, rev. ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); Virginia Sánchez Korrol and Pedro Juan Hernández, Pioneros II: Puerto Ricans in New York City 1948-1998 (Charleston: Arcadia Publishing, 2010); Stan Steiner, The Islands: The Worlds of the Puerto Ricans (New York: Harper, 1974); Eileen J. Suárez Findlay, We Are left without a Father Here: Masculinity, Domesticity, and Migration in Postwar Puerto Rico (Durham: Duke University Press, 2014); Carmen Whalen, From Puerto Rico To Philadelphia: Puerto Rican Workers and Postwar Economies (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001; Carmen Whalen and Víctor Vázquez-Hernández, eds., The Puerto Rican Diaspora (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2005).
1. Sources on Dominicans, Jamaicans, and other West Indians include: Julia Alvarez, How the García Girls Lost Their Accents (New York: Workman, 1991); Barber, Latino City; Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire Angie Cruz, Dominicana (New York: Flatiron Books, 2020); Cindy Hahamovitch, No Man’s Land: Jamaican Guestworkers in America and the Global History of Deportable Labor (Princeton University Press 2013); Holger Henke, The West Indian Americans (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 2001); Philip Kasinitz, Caribbean New York: Black Immigrants and the Politics of Race (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992); Petty Levitt, The Transnational Villagers (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001); Silvio Torres-Saillant and Ramona Hernández, The Dominican Americans (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1998); Milton Vickerman, Crosscurrents: West Indian Immigrants and Race (New York: Oxford, 1999); Mary C. Waters, Black Identities: West Indian Immigrant Dreams and American Realities (New York: Russell Sage, 1999).
81. Sources on Haitians include: Karen McCarthy Brown, Mama Lola: A Vodou Priestess in Brooklyn (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); Sara Fanning, Caribbean Crossing: African Americans and the Haitian Emigration Movement (New York: New York University Press, 2015); Roxane Gay, Ayiti (New York: Grove Press, 2018); Wyclef Jean and Anthony Bozza, Purpose: An Immigrant’s Story (New York: It Books, 2013); Michel S. Laguerre, American Odyssey: Haitians in New York City (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1984); Carl Lindskoog, Detain and Punish: Haitian Refugees and the Rise of the World’s Largest Immigration Detention System (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2019); Jenna M. Loyd and Alison Mountz, Boats Borders, and Bases: Race, the Cold War, and the Rise of Migration Detention in the United States (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2018); Nina Glick Schiller and Georges Eugene Fouron, Georges Woke Up Laughing: Long-Distance Nationalism and the Search for Home (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2001); Francesca Momplaisir, My Mother’s House: A novel (New York: Knopf, 2020); Tekle Mariam Woldemikael, Becoming Black American: Haitians and American Institutions in Evanston, Illinois (New York: AMS, 1989); Melanie Shell-Weiss, Coming to Miami: A Social History (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2009); Flore Zéphir, The Haitian Americans (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 2004).
82. Brian Haas, Macollvie Jean François, and Tal Abbady, “46 Immigrants Caught in Upscale Florida Town,” Los Angeles Times (April 18, 2006); Ruth Ellen Wasem, “US Immigration Policy on Haitian Migrants,” Congressional Research Service Report for Congress (January 21, 2005); “David G. Savage, “Haitian Intercept Policy Backed by High Court Immigration,” Los Angeles Times (June 22, 1993); Mark Dow, “Occupying and Obscuring Haiti,” New Politics, 5.2 (1995); Sarah Bermeo, “Clinton and Coercive Diplomacy: A Study of Haiti,” Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University (April 24, 2001); Carolle Charles, “Political Refugees or Economic Immigrants? A New ‘Old Debate’ within the Haitian Immigrant Communities but with Contestations and Division,” Journal of American Ethnic History, 25.2-3 (2006), 190-208.
1. On the racial dimension of the differential treatment accorded Haitians, see Stepick, et al., This Land Is Our Land, 102-04.  The US Supreme Court ruled in 1985, in the case Jean et al. v. Nelson, that the INS was indeed violating the equal protection clause of the Fifth Amendment, in that the court judged the reason INS was treating Haitians differently with regard to parole from detention was made on the basis of race and national origin; LeMay and Barkan, US Immigration and Naturalization Laws and Issues, 280-81.
83. Schiller and Fouron, Georges Woke Up Laughing; Levitt, Transnational Villagers; Carol J. Williams, “The Benefactor,” Los Angeles Times (April 18, 2006).
84. Matt Kester, personal communication.  For theoretical insights into this phenomenon, see: James Clifford, “Diasporas,” Cultural Anthropology, 9.3 (1994), 302-38; Roger Rouse, “Mexican Migration and the Social Space of Postmodernism,” Diaspora, 1.1 (1991); Vijay Mishra, “The Diasporic Imaginary: Theorizing the Indian Diaspora,” Textual Practice, 10.3 (1996), 421-47; Robin Cohen, Global Diasporas: An Introduction (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997); Nicholas Van Hear, New Diasporas: The Mass Exodus, Dispersal, and Regrouping of Migrant Communities (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1998); Darshan Singh Tatla, The Sikh Diaspora (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1999); Paul Spickard, “Pacific Diaspora?” in Pacific Diaspora: Island Peoples in the United States and Across the Pacific, ed., Spickard (Honolulu: University of Hawai`i Press, 1-27); Shengling Chang, The Global Silicon Valley Home: Lives and Landscapes within Taiwanese American Trans-Pacific Culture (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2006).
85. Appendix, Table 9-14.
86. Appendix, Table 15.
87. Russian Americans and people from other Eastern European countries inherited some of the gangster stereotype from Italian Americans.  It was as little warranted in their case as it had been for Italians, but that did not stop TV shows like Law and Order from portraying countless menacing Ukrainian and Russian criminal masterminds.  The 2003 remake of The Italian Job (dir. F. Gary Gray, Paramount Pictures), included a sinister Ukrainian crime figure, of which a huge Samoan named Skinny Pete says fearfully, “If there’s one thing I know, it’s never to mess with mother nature, mother-in-laws, or mother-freaking Ukrainians.”  The Ukrainian in question proceeds to eliminate multiple characters in grisly ways.  On the reputed Albanian mob in New York, see Kareem Fahim, “Beating Them at Their Own Game,” New York Times (January 3, 2006).  For others, see James O. Finckenauer and Elin J. Waring, Russian Mafia in America: Immigration, Culture, and Crime (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998); Robert I. Friedman, Red Mafia: How the Russian Mob Has Invaded America (Boston: Little, Brown, 2000); William H. Webster, et al., “Russian Organized Crime” (Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1997).
88. On recent Polish migration, see Mary Patrice Erdmans, Opposite Poles: Immigrants and Ethnics in Polish Chicago, 1976-1990 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1998).  On Balkan migrants, see: T. Christian Miller, “Kosovo Families Adjusting to Life in the Valley,” Los Angeles Times (May 30, 1999); T. Christian Miller and Ann M. Simmons, “Relief Camps for Africans, Kosovars Worlds Apart,” Los Angeles Times (May 21, 1999); Natasha Radojcic, “The Many Faces of New York: Rented Mattress in an Adopted City,” International Herald Tribune (November 24, 2004).  For a penetrating look at how recent immigrants from Britain use their Englishness strategically to their advantage—to be even Whiter and hence more privileged than other White Americans—see Katharine W. Jones, Accent on Privilege: English Identities and Anglophilia in the US (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001).
89. Sources on sex work and migration include: Ruben Abati, Trapped: A Compendium of Issues on Illegal Migration and Human Trafficking (Lagos, Nigeria: Society for Enlightenment of Youths on Dangers Abroad); Laura Agustín, “The Plight of Migrant Women: They Speak, but Who’s Listening?” in Women@Internet: Creating New cultures in Cyberspace, ed W. Harcourt (London: Zed, 1999); Laura Agustín, “Working in the European Sex Industry: Migrant Possibilities,” OFRIM/Suplementos (June 2000); Anti-Slavery International, The Migration-Trafficking Nexus (London: Anti-Slavery International, 2003); Muhadjir Darwin, Anna Marie Wattie, Susi Eja Yuarsi, Cross-Border Mobility and Sexual Exploitation in the Greater Southeast Asia Sub-Region (Yogyakarta, Indonesia: Center for Population and Policy Studies, Garjah Mada University, 2003); Melissa Hope Ditmore, Engyclopedia of Prostitution and Sex Work (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 2006); Kristina Kangaspunta, Trafficking in Persons: Global Patterns (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, April 2006); Kamala Kempadoo, Jyoti Sanghera, Bandana Pattanaik, eds., Trafficking and Prostitution Reconsidered: New Perspectives on Migration, Sex Work and Human Rights (Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2005); Gilbert King, Woman, Child for Sale: The New Slave Trade in the 21st Century (New York: Chamberlain, 2004); David Kyle and Rey Koslowski,, eds., Global Human Smuggling (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001); Barbara Limanowska, Trafficking in Human Beings in South Eastern Europe (Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina: Unicef, 2003); Vincenzo Musacchio, “Migration, Prostitution and Trafficking in Women,” German Law Journal, 5.9 (2004), 1015-30; Organización Internacional par las Migraciones, Migración, Prostitución y Trata de Mujeres Dominicanas en la Argentina (Buenos Aires: OIM, 2003); Leah Platt, “Regulating the Global Brothel,” American Prospect (Summer 2001); Birgit Sauer, “Trafficking in women and Prostitution,” project of the Institute for Human Sciences, Vienna; Penelope Saunders, “Migration, Sex Work and Trafficking in Persons,” www.walnet.org/csis/papers/saunders-migration.html (July 10, 2006); Siriporn Skrobanek, Nataya Boonpakdee, Chutima Jantateero, The Traffic in Women: Human Realities of the International Sex Trade (London: Zed, 1997); Craig S. Smith, “Turkey’s Growing Sex Trade Snares Many Slavic Women,” New York Times (June 26, 2005); Dag Stenvoll, project leader, “Prostitution, Gender and Migration: Russian Women Selling Sex in Norway,” policy research working group (Bergen: Rokkansenteret, 2006); Sally Stoecker and Louise Shelley, Human Traffic and Transnational Crime: Eurasian and American Perspectives (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2005); United Nations International Office for Migration, Migrant Trafficking and Human Smuggling in Europe (UNIOM, 2000); Washington State Task Force Against Trafficking in Persons, Human Trafficking: Present Day Slavery (Olympia, Wash.: Office of Crime Victims Advocacy, 2004).
1. Some would argue that the more than 350 internet companies, such as the Svetlana Agency, that were offering international dating and pen pal services were promoting a softer-core version of sex for hire, women advertising themselves overseas in the hope of attracting husbands who would bring them to America.  See Nicole Constable, Romance on a Global Stage: Pen Pals, Virtual Ethnography, and “Mail Order” Marriages (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003).
90. In America, dir. Jim Sheridan (Fox Searchlight Pictures, 2002); Stephanie Merritt, “In the Pain of the Father,” The Observer (October 12, 2003); Nina Bernstein, “An Irish Face on the Cause of Citizenship,” New York Times (March 16, 2006); Nina Bernstein, “Greener Pastures (on the Emerald Isle): As American Dream Fades, More Irish Immigrants Are Going Home,” New York Times (November 10, 2004).
91. Sam Roberts, “More Africans Enter US Than in Days of Slavery,” New York Times (February 21, 2005).
92. Donatella Lorch, “Out of Africa,” Newsweek (March 19, 2001); Reimers, Other Immigrants, 232-60; Ann M. Simmons, “Sudanese Refugees Reunite to Plan Future,” Los Angeles Times (May 31, 2005); Simmons, “Years Later, ‘Lost Boy’ Finds Kin, but What About His Mom?” Los Angeles Times (June 11, 2005); Mark Bixler, The Lost Boys of Sudan: An American Story of the Refugee Experience (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2005); Alephonsian Deng, et al., They Poured Fire on Us From the Sky: The True Story of Three Lost Boys from Sudan (New York: Public Affairs Press, 2005).
93. Sources on female genital mutilation and its involvement in migration and asylum claims include: Tahirih Justice Center, “New Guidance for Asylum Officers Will Better Protect Survivors of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting,” https://www.tahirih.org/news/new-guidance-for-asylum-officers-will-better-protect-women-and-girls-who-survived-female-genital-mutilationcutting/ (February 26, 2016); Amnesty International, “Female Genital Mutilation—A Human Rights Information Pack,” www.amnesty.org/ailib/intcam/femgen/fgm1.htm (July 10, 2006); Efua Dorkenoo, Cutting the Rose: Female Genital Mutilation: The Practice and Its Prevention (London: Minority Rights Group, 1994); feminist.com, “Spotlight on Female Genital Mutilation,” www.feminist.com/violence/spot/fgm.html (July 10, 2006); Fran P. Hosken, Stop Female Genital Mutilation: Women Speak (Lexincton, Mass.: Women’s International News, 1995); Religious Tolerance.org, Debates about FGM, www.religioustolerance.org/fem_cirm.htm (July 10, 2006); Nahid Toubia and Susan Izett, Female Genital Mutilation: An Overview (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1998); Alice Walker and Pratibha Parmar, Warrior Marks: Female Genital Mutilation and the Sexual Blinding of Women (San Diego: Harcourt Brace, 1996).
94. Monica Anderson and Gustavo López, “Key facts about black immigrants in the U.S.,” Pew Research Center (January 24, 2018).
95. Roberts, “More Africans Enter.” Note that the difference was both that American did not see his Africanness and that his African identity was more obvious in Europe because there were very few local Blacks.
96. Tod G. Hamilton, Immigration and the Remaking of Black America (New York: Russell Sage, 2019).
97. Violet Showers Johnson, “Forty-one Shots Through the American Dream: Black Immigrants’ Narratives about the Diallo Killing,” paper presented to the Society for Multi-Ethnic Studies: Europe and the Americas (Pamplona, Spain, May 20, 2006); Kadiatou Diallo, My Heart Will Cross This Ocean: My Story, My Son, Amadou (New York: Ballantine, 2004); Sidney L. Harring, “The Diallo Incident: Another ‘Tragic Accident’ in New York’s War on Street Crime?” Social Justice, 21.1 (2000).
98. Sandra Murillo, “No Holiday From Homework,” Los Angeles Times (December 23, 2002).
99. Jeffrey Blankfort, “The Influence of Israel and Its American Lobby over US Middle East Policy,” paper presented to Islamic Human Rights Commission Conference, London School of Oriental and African Studies (July 2, 2006); Stephen Schwartz, Is It Good for the Jews? The Crisis of America’s Israel Lobby (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 2006); Louis Sahagun, Kelly Niknejad, and David Streitfeld, “Former Muslims Reach Out,” Los Angeles Times (March 27, 2006); Halima Kazem, “US Ambassador, ‘Viceroy of Afghanistan,’ Turns to Iraq,” Los Angeles Times (June 21, 2005); Michael Massing, “The Storm over the Israel Lobby,” New York Review of Books (June 8, 2006); Stephen Braun and Laura King, “Soldier Was Determined to Fight for Israel,” Los Angeles Times (August 12, 2006); Edmund Sanders, “US Outsider Surprises Congo,” Los Angeles Times (August 1, 2006).
100. P.J. Huffstutter, “Expatriates Eager to Rock the Iraqi Vote,” Los Angeles Times (January 10, 2005); Steven R. Weisman, “Many Iraqis to Cast votes in US,” New York Times (January 13, 2005); Maria L. La Ganga, “They Drove 22 Hours for a Defining Moment,” Los Angeles Times (January 30, 2005); Michael Krikorian, “Local Armenians Flock to Polls for Presidential Runoff,” Los Angeles Times (March 6, 2003).
101. The US Supreme Court was explicit in a 1967, Afroyim v. Rusk, that American citizens were allowed to vote in elections in other countries where they held dual citizenship; Michael LeMay and Elliott Robert Barkan, eds., US Immigration and Naturalization Laws and Issues (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1999), 264-66.  Wayne A. Cornelius, “Who Cares Where They Vote?” Los Angeles Times (July 3, 2005); Ken Ellingwood, “Getting Out the Cross-Border Vote,”  Los Angeles Times (June 28, 2000); Jennifer Mena, “Mexico’s 2006 Race Comes to Santa Ana,” Los Angeles Times (July 5, 2002); “North-of-the-Border Voting,” editorial, Los Angeles Times (March 18, 2005); Sam Quinones, “Mexican Emigres Cheer, Shrug at New Voting Right,” Los Angeles Times (July 2, 2005); Sam Enriquez, “US Is Off-Limits for Candidates in Mexico Elections,” Los Angeles Times (September 22, 2005); Sam Enriquez and Sam Quinones, “Mexico’s Absentee Voter Drive Slow in US,” Los Angeles Times (November 26, 2005); “Mexico’s Absentee Total Low,” Los Angeles Times (February 17, 2006).
102. Chi-Ting Peng, “The Taiwanese People’s Cold War: Elite Migration, Transnational Advocacy Networks, and the Making of Taiwan’s Democracy, 1977-1987” (dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara, 2020).
103. David Pierson, “Change in China, Change in LA,” Los Angeles Times (June 4, 2005); David Pierson, “Lee Visit Stirs Up Taiwan Debate,” Los Angeles Times (October 22, 2005); Mai Tran, “Emigres Oppose Visit by Leader of Vietnam,” Los Angeles Times (June 8, 2005); Mai Tran, “Vietnamese Activist’s Release is Sought,” Los Angeles Times (July 13, 2006); Jia-Rui Chong and David Pierson, “Activist Is Indicted in Coup Plot,” Los Angeles Times (June 2, 2005); David Pierson, “Man Indicted in Phnom Penh Attacks Active in GOP Causes,” Los Angeles Times (June 3, 2005);  Jia-rui Chong and David Pierson, “Fraud Alleged in Rebel Funding,” Los Angeles Times (June 9, 2005); Wendy Lee, “Southland Filipinos Mourn Influential Cardinal,” Los Angeles Times (June 22, 2005); Nate Carlisle, “Utah’s Sudanese Urge Probe of Death,” Salt Lake Tribune (August 3, 2005); David Pierson, “Protest Reflects a Shift in Chinese Americans’ Views,” Los Angeles Times (April 26, 2008); David Pierson, “Close to LA but Closer to Beijing,” Los Angeles Times (June 19, 2008); Barbara Demick and David Pierson, “China’s Exodus of the Corrupt” Los Angeles Times (June 6, 2012); My-Thuan Tran and Christopher Goffard, “A Jolt in New Vietnam Pact,” Los Angeles Times (January 24 2008); “Their Nation Lives On,” Los Angeles Times (April 30, 2008); Anh Do, “Political Prisoner, Now Free, Comes Home from Vietnam,” Los Angeles Times (February 1, 2013); Jose V. Fuentecilla, Fighting from a Distance: How Filipino Exiles Helped Topple a Dictator (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2013).
104. Barbara Demick, “Californian May Oversee North Korea Economic Zone,” Los Angeles Times (September 8, 2004); John M. Glionna, “Where to for Lotto Winner? Back Home to Help His Town,” Los Angeles Times (November 30, 2005); James Cox and Bill Nichols, “US Citizen Heads Russian Oil Titan,” USA Today (November 5, 2003); Evelyn Iritani, “Expatriates Play Key Role in India’s Economic Rise,” Los Angeles Times (August 12, 2006).
105. “When Cash Crosses Over,” editorial, Los Angeles Times (May 21, 2005); “Banks Without Borders,” editorial, Los Angeles Times (January 31, 2005); Richard Boudreaux, “Migrants’ Dollars Cross Border, Brick by Brick,” Los Angeles Times (June 1, 2003); Chris Kraul, “Tapping Generosity of Emigrants,” Los Angeles Times (June 8, 2000); Ginger Thompson, “A Surge in Money Sent Home by Mexicans,” New York Times (October 28, 2003); Ginger Thompson, “Mexico’s Migrants Profit From Dollars Sent Home,” New York Times (February 23, 2005); Lisa Richardson, “Yucatan Emigres Seek to Aid Wilma’s Victims,” Los Angeles Times (October 27, 2005); Reed Johnson, “A Parade of Human Loss,” Los Angeles Times (April 7, 2006).
106. Richard C. Paddock, “The Overseas Class,” Los Angeles Times (April 20, 2006); Paddock, “For Filipinos, Thoughts of a Paycheck Outweigh the Dangers,” Los Angeles Times (July 15, 2004); Parreñas, Servants of Globalization..
107. Leslie Earnest, “Made in LA, for Now,” Los Angeles Times (January 16, 2005); David Streitfeld, “Office of Tomorrow Has an Indian Address,” Los Angeles Times (August 29, 2004); Amy Waldman, “A Young American Outsources Himself to India,” New York Times (July 17, 2004); Michael F. Corbett, The Outsourcing Revolution (Chicago: Dearborn, 2004); Ron French, Driven Abroad: The Outsourcing of America (Berkeley: RDR Books, 2006); Steven Hill, “The American Dream…in Mexico,” Los Angeles Times (May 20, 2005); Evelyn Iritani, “Hot Housing Market Crosses the Border,” Los Angeles Times (October 10, 2005); Evelyn Iritani, “They’re Building in Baja,” Los Angeles Times (February 21, 2006).

Notes

1. Sources on immigration law changes in this period include: Roy Beck, The Case Against Immigration (New York: Norton, 1996); Roger Daniels, Coming to America, 2nd ed. (New York: Harper Collins, 2002); Roger Daniels, Guarding the Golden Door: American Immigration Policy and Immigrants since 1882 (New York: Hill and Wang, 2004); Susan Eaton, Immigration Nation: Immigrants, Refugees, and America at Its Best (New York: New Press, 2016); Otis L. Graham, Jr., Unguarded Gates: A History of America’s Immigration Crisis (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2004); Bill Ong Hing, Defining America Through Immigration Policy (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004); Bill Ong Hing, Deporting Our Souls: Values, Morality, and Immigration Policy (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006); Charles Hirschman, Philip Kasinitz, and Josh DeWind, eds., The Handbook of International Immigration: The American Experience (New York: Russell Sage, 1999); Kevin R. Johnson, The “Huddled Masses” Myth: Immigration and Civil Rights (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004); Kevin R. Johnson, Opening the Floodgates: Why America Needs to Rethink Its Borders and Immigration Laws (New York: New York University Press, 2007); Susanne Jonas and Suzie Dod Thomas, eds., Immigration: A Civil Rights Issue for the Americas (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1999); Erika Lee, “American Gatekeeping: Race and Immigration Law in the Twentieth Century,” in Not Just Black and White, ed. Nancy Foner and George M. Fredrickson (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2004), 119-44; Michael LeMay and Elliott Robert Barkan, eds., US Immigration and Naturalization Laws and Issues (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1999); John S. W. Park, Elusive Citizenship: Immigration, Asian Americans, and the Paradox of Civil Rights (New York: NYU Press, 2004); John S. W. Park, Immigration Law and Society (Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 2018); Cheryl Shanks, Immigration and the Politics of American Sovereignty, 1890-1990 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001); Reed Ueda, Postwar Immigrant America (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 1994); Mary C. Waters, et al., eds., The New Americans: A Guide to Immigration since 1965 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007).
2. LeMay and Barkan, US Immigration and Naturalization Laws and Issues, 210-13, 245-49, 263-64, 267-69, 271-75, 280-81; Carl J. Bon Tempo, Americans at the Gate: The United States and Refugees during the Cold War (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008); Elena Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, et al., eds., The Oxford Handbook of Refugee and Forced Migration Studies (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014); María Cristina García, The Refugee Challenge in Post-Cold War America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017).
3. LeMay and Barkan, US Immigration and Naturalization Laws and Issues, 276-77; italics added.
4. Mario T. García, Father Luis Olivares, a Biography: Faith Politics and the Origins of the Sanctuary Movement in Los Angeles (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2018).
5. PeteWilsonCA. “Pete Wilson 1994 campaign ad on illegal immigration.” YouTube video, 0:29, February 15, 2010, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lLIzzs2HHgY.
6. Sources on Proposition 187, its legacy, and the larger anti-Latinx immigrant discourse include: Gustavo Arellano, “Prop. 187 forced a generation to put fear aside and fight. It transformed California, and me,” Los Angeles Times (October 29, 2019); Gustavo Arellano, “Pete Wilson Still Defending Prop 187 and Fighting for a Better Place in History,” Los Angeles Times (November 17, 2019); Leo R. Chávez, The Latino Threat: Constructing Immigrants, Citizens, and the Nation (Second Edition: Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 2013); Robin Jacobson, The New Nativism: Proposition 187 and the Debate over Immigration (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008); Erika Lee, “Save Our State,” in Lee, America for Americans: A History of Xenophobia in the United States (New York: Basic Books, 2019), pp. 251-288; LeMay and Barkan, US Immigration and Naturalization Laws and Issues, 296-301; Philip Martin, “Proposition 187 in California,” International Migration Review, 29.1 (1995), reprinted in New American Destinies, Darell Y. Hamamoto and Rodolfo Torres, Eds. (New York: Routledge, 1997), 325-332; 187: The Rise of the Latino Vote, directed by Dignicraft and art collective. PBS SoCal, https://www.pbssocal.org/programs/187-the-rise-of-the-latino-vote/ ; Kent A. Ono and John M. Sloop, Shifting Borders: Rhetoric, Immigration, and California’s Proposition 187 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2002); Otto Santa Ana, “Proposition 187: Misrepresenting Immigrants and Immigration,” in Santa Ana, Brown Tide Rising: Metaphors of Latinos in Contemporary American Public Discourse (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002), pp. 65-103.
7. The Dole Institute of Politics. “Bob Dole for President Commercial – Illegal Aliens (1996).” YouTube video, 0:31, January 18, 2011, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pUspqabjZPs
8. LeMay and Barkan, US Immigration and Naturalization Laws and Issues, 301-10.
9. Michael Janofsky, “Legal Immigrants Would Regain Aid in Clinton Plan,” New York Times (January 25, 1999); Jonathan Peterson, “White House to Try to Restore Food Aid to Legal Immigrants,” Los Angeles Times (January 11, 2002).
10. Michael Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, Slavery and African Ethnicity in the Americas (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005).
11. Theodore W. Allen, The Invention of the White Race, 2 vols. (London: Verso, 1994, 1997); Bruce Baum, The Rise and Fall of the Caucasian Race (New York: New York University Press, 2006); Jennifer Nugent Duffy, Who’s Your Paddy? Racial Expectations and the Struggle for Irish American Identity (New York: New York University Press, 2014); Thomas A. Guglielmo, White on Arrival (New York: Oxford, 2003); Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York: Routledge, 1995); Ian F. Haney López, White by Law (New York: NYU Press, 1996); Nancy Isenberg, White Trash: The 400-Year Untold History of Class in America (New York: Viking, 2016); Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998); Winthrop D. Jordan, White Over Black (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968); David R. Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness (London: Verso, 1991); David R. Roediger, Colored White: Transcending the Racial Past (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002); David R. Roediger, Working Toward Whiteness: How America’s Immigrants Became White (New York: Basic Books, 2005); Nell Irvin Painter, The History of White People (New York: Norton, 2010).
12. Recent sources on the Chicana and Chicano (Chicana/o) movement include: Rodolfo F. Acuña, The Making of Chicana/o Studies: In the Trenches of Academe (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2011); Rudolfo Anaya, ed., Francisco A. Lomelí, ed., and Enrique R. Lamadrid, ed., Aztlán: Essays on the Chicano Homeland, Revised and Expanded Edition (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2017); Lauren Araiza, To March for Others: The Black Freedom Struggle and the United Farm Workers (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014); Frank P. Barajas, Mexican Americans with Moxie: A Transgenerational History of El Movimiento Chicano in Ventura County, California, 1945-1975 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2021); Lee Bebout, Mythohistorical Interventions: The Chicano Movement and Its Legacies (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2011); Maylei Blackwell, !Chicana Power!: Contested Histories of Feminism in the Chicano Movement (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2011); Ernesto Chávez, ““¡Mi Raza Primero!” (My People First!): Nationalism, Identity, and Insurgency in the Chicano Movement in Los Angeles, 1966-1978 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002); Ella María Díaz, Flying Under the Radar with the Royal Chicano Air Force: Mapping a Chicana/o Art History (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2017); Dionne Espinoza, ed., María Eugenia Cotera, ed., and Maylei Blackwell, ed., Chicana Movidas: New Narratives of Activism and Feminism in the Movement Era (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2018); Jerry García, ed., We Are Aztlan! Chicanx Histories in the Northern Borderlands (Pullman: Washington State University Press, 2017); Mario T. García, The Chicano Generation: Testimonios of the Movement (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2015); Mario T. García and Sal Castro, Blowout!: Sal Castro and the Chicano Struggle for Educational Justice (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014); Mario T. García, ed., The Chicano Movement: Perspectives from the Twenty-First Century (New York: Routledge, 2014); Mario T. García, ed., and Ellen McCracken, ed., Rewriting the Chicano Movement: New Histories of Mexican American Activism in the Civil Rights Era (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2021); Matthew Garcia, From the Jaws of Victory: The Triumph and Tragedy of Cesar Chavez and the Farm Worker Movement (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2014); Alan Elaido Gómez, The Revolutionary Imaginations of Greater Mexico: Chicana/o Radicalism, Solidarity Politics, and Latin American Social Movements (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2016); Juan Gómez-Quiñones and Irene Vásquez, Making Aztlán: Ideology and Culture of the Chicana and Chicano Movement, 1966-1977 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2014); Colin Gunckel, ed., La Raza (Los Angeles: UCLA Chicano Studies Research Center Press, 2020); George Mariscal, Brown-Eyed Children of the Sun: Lessons from the Chicano Movement, 1965-1975 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2005); Benjamin Márquez and Rodolfo Espino, “Mexican American support for third parties: the case of La Raza Unida.” Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 33, Issue 2 (2010), pp. 290-312; Lorena V. Márquez, La Gente: Struggles for Empowerment and Community Self-Determination in Sacramento (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2020); David Montejano, Quixote’s Soldiers: A Local History of the Chicano Movement, 1966-1981 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2010); Lorena Oropeza, The King of Adobe: Reies López Tijerina, Lost Prophet of the Chicano Movement (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019); Jimmy Patiño, Raza Sí, Migra No: Chicano Movement Struggles for Immigrant Rights in San Diego (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017); Miriam Pawel, The Crusades of César Chávez(New York: Bloomsbury, 2014); Laura Pulido, Black, Brown, Yellow, and Left: Racial Activism in Los Angeles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006); Guadalupe San Miguel Jr., Brown, Not White: School Integration and the Chicano Movement in Houston (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2005); Marc Simon Rodriguez, Rethinking the Chicano Movement (New York: Routledge, 2014); Harry L. Simón Salazar. “Movimiento voices on campus: The newspapers of the Chicana/o student movement,” Journal of Alternative and Community Media. Vol. 4, No. 3 (2019), pp. 56-70; Randy Shaw, Beyond the Fields: César Chávez, the UFW, and the Struggle for Justice in the Twenty-First Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010); Michael Soldatenko, Chicano Studies: The Genesis of a Discipline (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2011); Stacey K. Sowards, Sí Ella Puede!: The Rhetorical Legacy of Dolores Huerta and the United Farm Workers Movement (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2019).
13. For more on the student-led school blowouts in East Los Angeles, see Dolores Delgado Bernal, “Grassroots Leadership Reconceptualized: Chicano Oral Histories and the 1968 East Los Angeles School Blowouts,” Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies, Vol. 19, No. 2 (1998), pp. 113-142; and García and Castro, Blowout!. For more on the meaning of Chicano as a social, cultural, and political identity marker see: Ignacio M. García, Chicanismo: The Forging of a Militant Ethos among Mexican Americans (Third Edition: Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1997).
14. See Cynthia E. Orozco, No Mexicans, Women, or Dogs Allowed: The Rise of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2009).
15. Sources on the Lemon Grove Incident include: Robert R. Alvarez, Jr., “The Lemon Grove Incident,” The Journal of San Diego History, Vol. 32, No. 2 (Spring 1986), https://sandiegohistory.org/journal/1986/april/lemongrove/ ; Paul Espinosa, “Commentary: Mexican American parents fought for students in Lemon Grove in 1931. We saved their stories,” The San Diego Union-Tribune (July 23, 2020); The Lemon Grove Incident, directed by Paul Espinosa. PBS SoCal, https://www.pbs.org/video/the-lemon-grove-incident-gcrfxv/.  See also: Gilbert G. Gonzalez, Chicano Education in the Era of Segregation (Reprint Edition: Denton: University of North Texas Press, 2013).
16. F: Gonzalez, Chicano Education in the Era of Segregation; Philippa Strum, Mendez v. Westminster: School Desegregation and Mexican-American Rights (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2010); Caitlin Yoshido Kandil, “Mendez vs. segregation: 70 years later, famed case ‘isn’t just about Mexicans. It’s about everybody coming together,” Los Angeles Times (April 17, 2016).
17. Ian F. Haney López, Racism on Trial: The Chicano Fight for Justice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2003), 10-11.
18. Lea Ybarra and Nina Genera, “La batalla esta aqui: Chicanos and the War,” in Zaragosa Vargas, Major Problems in Mexican American History (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1999), 389-90.
19. Mario T. García, “Introduction: The Chicano Movement and Chicano Historiography,” in García, ed., The Chicano Movement, 2.
20. Books that examine these forms of Chicana/o activism include: Gómez, The Revolutionary Imaginations of Greater Mexico; Mariscal, Brown-Eyed Children of the Sun; and Patiño, Raza Sí, Migra No.
21. Ira Katznelson, When Affirmative Action Was White (New York: Norton, 2005).
22. Lauren Araiza, ““In Common Struggle against a Common Oppression”: The United Farm Workers and the Black Panther Party, 1968-1973,” The Journal of African American History, Vol. 94, No. 2 (Spring 2009), 200.
23. Don Normark, Chávez Ravine, 1949 (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1999), 50.
24. Sources on Latino panethnicity include: Frances R. Aparicio, Negotiating Latinidad: Intralatina/o Lives in Chicago (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2019); Sherrie Baver, ed., Angelo Falcón, ed., and Gabriel Haslip-Viera, ed., Latinos in New York: Communities in Transition (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2017); William V. Flores and Rina Benmayor, eds., Latino Cultural Citizenship (Boston: Beacon, 1997); Mario T. García, The Latino Generation: Voices of the New America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2018); Laura E. Gómez, Inventing Latinos: A New Story of American Racism (New York: The New Press, 2020); Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire; David E. Hayes-Bautista, La Nueva California: Latinos in the Golden State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004); Ed Morales, Latinx: The New Force in American Politics and Culture (Brooklyn: Verso, 2019); Paola Ramos, Finding Latinx: In Search of the Voices Redefining Latino Identity (New York: Vintage, 2020); Milagros Ricourt and Ruby Danta, Hispanas de Queens: Latino Panethnicity in a New York City Neighborhood (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2002); Wendy D. Roth, Race Migrations: Latinos and the Cultural Transformation of Race (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2012); Tomás F. Summer Sandoval, Latinos at the Golden Gate: Creating Community & Identity in San Francisco (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013); Roberto Suro, Strangers Among Us: Latino Lives in a Changing America (New York: Knopf, 1998); Héctor Tobar, Translation Nation: Defining a New American Identity in the Spanish-Speaking United States (New York: Riverhead, 2005); Sujey Vega, Latino Heartland: Of Borders and Belonging in the Midwest (New York: NYU Press, 2015).
25. Sources on Mexican American political participation during the Civil Rights movement and in the decades that followed include: Geraldo Cadava, The Hispanic Republican: The Shaping of an American Political Identity, from Nixon to Trump (New York: HarperCollins, 2020); Benjamin Francis-Fallon, The Rise of the Latino Vote: A History (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2019); Lisa García Bedolla, Latino Politics (Second Edition: Malden: Polity Press, 2014); Michelle Hall Kells, Vicente Ximenes, LBJ’s Great Society, and Mexican American Civil Rights Rhetoric (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2018); Gene Kopelson, “Ya Basta?!” Ronald Reagan’s 1966 Success with Mexican American Voters.” California History, Vol. 91, No. 4 (Winter 2014), 31-42.
26. Recent scholarship on the Young Lords include: Johanna Fernández, The Young Lords: A Radical History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2020); Darrel Enck-Wanzer, The Young Lords: A Reader (New York: NYU Press, 2010); Iris Morales, Through the Eyes of Rebel Women: The Young Lords 1969-1976 (New York: Red Sugarcane Press, 2016); Darrel Wanzer-Serrano, The New York Young Lords and the Struggle for Liberation (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2015); Young Lords Party, Palante: Voices and Photographs of the Young Lords, 1969-1971 (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2011).
27. Mitchell, Understanding Latino History, 136-137.
28. Sources on Asian American panethnicity and the Asian American movement include: Karin Aguilar-San Juan, ed., The State of Asian America: Activism and Resistance in the 1990s (Boston: South End Press, 1994); Edwin G. Burrows, Chinese and Japanese in Hawaii during the Sino-Japanese Conflict (Honolulu: Institute of Pacific Relations, 1939); Doug Chin, Seattle’s International District: The Making of a Pan-Asian American Community (Seattle: International Examiner Press, 2001); Catherine Ceniza Choy, A History of Asian International Adoption in America (New York: New York University Press, 2013): 131-60; Yen Le Espiritu, Asian American Panethnicity (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992); The Fall of the I-Hotel, dir. Curtis Choy (National Asian American Telecommunications Association, 1993); Emma Gee, ed., Counterpoint: Perspectives in Asian American (Los Angeles: UCLA Asian American Studies Center, 1976); Philip Kan Gotanda, Yankee Dawg You Die (New York: Dramatists Play Service, 1991); Russell Jeung, Faithful Generations: Race and New Asian American Churches (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2005); Erika Lee, The Making of Asian America: A History (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2016): 283-402; Michael Liu, The Snake Dance of Asian American Activism (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2008); Andrea Louie, How Chinese Are You? Adopted Chinese Youth and Their Families Negotiate Identity and Culture (New York: New York University Pess, 2015); Daryl Joji Maeda, Rethinking the Asian American Movement (New York: Routledge, 2011); Dina G. Okamoto, Redefining Race: Asian American Panethnicity and Shifting Ethnic Boundaries (New York: Russell Sage, 2014); Edward J. W. Park and John S. W. Park, Probationary Americans: Contemporary Immigration Policies and the Shaping of Asian American Communities (New York: Routledge, 2005); Lavina Dhingra Shankar and Rajini Srikanth, A Part, Yet Apart (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998); Amy Tachiki, et al., eds., Roots: An Asian American Reader (Los Angeles, UCLA Asian American Studies Center, 1971); Linda Trinh Vo, Mobilizing Asian American Community (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004); Karen Umemoto, “‘On Strike!’ San Francisco State College Strike, 1968-1969: The Role of Asian American Students,” Amerasia Journal, 15.1 (1989), 3-41; US Commission on Civil Rights, Civil Rights Issues Facing Asian Americans in the 1990s (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1992); Linda Trinh Vo, Mobilizing an Asian American Community (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004);William Wei, The Asian American Movement (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992); Helen Zia, Asian American Dreams (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2000).
29. This is described in detail in Paul Spickard, Japanese Americans, second ed. (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2009): 71-74, 147-49.  See also Quintard Taylor, The Forging of a Black Community (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1994).
30. Peter Irons, Justice at War: The Story of the Japanese American Internment Cases (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983); Peter Irons, ed., Justice Delayed: The Record of the Japanese American Internment Cases (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1989); Eric Yamamoto, Margaret Chon, Carol L. Izumi, Jerry Kang, Frank H. Wu, Race, Rights and Reparation: Law and the Japanese American Internment (New York: Aspen, 2001).  Quotes are from Justice Delayed, 25-26, 46.
31. Roger Daniels, Sandra C. Taylor, and Harry H. L. Kitano, eds., Japanese Americans: From Relocation to Redress, rev ed. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991); Leslie T. Hatamiya, Righting a Wrong: Japanese Americans and the Passage of the Civil Liberties Act of 1988 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1993); William Minoru Hohri, Repairing America: An Account of the Movement for Japanese-American Redress (Pullman: Washington State University Press, 1988); Mitchell T. Maki, Harry H. L. Kitano, and S. Megan Berthold, Achieving the Impossible Dream: How Japanese American obtained Redress (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999); Roy Miki, Redress: Inside the Japanese Canadian Call for Justice (Vancouver: Raincoast Books, 2005); Robert Sadamu Shimabukuro, Born in Seattle: The Campaign for Japanese American Redress (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001); Yasuko I. Takezawa, Breaking the Silence: Redress and Japanese American Ethnicity (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995); John Tateishi, Redress: The Inside Story of the Successful. Campaign for Japanese American Reparations (Berkeley: Heyday Books, 2020).
32. Nikki Nojima Louis, “Breaking the Silence,” in Takezawa, Breaking the Silence, vii.
33. Mary Frances Berry, My Face Is Black Is True: Callie House and the Struggle for Ex-Slave Reparations (New York: Random House, 2005); Boris J. Bittker, The Case for Black Reparations (Boston: Beacon, 2003); Roy L. Brooks, Atonement and Forgiveness: A New Model for Black Reparations (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004); William A. Darity Jr. and A. Kirsten Mullen, From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2020); Charles P. Henry, Long Overdue: The Politics of Racial Reparations (New York: New York University Press, 2007); Duke L. Kwon and Gregory Thompson, Reparations: A Christian Call for Repentance and Repair (Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos Press, 2021); Michael T. Martin and Marilyn Yaquinto, eds., Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007); Randall Robinson, The Debt: What America Owes to Blacks (New York: Dutton, 2000); Ronald P. Salzberger and Mary C. Turck, eds., Reparations for Slavery (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2004); Janna Thompson, Should Current Generations Make Reparation for Slavery? (Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 2018); John Torpey, ed., Politics and the Past: On Repairing Historical Injustices (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2003).
34. Sources on Native American activism and panethnic resurgence include: Dennis Banks and Richard Erdoes, Ojibwa Warrior: Dennis Banks and the Rise of the American Indian Movement (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004); Denise E. Bates, The Other Movement: Indian Rights and Civil Rights in the Deep South (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2012); Kent Blansett, A Journey to Freedom: Richard Oakes, Alcatraz, and the Red Power Movement (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2018); Fergus M. Bordewich, Killing the White Man’s Indian: Reinventing Native Americans a the End of the Twentieth Century (New York: Anchor, 1996); Colin G. Calloway, First Peoples (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 1999); Ward Churchill, Acts of Rebellion (New York: Routledge, 2003); Daniel M. Cobb, ed., Say We Are Nations: Documents of Politics and Protest in Indigenous America since 1887 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015): 153-248; Stephen Cornell, The Return of the Native: American Indian Political Resurgence (New York: Oxford, 1988); Julie L. Davis, Survival Schools: The American Indian Movement and Community Education in the Twin Cities (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2013); Vine Deloria, Behind the Trail of Broken Treaties: An Indian Declaration of Independence (New York: Delacorte, 1974); Hazel Hertzberg, The Search for an American Indian Identity: Modern Pan-Indian Movements (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1971); Patricia Penn Hilden, From a Red Zone (Trenton, N.J.: Red Sea Press, 2006); Frederick E. Hoxie, ed., Encyclopedia of North American Indians Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996); Frederick E. Hoxie, Peter C. Mancall, and James H. Merrell, eds., American Nations (New York: Routledge, 2001); Albert L. Hurtado and Peter Iverson, eds., Major Problems in American Indian History (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001); Bruce Johansen and Roberto Maestas, Wasi’chu: The Continuing Indian Wars (New York: Monthly Review, 1979); Troy R. Johnson, The Occupation of Alcatraz Island: Indian Self-Determination and the Rise of Indian Activism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996); Troy R. Johnson, “The Roots of Contemporary Native American Activism,” American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 20.2 (1996), 127-54; Troy R. Johnson, Joane Nagel, and Duane Champagne, eds., American Indian Activism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); Alvin M. Josephy, Joane Nagel, and Troy R. Johnson, eds., Red Power: The American Indians’ Fight for Freedom, 2nd ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999); Russell Means and Marvin J. Wolf, Where White Men Fear to Tread (New York: St. Martin’s, 1995); MariJo Moore, ed., Genocide of the Mind: New Native American Writing (New York: Nation Books, 2003); Peter Nabokov, Native American Testimony, rev. ed. (New York: Penguin, 1999); Joane Nagel, American Indian Ethnic Renewal: Red Power and the Resurgence of Identity and Culture (New York: Oxford, 1997); Paul Chaat Smith and Robert Allen Warrior, Like a Hurricane: The Indian Movement from Alcatraz to Wounded Knee (New York: New Press, 1996); Stan Steiner, The New Indians (New York: Dell, 1968); Carl Waldman, Atlas of the North American Indian, rev. ed. (New York: Checkmark, 2000); David Treuer, The Heartbeat of Wounded Knee (New York: Riverhead, 2019): 281-360.
35. These are the numbers who told the census they were Indians and did not acknowledge another identity.  When the option of claiming more than one identity became available in 2000, 1,867,876 people claimed Native identity in combination with another racial identity, for a total of 4,315,865.  Russell Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and Survival (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987), 160; US Bureau of the Census, “Census Bureau Releases 1990 Census Counts on Specific Racial Groups,” CB91-125 (Washington: Government Printing Office, June 12, 1991), table 1; Stella U. Ogunwole, US Bureau of the Census, We the People: American Indians and Alaska Natives in the United States, CENSR-28 (Washington: Government Printing Office, February 2006), Table 1; US Bureau of the Census, “2010 Census Shows Nearly Half of American Indians and Alaska Natives Report Multiple Races” (press release, January 25, 2012).
36. “A Proclamation from the Indians of All Tribes, Alcatraz Island, 1969,” in Major problems in American Indian History, ed. Hurtado and Iverson, 455-56.
37. Nabokov, Native American Testimony, 375-76.
38. Voices from Wounded Knee, 1973 (Rooseveltown, N.Y.: Akwesasne Notes, 1974); Mario Gonzalez and Elizabeth Cook-Lynn, The Politics of Hallowed Ground: Wounded Knee and the Struggle for Indian Sovereignty (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998).  On the denouement, see Incident at Oglala: The Leonard Peltier Story, dir. Michael Apted (Live/Artisan Studio, 1992); John William Sayer, Ghost Dancing the Law: The Wounded Knee Trials (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997); Leonard Peltier, Prison Writings: My Life Is My Sun Dance, ed. Harvey Arden (New York: St. Martin’s, 1999).
39. Robert White, Tribal Assets: The Rebirth of Native America (New York: Holt, 1990), 136-37.
40. Quotes are from Nagel, American Indian Ethnic Renewal, 187-212; see also Steven Chawkins, “Paddlers Cross Channel in Their Ancestor’s Wake,” Los Angeles Time (September 12, 2004); Clyde Ellis, “‘We Don’t Want Your Rations, We Want This Dance’: The Changing Use of Song and Dance on the Southern Plains,” Western Historical Quarterly, 30 (1999), 133-54; Sonia Krishnan, “Pillars of Indian Culture Honored,” Seattle Times (May 8, 2005); Edgar Sandoval, “Some Latinos Seek Their Pre-European Past,” Los Angeles Times (June 19, 2000).
41. Sources on tribal economic development include: Stephen Cornell and Joseph P. Kalt, eds., What Can Tribes Do? Strategies and Institutions in American Indian Economic Development (Los Angeles: UCLA American Indian Study Center, 1992); Cornell and Kalt, Reloading the Dice: Improving the Chances for Economic Development on American Indian Reservations (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development, 2003); Cornell and Kalt, Sovereignty and Nation-Building: The Development Challenge in Indian Country Today (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development, 2003); Cornell and Kalt, Two Approaches to Economic Development on American Indian Reservations: One Works, the Other Doesn’t (Tucson: Native Nations Institute, 2006); Eric C. Henson, et al., the State of the Native Nations: Conditions under US Policies of Self-Determination (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008); Dean Howard Smith, Modern Tribal Development: Paths to Self-Sufficiency and Cultural Integrity in Indian Country (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 2000); White, Tribal Assets.
42. Fay G. Cohen, Treaties on Trial: The Continuing Controversy Over Northwest Fishing Rights (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1986).
43. Marjane Ambler, Breaking the Iron Bonds: Indian Control of Energy Minerals (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1990); Ward Churchill and Winona LaDuke, “Native North America: The Political Economy of Radioactive Colonialism,” in The State of Native North America (Boston: South End Press, 1992); Peter H. Eichstaedt, If You Poison Us: Uranium and Native Americans (Santa Fe: Red Crane Books, 1994); Donald A. Grinde and Bruce E. Johansen, Ecocide of Native America: Environmental Destruction of Indian Lands and Peoples (Santa Fe: Clear Light, 1995); John K. Wiley, “Mining’s Dark Legacy for Tribe,” Oregonian (December 2, 2003).
44. Robert Gehrke, “Judge Holds Norton in Contempt,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer (September 18, 2002); Tom Gorman, “Land Battle Splits Shoshone Nation,” Los Angeles Times (July 22, 2002); J. Michael Kennedy, “Return of the Warrior,” Los Angeles Times (July 7, 2002); Henry Weinstein, “Appeals Court Removes Judge from Indian Trust Fund Case,” Los Angeles Times (July 12, 2006); Henry Weinstein, “Judge Orders Indian Trust Fund Action,” Los Angeles Times (February 24, 2005); Valerie J. Nelson, “Elouise Cobell Dies at 65: Native American Activist,” Los Angeles Times (October 17, 2011).
45. William R. Eadington, ed., Indian Gaming and the Law (Reno: Institute for the Study of Gambling and Gaming, 1990); Kenneth N. Hansen and Tracy A. Skopek, The New Politics of Indian Gaming: The Rise of Reservation Interest Groups (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 2011); Joseph G. Jorgenson, “Gaming and Recent American Indian Development,” American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 22.3 (1998), 157-72; Steven Andrew Light, Indian Gaming and Tribal Sovereignty (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2005); W. Dale Mason, Indian Gaming: Tribal Sovereignty and American Politics (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2000); Tony Perry, “$2-Million Donation Fits Tribe’s Bold Profile,” Los Angeles Times (September 3, 2003); Sam Howe Verhovek, “Plan for Off-Reservation Casino Causes Stir in Oregon,” Los Angeles Times (May 30, 2005).
46. William Overend, “Casino Money Is Fueling Chumash’s Interest in Past,” Los Angeles Times (June 16, 2003).
47. Casey Ryan Kelly, “Blood Speak: Ward Churchill and the Racialization of American Indian Identity,” Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies, 8.3 (2011): 240-65; Circe Sturm, Blood Politics: Race, Culture, and Identity in the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002); Wes Enzinna, “I Never Claimed I was F***ing Sitting Bull,” Mother Jones (September 5, 2017); Scott Richard Lyons, “The Termination and Removal of Ward Churchill,” Indian Country Today (September 12, 2018; orig. February 23, 2005).
48. Seth Prince, “American Native,” Oregonian (February 1, 2004); see also Patricia Penn Hilden, When Nickels Were Indians: An Urban, Mixed-Blood Story (Washington: Smithsonian, 1995); Eva Marie Garroutte, Real Indians: Identity and the Survival of Native America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003).
49. “Blood Feud,” Wired (September 2005); Will Chavez, “A Timeline for Cherokee Freedmen,” Cherokee Phoenix (February 1, 2021); Karen Kaplan, “Ancestry in a Drop of Blood,” Los Angeles Times (August 30, 2005); Mary Louise Kelly, “Cherokee Nation Strikes Down Language That Limits Citizenship Rights ‘By Blood’,” National Public Radio (February 25, 2021); Brent Staples, “When Racial Discrimination Is Not Just Black and White,” New York Times (September 12, 2003); Sturm, Blood Politics; Mark Walker, “Cherokee Nation Addresses Bias Against Descendants of Enslaved People,” New York Times (February 24, 2021).
50. Karen L. Blu, The Lumbee Problem: The Making of an American Indian People (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1980); Alexandra Harmon, Indians in the Making: Ethnic Relations and Indian Identities around Puget Sound (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998); Laurence M. Hauptman and Jack Campisi, “There Are No Indians East of the Mississippi,” in Hauptman, Tribes and Tribulations (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995), 94-108; David McKibben, “For Juaneño Indians, Unity Proves Elusive,” Los Angeles Times (October 10, 2005); Bobbi Nodell, “Duwamish Take to Canoes in Celebration of Their Past,” Seattle Times (September 1, 2002); Emma Schwartz, “Virginia Tribes Fight for Sovereignty,” Los Angeles Times (October 12, 2004); Paul Shukovsky, “McDermott bill Would Recognize Duwamish,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer (September 20, 2002); Tomas Alex Tizon, “A Rift Among History’s Voiceless,” Los Angeles Times (April 11, 2005).

It is worth noting that many of the issues and trends described in this section for continental Native peoples had parallels in the same period for Native Hawaiians.  See Moanike‘ala Akaka, et al., Na Wahine Koa: Hawaiian Women for Sovereignty and Demilitarization (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2018); Candace Fujikane and Jonathan Okamura, eds., Asian Settler Colonialism: From Local Governance to the Habits of Everyday Life (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2008); Michael Kioni Dudley and Keoni Kealoha Agard, A Call for Hawaiian Sovereignty (Honolulu: Na Kane O Ka Malu Press, 1993); Noelani Goodyear-Ka‘opua, et al., eds., A Nation Rising: Hawaiian Movements for Life, Land, and Sovereignty (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2014); George H. S. Kanahele, Ku Kanaka: Stand Tall: A Search for Hawaiian Values (Honolulu: University of Hawai`i Press, 1986); J. Kehaulani Kauanui, Hawaiian Blood: Colonialism and the Politics of Sovereignty and Indigeneity (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2008); J. Kehaulani Kauanui, Paradoxes of Hawaiian Sovereignty: Land, Sex, and the Colonial Politics of State Nationalism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2018); Poka Laenui, Another View on Hawaiian Sovereignty and Self-Determination (Waianae, Hawai‘i: privately printed, 1994); Davianna Pomaika‘i McGregor, “Recognizing Native Hawaiians: A Quest for Sovereignty,” in Pacific Diaspora, ed. Paul Spickard, Joanne Rondilla, and Debbie Hippolite Wright (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2002), 331-54; Jonathan Kamakawiwo`ole Osorio, “‘What Kine Hawaiian Are You?’ A Mo`olelo about Nationhood, Race, History, and the Contemporary Sovereignty Movement in Hawai‘i,” Contemporary Pacific, 13.2 (2002), 359-79; Haunani-Kay Trask, From a Native Daughter: Colonialism and Sovereignty in Hawai‘i (Monroe, Me.: Common Courage Press, 1993); Thurston Twigg-Smith, Hawaiian Sovereignty: Do the Facts Matter? (Honolulu: Goodale, 1998).

51. Sources on the Black Freedom Movement include: Joshua Bloom and Waldo E. Martin Jr., Black Against Empire: The History and Politics of the Black Panther Party (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2016); Julian Bond, Julian Bond’s Time to Teach: A History of the Southern Civil Rights Movement (Boston: Beacon Press, 2021); Charles E. Cobb Jr., This Nonviolent Stuff’ll Get You Killed: How Guns Made the Civil Rights Movement Possible (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2015); Roy DeBerry, Aviva Futorian, Stephen Klein, and John Lyons, Voices from the Mississippi Hill Country: The Benton County Civil Rights Movement (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2020); Mary Lou Finley, ed., Bernard Lafayette Jr., ed., James R. Ralph Jr., ed., and Pam Smith, ed., The Chicago Freedom Movement: Martin Luther King Jr. and Civil Rights Activism in the North (Reprint Edition: Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2018); Bruce A. Glasrud, ed., and Cary D. Wintz, ed., Black Americans and the Civil Rights Movement in the West (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2019); Peniel E. Joseph, Waiting ‘Til the Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power in America (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2006); Ibram X. Kendi, The Black Campus Movement: Black Students and the Racial Reconstitution of Higher Education, 1965-1972 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012); Chana Kai Lee, For Freedom’s Sake: The Life of Fannie Lou Hamer (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000); Danielle L. McGuire, At the Dark End of the Street: Black Women, Rape, and Resistance: A New History of the Civil Rights Movement from Rosa Parks to the Rise of Black Power (New Yorlk: Vintage, 2011); J. Todd Moye, Ella Baker: Community Organizer of the Civil Rights Movement (Reprint Edition: New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2015); Barbara Ransby, Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement: A Radical Democratic Vision (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005); Thomas Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks, 2009); Jeanne Theoharis, The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks (Boston: Beacon Press, 2015); Timothy B. Tyson, The Blood of Emmett Till (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2017); Yohuru Williams, Rethinking the Black Freedom Movement (New York: Routledge, 2015).
52. In White Rage: The Unspoken Truth of Our Racial Divide (Reprint Edition: New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2017), historian Carol Anderson described how every time racial progress was attempted or achieved in the United States, White backlash sought to undo it. This pattern repeated itself following the election of Barack Obama in 2008.
53. Clifton Wharton headed TIAA-CREF from 1987 to 1993, and it had sufficient assets to be included in Fortune’s list, but the magazine did not include companies not registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission at that time.  Tony Chapelle, “The State of the Black CEO,” Black MBA (2001), www.blackmbamagazine.com (July 23, 2006).
54. Melanie Eversley, “For Miss. Town, Voting Law Helped,” USA Today (August 5, 2005); “Bad New Days for Voting Rights,” New York Times, editorial (April 18, 2004); Peter Wallsten and Johanna Neuman, “Voting Rights Act Renewal Divides GOP,” Los Angeles Times (July 12, 2006); Johanna Neuman, “Voting Rights Act Renewal Wins House Approval,” Los Angeles Times (July 14, 2006); Valerie Wilson, “Racial disparities in income and poverty remain largely unchanged amid strong income growth in 2019),” Economic Policy Institute (September 16, 2020.
55. Reynolds Farley, Blacks and Whites: Narrowing the Gap? (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1984), 199; US Census, Public Information Office, “Income Stable, Poverty Race Increases, Percentage of Americans Without Health Insurance Unchanged,” press release (August 30, 2005).  See also Martin Carnoy, Faded Dreams: The Politics and Economics of Race in America (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Andrew Hacker, Two Nations: Black and White, Separate, Hostile, Unequal (New York: Ballantine, 1995).
56. Angela Provitera McGlynn, “The Gender Gap in Higher Education: More Striking Among Blacks and Latinos,” Hispanic Outlook in Higher Education Magazine (June 9, 2004); Manning Marable, “Blacks in Higher Education: An Endangered Species?” (July 2002) www.manningmarable.net  (July 23, 2006).  The Census did not think to include Asians until 2003.
57. Cassi Pittman Claytor, Black Privilege: Modern Middle-Class Blacks with Credentials and Cash to Spend (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2020); Will Cooley, Moving Up, Moving Out: The Rise of the Black Middle Class in Chicago (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2018); Lawrence B. De Graaf, “African American Suburbanization in California, 1960 through 1990,” in Seeking El Dorado: African Americans in California, ed. Lawrence B. De Graaf, Kevin Mulroy, and Quintard Taylor (Los Angeles: Autry Museum of Western Heritage, 2001), 405-49; E. Franklin Frazier, Black Bourgeoisie (New York: Free Press, 1957); Douglas G. Glasgow, The Black Underclass (New York: Vintage, 1981); Karyn R. Lacy, Blue-Chip Black: Race, Class, and Status in the New Black Middle Class (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007); Bart Landry, The New Black Middle Class in the Twenty-First Century (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2018); Bill E. Lawson, ed., The Underclass Question (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992); Mary Pattillo-McCoy, Black Picket Fences: Privilege and Peril Among the Black Middle Class (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000); Alphonso Pinckney, The Myth of Black Progress (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1984); William Julius Wilson, The Declining Significance of Race, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980); William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner city, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).
58. Suzanee Gamboa, “Can immigrant rights advocates get Biden to end for-profit ICE detention?” NBC News (January 29, 2021); Aamer Madhani, “Biden Orders Justice Dept. to end use of private prisons,” AP News (January 26, 2021).
59. Tom LoBianco, “Report: Aide says Nixon’s war on drugs targeted blacks, hippies,” CNN (March 26, 2016); German Lopez, “Was Nixon’s war on drugs a racially motivated crusade? It’s a bit more complicated,” Vox (March 29, 2016).
60. If convicted in court under this law, a possession of five grams of crack cocaine meant a mandatory minimum sentence of five years in a federal prison. To receive the same sentence for powder, the amount needed was 500 grams. The Fair Sentencing Act in 2010 cut the different to 18:1 instead of 100:1. For more information, see: Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness (10th Anniversary Edition: New York: New Press, 2020); James Austin and Aaron David McVey, “The 1989 NCCD Prison Population Forecast: The Impact of the War on Drugs,” The National Council on Crime and Delinquency (December 1989), https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Photocopy/122794NCJRS.pdf; Dan Baum, “Legalize It All: How to win the war on drugs,” Harper’s Magazine (April 2016), https://harpers.org/archive/2016/04/legalize-it-all/?single=1; Matthew R. Pembleton, “George H.W. Bush’s biggest failure? The war on drugs,” Washington Post, December 8, 2018.
61. Kathy Barnette, Nothing to Lose, Everything to Gain: Being Black and Conservative in America (New York: Hachette, 2020); Ward Connerly, Creating Equal: My Fight Against Race Preferences (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2000); G. Reginald Daniel and Josef Manuel Castañeda-Liles, “Race, Multiraciality, and the Neoconservative Agenda,” in Mixed Messages: Multiracial Identities in the “Color-Blind” Era, ed. David Brunsma (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2006), 125-45; John McWhorter, Authentically Black: Essays for the Black Silent Majority (Gotham Publishing, 2003); John McWhorter, Losing the Race: Self-Sabotage in Black America (New York: Free Press, 2000); John McWhorter, Winning the Race: Beyond the Crisis in Black America (New York: Gotham, 2006); Michael L. Ondattje, Black Conservative Intellectuals in Modern America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010); Tim Scott, Opportunity Knocks: How Hard Work, Community, and Business Can Improve Lives and End Poverty (New York: Hachette, 2020); Thomas Sowell, Ethnic America (New York: Basic Books, 1981); Thomas Sowell, Race and Economics (New York: Longman, 1975); Shelby Steele, The Content of Our Character: A New vision of Race in America (New York: Harper Perennial, 1991); Shelby Steele, A Dream Deferred: The Second Betrayal of Black Freedom in America (New York: Harper Collins, 1998); Shelby Steele, White Guilt: How Blacks and Whites Together Destroyed the Promise of the Civil Rights Era (New York: Harper Collins, 2006); Clarence Thomas, My Grandfather’s Son: A Memoir (New York: Harper, 2007); J. C. Watts Jr., What Color Is a Conservative: My Life in Politics (New York: Harper, 2003); Alan B. West, We Can Overcome: AN American Black Conservative Manifesto (Dallas: Brown Books, 2020); Robert L. Woodson, Sr., ed., Red, White, and Black: Rescuing American History from Revisionists and Race Hustlers (New York: Emancipation Books, 2021).

For correctives, see Derrick Bell, Faces at the Bottom of the Well: The Permanence of Racism (New York: Basic Books, 1992); Stephen L. Carter, Reflections of an Affirmative Action Baby (New York: Basic, 1991); Cornel West, Race Matters (New York: Vintage, 1994).

62. Horowitz’s comments came on CNN’s Crossfire (September 5, 1994), cited in Paul Rockwell, “The Right Has a Dream: Martin Luther King as an Opponent of Affirmative Action,” academic.udayton.edu/race (1995; retrieved July 24, 2006).
63. Sources on the White ethnic movement include: Michael Novak, The Rise of the Unmeltable Ethnics (New York: Macmillan, 1971); William Kornblum, Blue Collar community (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974); Matthew Frye Jacobson, Roots Too: White Ethnic Revival in Post-Civil Rights America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2006); Mary C. Waters, Ethnic Options: Choosing Identities in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990); Matt Wray and Annalee Newitz, eds., White Trash (New York: Routledge, 1997).
64. Novak, Unmeltable Ethnics, back cover.
65. Jean-Francois Drolet, American Neoconservatism: The Politics and Culture of a Reactionary Idealism (London: Hurst, 2011); Nathan Glazer, Affirmative Discrimination: Ethnic Inequality and Public Policy (New York: Basic Books, 1975); Glazer, Ethnic Dilemmas, 1964-1982 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983); Nathan Glazer, Clamor at the Gates: The New American Immigration (San Francisco: ICS Press, 1985); Irving Kristol, Reflections of a Neoconservative (New York: Basic Books, 1983); Irving Kristol, Neoconservatism: The Autobiography of an Idea (New York: Free Press, 1995); Irving Kristol, The Neoconservative Persuasion (New York: Basic Books, 2011).
66. I have analyzed the Whiteness studies movement at length in “What’s Critical about White Studies,” in Racial Thinking in the United States, ed. Paul Spickard and G. Reginald Daniel (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 2004), 248-74.  Among the best examples of this movement are: Allen, Invention of the White Race; Tomás Almaguer, Racial Fault Lines: The Historical Origins of White Supremacy in California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); Eric Avila, Popular Culture in the Age of White Flight: Fear and Fantasy in Suburban Los Angeles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004); Karen Brodkin, How Jews Became White folks and What That Says about Race in America (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1998); Robin DiAngelo, White Fragility: Why It’s So Hard for White People to Talk about Racism (Boston: Beacon, 2018); Philip J. Deloria, Playing Indian (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1998); Joe R. Feagin, Hernán Vera, and Pinar Batur, White Racism, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2001); Neil Foley, The White Scourge: Mexicans, Blacks, and Poor Whites in Texas Cotton Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Elizabeth Hale, Making Whiteness: The Culture of Segregation in the South, 1890-1940 (New York: Vintage, 1998); Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White; Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color; Isenberg, White Trash; Robert Jensen, The Heart of Whiteness: Confronting Race, Racism, and White Privilege (San Francisco: City Lights, 2005); George Lipsitz, The Possessive Investment in Whiteness: How White People Profit from Identity Politics (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998); Ian Haney Lopez, Dog Whistle Politics: How Coded Racial Appeals Have Reinvented Racism and Wrecked the Middle Class (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014); Painter, History of White People; Roediger, Wages of Whiteness; Roediger, Colored White; Alexander Saxton, The Rise and Fall of the White Republic (London: Verso, 1990); Tim Wise, White Like Me (New York: Soft Skull Press, 2005).

At the other end of the spectrum, one example among many of White studies as blatant Negrophobia is Jim Goad, Whiteness: The Original Sin (Stone Mountain, GA: Obnoxious Books, 2018).

67. Sources on immigrant bashing include: Nicholas Capaldi, ed., Immigration: Debating the Issues (Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus, 1997); John Crewdson, The Tarnished Door: The New Immigrants and the Transformation of America (New York: Times Books, 1983); Julie Hirschfeld Davis and Michael D. Shear, Border Wars: Inside Trump’s Assault on Immigration (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2019); Daniel Denvir, All-American Nativism (London: Verso, 2020); Gordon H. Hanson, Why Does Immigration Divide America? (Washington: Institute for International Economics, 2005); John C. Harles, Politics in the Lifeboat: Immigrants and the American Democratic Order (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1993); David Heer, Immigration in America’s Future (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1996); Robert S. Kahn, Other People’s Blood: US Immigration Prisons in the Reagan Decade (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1996); Erika Lee, America for Americans: A History of Xenophobia in the United States (New York: Basic Books, 2019); Juan F. Perea, ed., Immigrants Out! The New Nativism and the Anti-Immigrant Impulse in the United States (New York: NYU Press, 1997); David M. Reimers, Unwelcome Strangers: American Identity and the Turn Against Immigration (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998); Mary E. Williams, ed., Immigration: Opposing Viewpoints (San Diego: Greenhaven, 2004); Shoba Sivaprasad Woldha, Banned: Immigration Enforcement in the Time of Trump (New York: New York University Press, 2019).
68. Mary Barclay Erb, While America Sleeps . . . Foundations Crumble (Washington: Goetz, 1966), 30.  Erb also wrote Invasion Alert (Washington: Goetz, 1965).
69. “When the KKK and the INS are on the Same Side,” Herman Baca Papers, UCSD; “White Man Wake Up!” Published 1977-1978 by the Knight of the Ku Klux Klan, Herman Baca Papers, UCSD.
70. Peter Brimelow, Alien Nation: Common Sense About America’s Immigration Disaster (New York: Harper Perennial, 1996), xvii, xxi, 264.  Italics in original.  See also Brimelow, “Time to Rethink Immigration?” National Review (June 22, 1992), 30-46.
71. Patrick J. Buchanan, The Death of the West (New York: St. Martin’s, 2002), 3-5.
72. Buchanan, Death of the West, 125-27.  Buchanan predicted a similar dire fate for Europe: “[A]s the millions pour into Europe from North Africa and the Middle East, they will bring their Arab and Islamic culture, traditions, loyalties, and faith, and create replicas of their homelands in the heartland of the West.  Will they assimilate, or will they endure as indigestible parts of Africa and Arabia in the base camp of what was once Christendom?” (page  100).
73. Samuel P. Huntington, “The Hispanic Challenge,” Foreign Policy (March-April 2004); Huntington, Who Are We? The Challenges to America’s National Identity (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004).  I will quote from the article, as it has pith.  For incisive analysis of Huntington’s stance, see Louis Menand, “Patriot Games: The New Nativism of Samuel P. Huntington,” The New Yorker (May 17, 2004), 92-98.
74. Otis L. Graham Jr., Unguarded Gates: A History of America’s Immigration Crisis (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2004), xii, xv, 165.  Other immigrant bashers from this period included: Roy Beck, The Case Against Immigration (New York: Norton, 1996); Richard D. Lamm and Gary Imhoff, The Immigration Time Bomb (New York: Dutton, 1985); Jared Taylor, ed., The Real American Dilemma: Race, Immigration, and the Future of America (Oakton, Va.: New Century Foundation, 1998).
75. Buchanan, Death of the West, 218-20. When a listener commented after Otis Graham’s plenary address to the Organization of American Historians in Washington, DC, on April 20, 2006, to the effect that his argument was tied together by racism at its logical core, he shouted that the listener had no intellectual legitimacy because the listener had marked the racism.  It is almost enough to make one long for the forthrightness of Bull Connor or George

    To be fair, one must admit that some Americans welcomed immigrants from all places.  See, e.g., Susan E. Eaton, Integration Nation: Immigrants, Refugees, and America at Its Best (New York: New Press, 2016); Matthew Soerens and Jenny Yang, Welcoming the Stranger: Justice, Compassion, and Truth in the Immigration Debate, 2nd ed. (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2018).

76. On the longstanding, widespread conviction that the United States is, or should be, a White republic, see Edward J. Blum, Reforging the White Republic: Race, Religion, and American Nationalism, 1865-1898 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2015); Joshua A. Lynn, Preserving the White Man’s Republic: Jacksonian Democracy, Race, and the Transformation of American Conservatism (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2019); Saxton, Rise and Fall of the White Republic.
77. Geoff Eley and Ronald Grigor Suny, Becoming National (New York: Oxford, 1996); Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1983); E. J. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986); Howard Eissenstadt, “Metaphors of Race and Discourse of Nation: Racial Theory and State Nationalism in the First Decades of the Turkish Republic,” in Race and Nation: Ethnic Systems in the Modern World, ed. Paul Spickard (New York: Routledge, 2005), 239-56; Peter C. Perdue, China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2005).
78. Sources on affirmative action include:  Terry H. Anderson, The Pursuit of Fairness: A History of Affirmative Action (New York: Oxford, 2004); Herman Belz, Equality Transformed: A Quarter-Century of Affirmative Action (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1991); Barbara R. Bergmann, In Defense of Affirmative Action (New York: Basic Books, 1996); William G. Bowen and Derek Bok, The Shape of the River: Long-Term Consequences of Considering Race in College and University Admissions (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1998); Steven M. Cahn, ed., Affirmative Action and the University (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993); Carter, Affirmative Action Baby; Connerly, Creating Equal; George E. Curry, ed., The Affirmative Action Debate (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1996); Terry Eastland, Ending Affirmative Action: The Case for Colorblind Justice (New York: Basic Books, 1997); Terry Eastland and William J. Bennett, Counting by Race: Equality from the Founding Fathers to Bakke and Weber (New York: Basic, 1979); Lynne Eisaquirre, Affirmative Action: A Reference Handbook (Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-Clio, 1999); Richard A. Epstein, Forbidden Grounds: The Case Against Employment Discrimination Laws (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992); Kathanne W. Greene, Affirmative Action and Principles of Justice (New York: Greenwood, 1989); Randall Kennedy: For Discrimination: Race, Affirmative Action, and the Law (New York: Pantheon, 2013); Rachel Kranz, Affirmative Action (New York: Facts on File, 2002); Andrew Kull, The Color-Blind Constitution (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992); Frederick R. Lynch, Invisible Victims: White Males and the Crisis of Affirmative Action (New York: Praeger, 1991); Paul D. Moreno, From Direct Action to Affirmative Action: Fair Employment Law and Policy in America, 1933-1972 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1997); Albert G. Mosley and Nicholas Capaldi, Affirmative Action: Social Justice of Unfair Prejudice? (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1996); Kul B. Raj and John W. Critzer, Affirmative Action and the University (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000); Barbara Reskin, The Realities of Affirmative Action in Employment (Washington: American Sociological Association, 1998); Richard Rothstein, The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How our Government Segregated America (New York: Liveright, 2017); Philip F. Rubio, A History of Affirmative Action, 1619-2000 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2001); Girardeau Spann, The Law of Affirmative Action (New York: NYU Press, 2000); Richard F. Tomasson, Faye J. Crosby, and Sharon D. Herzberger, Affirmative Action: The Pros and Cons of Policy and Practice (Washington: American University Press, 1996); Melvin Urofsky, The Affirmative Action Puzzle: A Living History from Reconstruction to Today (New York: Pantheon, 2020); Robert J. Weiss, We Want Jobs: A History of Affirmative Action (New York: Garland, 1997); Tim Wise, Affirmative: Racial Preference in Black and White (New York: Routledge, 2005).
79. Ira Katznelson, When Affirmative Action Was White (New York: Norton, 2005), 174-75.
80. Jack Ohma, editorial cartoon reproduced in the Seattle Times (January 20, 2003).  Bush had two sorts of preference going for him when he applied to Yale: his father and grandfather were influential alumni (his grandfather had just retired as US Senator from Connecticut, the state where Yale is located), and he was awarded points for geographical diversity since he was from Texas.  C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford, 1956); G. William Domhoff, The Higher Circles: The Governing Class in America (New York: Random House, 1970); G. William Domhoff, The Powers That Be: Processes of Ruling-Class Domination in America (New York: Random House, 1978); G. William Domhoff, Who Rules America? 5th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005); Peter W. Cookson and Caroline Hodges Persell, Preparing for Power: America’s Elite Boarding Schools (New York: Basic Books, 1987); Arthur Powell, Lessons from Privilege: The American Prep School Tradition (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998).  We do not mean to suggest that the Bushes and Trump were not fine Presidents, only that they could not  possibly have gotten to that position on their sterling qualities alone, had it not been for the extreme privilege with which they were blessed from birth.
81. Katznelson, When Affirmative Action Was White, 140-41; Mary Poole, The Segregated Origins of Social Security (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006).  See also Lipsitz, Possessive Investment.
82. Buchanan, Death of the West, 218.
83. Brimelow, Alien Nation, 219.
84. The anti-affirmative action movement has been directed primarily against racial affirmative action.  With respect to a few professions—police, fire fighters, perhaps engineers—anti-affirmative action impulses may have gender targets, but gender is not usually where the resistance has occurred.
85. Sources on Proposition 54 and the assault on racial analysis include several issues of The Egalitarian, the American Civil Rights Institute’s newsletter; David A. Hollinger, “Race, Politics, and the Census,” Chronicle of Higher Education (March 17, 2006); Patricia J. Williams, “Racial Privacy,” The Nation (June 17, 2002); Gregory Rodriguez, “Prop. 54 Could Undermine Racial Gains,” Los Angeles Times (August 31, 2003); and materials on pro- and anti-Prop 54 websites www.racialprivacy.org and www.defeat54.org (October 2003).
86. Sources on multiculturalism include:  Alba Amoia and Bettina L. Knapp, Multicultural Writers Since 1945 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 2004); Charlotte Crabtree and Gary B. Nash, National Standards for United States History (Los Angeles: UCLA National Center for History in the Schools, 1994); Antonia Darder and Rodolfo D. Torres, After Race: Racism After Multiculturalism (New York: NYU Press, 2004); Curtiss Paul DeYoung, Michael O. Emerson, George Yancey, and Karen Chai Kim, United by Faith: The Multiracial Congregation as an Answer to the Problem of Race (New York: Oxford, 2003); Henry Louis Gates, Jr., Loose Canons: Notes on the Culture Wars (New York: Oxford, 1992); Avery F. Gordon and Christopher Newfield, eds., Mapping Multiculturalism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996); Sneja Gunew, Haunted Nations: The Colonial Dimensions of Multiculturalisms (New York: Routledge, 2004); Roger Hewitt, White Backlash and the Politics of Multiculturalism (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2005); Mike Hill, After Whiteness: Unmaking an American Majority (New York: NYU Press, 2004); Louis Hoffman, et al., eds., Humanistic Approaches to Multiculturalism and Diversity (New York: Routledge, 2020); Gerald P. Kernerman, Multicultural Nationalism (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2005); James Kyung-Jin Lee, Urban Triage: Race and the Fictions of Multiculturalism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004); Donald Macedo, Literacies of Power (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1994); Michael T. Maly, Beyond Segregation: Multiracial and Multiethnic Neighborhoods in the United States (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2005); Satya P. Mohanty, Linda Martin Alcoff, Michael Hames-Garcia, and Paul M. L. Moya, eds., Identity Politics Reconsidered (New York: Palgrave Macmillan 2006); Gary B. Nash, Charlotte Crabtree, and Ross E. Dunn, History on Trial: Culture Wars and the Teaching of the Past (New York: Knopf, 1997); C. Spencer Platt, et al., eds., Multiculturalism in Higher Education (Charlotte, NC: Information age Publishing, 2020); Ali Rattansi, Multiculturalism: A Very Short Introduction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011); Ronald Takaki, A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (Boston: Little, Brown, 1993).
87. Rick Simonson and Scott Walker, eds., Multicultural Literacy (St. Paul, Minn.: Graywolf Press, 1998), x-xi.
88. Lawrence W. Levine, The Opening of the American Mind: Canons, Culture, and History (Boston: Beacon, 1996), xviii-xix.
89. Prominent opponents of multiculturalism included: Richard Bernstein, Dictatorship of Virtue: Multiculturalism and the Battle for America’s Future (New York: Knopf, 1994); Allan Bloom, The Closing of the American Mind: How Higher Education Has Failed Democracy and Impoverished the Souls of Today’s Students (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987); Dinesh D’Souza, Illiberal Education: The Politics of Race and Sex on Campus (New York: Free Press, 1991); Nathan Glazer, We Are All Multiculturalists Now (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997); E. D. Hirsch, Jr., Cultural Literacy (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1987); John J. Miller, The Unmaking of Americans: How Multiculturalism has Undermined America’s Assimilation Ethic (New York: Free Press, 1998); Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., The Disuniting of America (New York: Norton, 1992).
90. Alvin J. Schmidt, The Menace of Multiculturalism (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1997), 4, 7.
91. James Kyung-Jin Lee, Urban Triage: Race and the Fictions of Multiculturalism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004); Viet Thanh Nguyen, review of Urban Triage, Amerasia Journal, 32.1 (2006), 136-39; Daniel Klaidman, “Homesick for Texas,” Newsweek (July 12, 2004), 32.
92. “Have a Great Weekend Sale,” Los Angeles Times (March 5, 2006); Charles Leroux, “Let Your Dedos Do the Walking,” Chicago Tribune (March 23, 2004); Matea Gold and Joe Mathews, “At Fresno Rally, Bustamante Switches Spotlight to Himself,” Los Angeles Times (September 8, 2003); Jonathan Abrams, “La Virgen Is Queen of court,” Los Angeles Times (July 16, 2006); Suketu Mehta, “The Meltingest Pot,” New York Times (October 5, 2003).
93. Nguyen, op. cit., 139.
94. The places to begin on the multiracial movement include: G. Reginald Daniel, More Than Black? Multiracial Identity and the New Racial Order (Philadelphia: Temple UP, 2002); Maria P. P. Root, ed., Racially Mixed People in America (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1992); Root, ed., The Multiracial Experience (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1995); Teresa Williams-León and Cynthia L. Nakashima, eds., The Sum of Our Parts: Mixed Heritage Asian Americans (Philadelphia: Temple UP, 2001); and Naomi Zack, Race and Mixed Race (Philadelphia: Temple UP, 1993).  Other prominent writings on multiracial people and the movement include: Gloria Anzaldúa, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (San Francisco: Aunt Lute Press, 1987); Katya Gibel Azoulay, Black, Jewish, and Interracial (Durham: Duke UP, 1997); Carol Camper, ed., Miscegenation Blues: Voices of Mixed Race Women (Toronto: Sister Vision, 1994); Sui Sin Far, Mrs. Spring Fragrance and Other Writings (Urbana: U of Illinois Press, 1995); Jack D. Forbes, Black Africans and Native Americans: Color, Race and Caste in the Evolution of Red-Black Peoples (New York: Basil Blackwell, 1988); Kip Fulbeck, Paper Bullets (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001); Kip Fulbeck, Part Asian – 100% Hapa (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 2006); Lise Funderburg, Black, White, Other: Biracial Americans Talk About Race and Identity (New York: Morrow, 1994); Patricia Penn Hilden, When Nickels Were Indians: An Urban, Mixed-Blood Story (Washington: Smithsonian, 1995); Margaret L. Hunter, Race, Gender, and the Politics of Skin Tone (New York: Routledge, 2005); Jayne O. Ifekwunigwe, ed., ‘Mixed Race’ Studies (New York: Routledge, 2004); Kevin R. Johnson, How Did You Get to be Mexican? A White/Brown Man’s Search for Identity (Philadelphia: Temple UP, 1999); Yelena Khanga, Soul to Soul: The Story of a Black Russian American Family, 1865-1992 (New York: Norton, 1992); Karen Isaaksen Leonard, Making Ethnic Choices: Punjabi-Mexican Americans (Philadelphia: Temple UP, 1994); James McBride, The Color of Water: A Black Man’s Tribute to His White Mother (New York: Riverhead, 1996); Robert S. McKelvey, Dust of Life: America’s Children Abandoned in Vietnam (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1999); Barack Obama, Dreams from My Father: A Story of Race and Inheritance (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1995); Nguyen, Unwanted; Clara E. Rodríguez, Changing Race: Latinos, the Census, and the History of Ethnicity in the United States (New York: NYU Press, 2000); David Parker and Miri Song, eds., Rethinking ‘Mixed Race’ (London: Pluto Press, 2001); Maria P. P. Root and Matt Kelley, eds., Multiracial Child Resource Book (Seattle: Mavin, 2003); Miri Song, Choosing Ethnic Identity (London: Polity, 2003); Paul Spickard, Mixed Blood: Intermarriage and Ethnic Identity in Twentieth-Century America (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989); Paul Spickard, Race in Mind: Critical Essays (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2015); Spickard and Daniel, Racial Thinking; Barbara Tizard and Ann Phoenix, Black, White, or Mixed Race? (New York: Routledge, 1993); Dorothy West, The Wedding (New York: Doubleday, 1995); Gregory Howard Williams, Life on the Color Line (New York: Penguin, 1995); Joel Williamson, New People: Miscegenation and Mulattoes in the United States (New York: Free Press, 1980); Loretta Winters and Herman DeBose, eds., New Faces in a Changing America: Multiracial Identity in the 21st Century (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2003); Marguerite Wright, I’m Chocolate, You’re Vanilla: Raising Healthy Black and Biracial Children in a Race-Conscious World (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998).
95. Jeremiah Marquez, “Strom Thurmond Was Her Father, Says Mixed-Race Woman,” Oregonian (December 14, 2003); Jacob Jordan, “Thurmond Daughter Feels ‘Free’,” Oregonian (December 18, 2003); Marie Cocco, “Strom’s Daughter: A Life Separate, Unequal,” Oregonian (December 18, 2003); Charles Coulter, “Race Watch,” Kansas City Star (December 18, 2003); Marilyn W. Thompson, “The Long Road to Truth,” Washington Post (January 4, 2004); Essie May Washington-Williams, Dear Senator (New York: Harper, 2005).
96. Maria Root, “Within, Between, and Beyond Race,” in Racially Mixed People, ed. Root, 3-11; Charlotte Astor, “Gallup Poll: Progress in Black/White Relations, but Race is Still an Issue,” US Society and Values, 2.3 (August 1997); Alison Stein Wellner, “US Attitudes Toward Interracial Dating Are Liberalizing,” Population Reference Bureau report (June 2005); George Yancey, “Who Interracial Dates,” Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 33.2 (2002), 177-90; Sharon M. Lee and Barry Edmonston, “New Marriages, New Families: US Racial and Hispanic Intermarriage,” Population Bulletin, 60.2 (2005); Gretchen Livingston and Anna Brown, “Public Views on Intermarriage: Intermarriage in the US 50 Years After Loving v. Virginia,” Pew Research Center: Social and Demographic Trends (May 18, 2017).
97. US Census Bureau, The Two or More Races Population: 2000 (Census 2000 Brief C2KBR/01-6; Washington, 2001).
98. Daniel, More Than Black?, 191-94.
99. Sources on Asian Americans and the eternal foreigner theme include: Michael Chang, Racial Politics in an Era of Transnational Citizenship: The 1996 “Asian Donorgate” Controversy in Perspective (Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2004); Darrell Y. Hamamoto, Monitored Peril: Asian Americans and the Politics of Representation (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994); K. Connie Kang, “US Asians Seen as ‘Alien,’ Study Finds,” Los Angeles Times (March 2, 2000); Mia Tuan, Forever Foreigners or Honorary Whites? The Asian Ethnic Experience Today (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1998).
100. Ted W. Lieu, “Are You in the Chinese Air Force?” Washington Post (June 19, 1999).
101. The best sources on Lee’s tribulations are his autobiography, written with Helen Zia, My Country Versus Me (New York: Hyperion, 2001), and the Los Angeles Times accounts by Robert Scheer, e.g.: “What’s Been Done to Lee Is Outrageous” (November 23, 1999); “Why Was Lee Indicted, and Not Deutch?” (February 8, 2000); “CIA’s Deutch Heedlessly Disregarded Security” (February 29, 2000); “Case Against Lee Is Flying Out Window” (April 18, 2000); “Lee Does Penance for Justice Dept.’s Sins” (July 25, 2000); “Wong One Is on Trial in Lee Case” (August 25, 2000); “How Can Lee—How Can We—Forget What the Government Did?” (September 14, 2000); “China Spying Story: All the Excuses Fit to Print” (February 6, 2001); “The Persecution of Wen Ho Lee, Redux” (August 7, 2001); “Lee: Guilty Until Proved Innocent” (August 17, 2001).

Analytical accounts include Neil Gotanda, “Comparative Racialization: Racial Profiling and the Case of Wen Ho Lee,” UCLA Law Review, 47 (2000), 1689-1703; Dan Stober and Ian Hoffman, A Convenient Spy: Wen Ho Lee and the Politics of Nuclear Espionage (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001); Spencer K. Turnbull, “Wen Ho Lee and the Consequences of Enduring Asian American Stereotyped,” in Asian American Politics, ed. Don T. Nakanishi and James S. Lai (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2003), 303-16; Cheuk-Yin Wong, “The Los Alemos Incident and Its Effects on Chinese American Scientists,” in Chinese American Voices, ed. Judy Ung, Gordon Chang, and Him Mark Lai (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006), 416-22; Frank H. Wu, “Profiling Principle: The Prosecution of Wen Ho Lee and the Defense of Asian Americans,” in Asian American Politics, ed. Nakanishi and Lai, 297-301.
Other journalistic accounts include: Angela Oh, “Spy Charges Fueled Search for Scapegoats,” Los Angeles Times (June 21, 1999); “FBI Made Wen Ho Lee Think He Failed Polygraph,” Washington Post (January 8, 2000); James Glanz, “Asian-American Scholars Call for Boycott of Labs,” New York Times (May 31, 2000); Bob Pool, “Rally Denounces Charges in Spy Case,” Los Angeles Times (June 9, 2000); James Glanz, “Fallout in Arms Research: Amid Race Profiling Claims, Asian-Americans Avoid Labs,” New York Times (July 16, 2000); James Sterngold, “Defense Argues Ethnicity Made Scientist a Suspect,” New York Times (August 16, 2000); James Sterngold, “Agent Concedes Faulty Testimony in Secrets Case,” New York Times (August 18, 2000); Bob Drogin, “Science Academies Decry Lee’s Treatment,” Los Angeles Times (September 1, 2000); Bob Drogin, “Scientist to Accept Plea Deal; Likely to Be Freed Today,” Los Angeles Times (September 11, 2000); Bob Drogin, “How FBI’s Flawed Case Against Lee Unraveled,” Los Angeles Times (September 13, 2000); Bob Drogin, “Wen Ho Lee Freed; Judge Scolds US Over Case Tactics,” Los Angeles Times (September 14, 2000); “A Case of Shame,” editorial, Los Angeles Times (September 14, 2000); Robert L. Jackson, “Clinton Criticizes Justice Dept. Over Wen Ho Lee Case,” Los Angeles Times (September 15, 2000); Gish Jen, “Wen Ho Lee, Still Not So Very Free,” New York Times (September 15, 2000); Anthony Lewis, “It Did Happen Here,” New York Times (September 16, 2000); James Sterngold, “Asian-Americans Demanding Bias Inquiry in Scientist’s Case,” New York Times (September 18, 2000); Michael Isikoff, “Into the Sunshine,” Newsweek (September 25, 2000); Bob Drogin and Eric Lichtblau, “Reno, Freeh Insist Wen Ho Lee Posed ‘Great Risk’ to US,” Los Angeles Times (September 27, 2000); Matthew Purdy, “The Making of a Suspect: The Case of Wen Ho Lee,” New York Times (February 4, 2001); Matthew Purdy, with James Sterngold, “The Prosecution Unravels,” New York Times (February 5, 2001); Michael Isikoff, “The Lee Case: A Damning Report,”  Newsweek (August 27, 2001); Adam Liptak, “Scientist, News Media Settle Suit on Privacy,” New York Times (June 3, 2006).

102. Court transcript, quoted in Lon Kurashige and Alice Yang Murray, eds., Major Problems in Asian American History (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003), 440-41.
103. Sources on Arab, other Middle Eastern, and Muslim Americans include: Nabeel Abraham and Andrew Shryock, eds., Arab Detroit (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2000); André Aciman, False Papers (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2000); Wajahat Ali, et al., fear, Inc.: The Roots of the Islamophobia Network in America (Washington: Center for American Progress, 2011); Ibrahim Aoudé, “Arab Americans and Ethnic Studies,” Journal of Asian American Studies, 9.2 (2006), 141-56; Michael Arlen, Passage to Ararat (New York: Ballantine, 1975); Hani J. Bawardi, The Making of Arab Americans: From Syrian Nationalism to US Citizenship (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2014; Moustafa Bayoumi, How Does It Feel to Be a Problem? Being Young and Arab in America (New York: Penguin, 2008); Moustafa Bayoumi, This Muslim American Life: Dispatches from the War on Terror (New York: New York University Press, 2015); Peter Balakian, Black Dog of Fate: An American Son Uncovers His Armenian Past (New York: Broadway, 1997); Brothers and Others, dir. Nicolas Rossier (Arab Film Distribution, 2002); Louise Cainkar and Sunaina Maira, “Targeting Arab/Muslim/South Asian Americans: Criminalization and Cultural Citizenship,” Amerasia Journal, 31.3 (2005), 1-27; Jonathan Curiel, Al’ America: Travels Through America’s Arab and Islamic Roots (New York: New Press, 2008); G. Patricia de la Cruz and Angela Brittingham, The Arab Population: 2000, US Census 2000 Brief C2KBR-23 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 2003); Firoozeh Dumas, Funny in Farsi (New York: Random House, 2003); Zarena Grewall, Islam Is a Foreign Country: American Muslims and the Global Crisis of Authority (New York: New York University Press, 2014); Sarah M. A. Gualtieri, Arab Routes: Pathways to Syrian California (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2020); Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, ed., The Muslims of America (New York: Oxford, 1991);  Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and Adair T. Lummis, Islamic Values in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Elaine C. Hagopian, Civil Rights in Peril: The Targeting of Arabs and Muslims (Chicago: Haymarket, 2004); Deepa Iyer, We Too Sing America: South Asian, Arab, Muslim, and Sikh Immigrants Shape Our Multiracial Future (New York: New Press, 2015); Amaney Jamal and Nadine Naber, eds., Race and Arab Americans Before and After 9/11: From Invisible Citizens to Visible Subjects (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2008); Ron Kelley, ed., Irangeles: Iranians in Los Angeles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Hanif Kureishi, My Son the Fanatic (London: Faber and Faber, 1997); Lee, America for Americans, 289-320; Erik Love, Islamophobia and Racism in America (New York: New York University Press, 2017); Neda Maghboulh, The Limits of Whiteness: Iranian Americans and the Everyday Politics of Race (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2017); Sunaina Maira and Magid Shihade, “Meeting Asian/Arab American Studies,” Journal of Asian American Studies, 9.2 (2006), 117-41; Amir Marvasti and Karyn D. McKinney, Middle Eastern Lives in America (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2004); C. Eric Lincoln, The Black Muslims in America, 3rd ed. (Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press, 1994); Kathleen M. Moore, Al-Mughtaribun: American Law and the Transformation of Muslim Life in the United States (Albany: SUNY Press, 1995); Pamela E. Pennock, The Rise of the Arab American Left: Activists, Allies, and Their Fight against Imperialism and Racism, 1960s-1980s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017); Vijay Prashad, “Ethnic Studies Inside Out,” Journal of Asian American Studies, 9.2 (2006), 157-76; Doug Sanders, Myth of the Muslim Tide: Do Immigrants Threaten the West? (New York: Random House, 2012); Jack G. Shaheen, Arab and Muslim Stereotyping in American Popular Culture (Washington: Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding, Georgetown University, 1997); Jack Shaheen, The TV Arab (Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1984);  Jack Shaheen, Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People (New York: Olive Branch Press, 2001); Evelyn Shakir, Bint Arab: Arab and Arab American Women in the United States (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1997); Garbi Schmidt, Islam in Urban America (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004); Michael W. Suleiman, ed., Arabs in America (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999); Richard Brent Turner, Islam in the African-American Experience (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997).
104. Peter H. King, “18 Years Waiting for a Gavel to Fall,” Los Angeles Times (June 29, 2005); King, “Live of Worry, Sadness,’ Why?’” Los Angeles Times (June 30, 2005).
105. Louise Cainkar, “The Social Construction of Difference and the Arab American Experience,” Journal of American Ethnic History, 25.2-3 (2006), 243-78.
106. Schmidt, Islam in Urban America, 33; A Rush to Judgment: A Special Report on Anti-Muslim Stereotyping, Harassment and Hate Crimes Following the Bombing of Oklahoma City’s Murrah Federal Building, April 19, 1995 (Washington: council on American-Islamic Relations, 1995).
107. Khaled Hosseini, The Kite Runner (New York: Riverhead, 2003); Azadeh Moaveni, Lipstick Jihad: A Memoir of Growing up Iranian in America and American in Iran (New York: Public Affairs, 2005); Asra Q. Nomani, Standing Alone in Mecca: An American Woman’s Struggle for the Soul of Islam (San Francisco: Harper Collins, 2005).
108. Masuda Sultan, My War At Home (New York: Washington Square Press, 2006).
109. Material for this section comes from hundreds of articles drawn from the Los Angeles Times, New York Times, and other newspapers from September 2001 to summer 2006.  We will give individual citations only to major books, sources of quotations, and materials on specific, limited subtopics.
110. Lydia O’Connor, “How 9/11 Changed These Muslim Americans’ Lives Forever,” HuffPost (September 10, 2016).
111. “Banned Muslim Scholar Resigns from US Post,” Los Angeles Times (December 15, 2004); Johnathan Dowd-Gailey, “Yvonne Haddad: America’s Islam ‘Sensitivity’ Trainer,” FrontPage Magazine (December 14, 2005); Brock Read, “Columbia U. Professor, Criticized for Views on Israel, Is Banned From Teacher-Training Program,” Chronicle of Higher Education (February 22, 2005).
112. Lynette Clemetson, “Homeland Security Given Data on Arab-Americans,” New York Times (July 30, 2004); Alexander Cockburn, “The FBI and Edward Said,” Nation (February 2006); David Price, “How the FBI Spied on Edward Said,” counterpunch.com (January 13, 2006); Sam Howe Verhovek, “Once Appalled by Race Profiling, Many find Themselves Doing It,” New York Times (September 23, 2001); Henry Weinstein, Michael Finnegan, and Teresa Watanabe, “Racial Profiling Gains Support as Search Tactic,” Los Angeles Times (September 24, 2001); Sandy Banks, “En Route to a Newfound Prejudice,” Los Angeles Times (October 7, 2001); “Congressman Cooksey Again Calls for Racial Profiling: An Ugly Appeal,” Washington Post (October 11, 2001); Mona Charen, “Columnist Says Pull Over ‘Middle Eastern-Looking’ Drivers,” Washington Times (October 18, 2001); Florangela Davila, “Bank Accused of Profiling,” Seattle Times (January 12, 2002); Sharon Begley, “The Latest Trouble With Racial Profiling,” Newsweek (January 14, 2002); Lori Hope, Did I Save Lives of Engage in Profiling?” Newsweek (April 1, 2002); Fareed Zakaria, “Freedom vs. Security: A Delicate Balance: The Case for ‘Smart Profiling’ as a Weapon in the War on Terror,” Newsweek (July 8, 2002).
113. On CIA detention and torture sites, see: Meron Benevisti, et al., Abu Ghraib: The Politics of Torture (Berkeley: North Atlantic Books, 2004); Mark Danner, torture and Truth: America, Abu Ghraib, and the War on Terror (New York: New York Review Books, 2004); Seymour M. Hersh, Chain of Command: The Road from 9/11 to Abu Ghraib (New York: Harper, 2004); Alfred W. McCoy, A Question of Torture: CIA Interrogation, from the Cold War to the War on Terror (New York: Holt, 2006); Alfred W. McCoy, Torture and Impunity: The US Doctrine of Coercive Interrogation (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2012); United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, The Official Senate Report on CIA Torture (New York: Skyhorse Publishing, 2015).

On the extralegal prison at Guantanamo Bay, see: Laurel E. Fletcher, et al., The Guantanamo Effect: Exposing the Consequences of US Detention and Interrogation Practice (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009); Peter Jan Honigsberg, A Place Outside the Laws: Forgotten Voices from Guantanamo (Boston: Beacon, 2019); Joseph Margulies, Guantanamo and the Abuse of Presidential Power (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006).

114. Jeffrey S. Passel, “Estimates of the Size and Characteristics of the Undocumented Population,” Pew Hispanic Center report (March 21, 2005); Maura Reynolds and Nicole Gaouette, “Immigration Bill Is on Hiatus With the Senate,” Los Angeles Times (April 8, 2006); Carlos Gutierrez-Jones and Josef Castañeda-Liles, “Basic Facts about Immigration,” aad.english.ucsb.edu/basicfacts.html (May 2, 2006).
115. Tancredo.house.gov/irc/nationalsecurity.html (August 1, 2006); Mark Z. Barabak, “GOP Lawmaker Relishes Role as a Flamethrower,” Los Angeles Times (December 27, 2005); “Tancredo: If They Nuke Us, Bomb Mecca,”,” foxnews.com (July 18, 2005); Tom Tancredo, In Mortal Danger: The Battle for America’s Border and Security (Nashville: WND Books, 2006): 9.
116. Jim Gilchrist and Jerome R. Corsi, Minutemen: The Battle to Secure America’s Borders (Los Angeles: World Ahead Publishing, 2006); Jennifer L. Johnson, Grandmothers On Guard: Gender, Aging, and the Minutemen at the US-Mexico Border (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2021); Harel Shapira, Waiting for José: The Minutemen’s Pursuit of America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017); Ricardo Alonso-Zaldivar, “US to Bolster Arizona Border Security,” Los Angeles Times (March 30, 2005); Timothy Gean, “Wanted: Border Hoppers. And Some Excitement, Too,” New York Times (April 1, 2005); David Kelly, “Border Watchers Capture Their Prey—the Media,” Los Angeles Times (April 5, 2005); Peter Nicholas and Robert Salladay, “Gov. Praises ‘Minuteman’ Campaign,” Los Angeles Times (April 29, 2005); “‘Minutemen’ End Unofficial Border Patrol, but Plan to Return,” New York Times (May 1, 2005); Anna Gorman, “Volunteers to Patrol Border Near San Diego,” Los Angeles Times (May 5, 2005); Leslie Berestein, “New Buzz in the Immigration Debate,” San Diego Union-Tribune (May 13, 2005); Jennifer Delson and Mai Tran, “After Minuteman Melee, Protesters Have New Beef,” Los Angeles Times (May 27, 2005); Scott Gold, “Border Watchers Gear Up for Expanded Patrol,” Los Angeles Times (July 3, 2005); Richard Marosi, “‘California Minutemen’ Begin Patrol,” Los Angeles Times (July 17, 2005); “Border Patrol Considering Use of Volunteers, Official Says,” New York Times (July 21, 2005); “US Bars Plan to Let Civilians Patrol Borders,” New York Times (July 22, 2005); Sarah Vobell, “Lock and Load,” New York Times (July 23, 2005); “Marchers Protest Border Patrol Groups,” New York Times (July 24, 2005); Anna Gorman and Richard Marosi, “Minuteman-Style Border Patrol Is Over in No Time,” Los Angeles Times (September 18, 2005); Jean O. Pasco, “Border Activist a Wild Card in OC Election,” Los Angeles Times (October 2, 2005); Jean O. Pasco, “Minuteman a Wild Card in OC Race,” Los Angeles Times (October 6, 2005).
117. Andrew Pollack, “2 Illegal Immigrants Win Arizona Ranch in Court,” New York Times (August 19, 2005); Beth DeFalco, “Ranch of Foe of Immigrants Given to Nemeses,” San Francisco Chronicle (August 20, 2005).

Images

Notes

1. In addition to the sources noted in the succeeding notes, this chapter is built on an archive of news clippings extending over more than 30 linear feet that the authors collected between 2005 and 2021.  Those featured in the notes constitute only a tiny fraction of the sources that undergird our analysis.
2. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/remarks-president-trump-vice-president-pence-members-coronavirus-task-force-press-briefing-april-7-2020/; Jake Lahut, “Fauci says the coronavirus is ‘shining a bright light’ on ‘unacceptable’ health disparities for African Americans.” Business Insider (April 7, 2020).
3. Sources for this section include: Julie Hirschfeld Davis and Michael D. Shear, Border Wars: Inside Trump’s Assault on Immigration (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2019); Daniel Denvir, All-American Nativism; How the Bipartisan War on Immigrants Explains Politics as We Know It (London: Verso, 2020); A. Naomi Paik, Bans, Walls, Raids, Sanctuary: Understanding US Immigration for the Twenty-First Century (Oakland: University of California Press, 2020); Sarah Pierce and Jessica Bolter, Dismantling and Reconstructing the US Immigration System: A Catalog of Changes under the Trump Presidency (Washington: Migration Policy Institute, 2020);  Nikhil Pal Singh, Race and America’s Long War (Oakland: University of California Press, 2017).
4. Geraldo Cadava, The Hispanic Republican, 110
5. Sources for this section include: Thomas J. Main, The Rise of the Alt-Right (Washington: Brookings Institution Press, 2018); Alexandra Minna Stern, Proud Boys and the White Ethnostate: How the Alt-Right is Warping the American Imagination (Boston: Beacon, 2019); Marisa Abrajano, White Backlash: Immigration, Race, and American Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015); Sarah Churchwell, Behold, America: The Entangled History of “America First” and “The American Dream” (New York: Basic Books, 2018); Betty A. Dobratz and Stephanie L. Shanks-Meile, The White Separatist Movement in the United States: “White Power, White Pride!” (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000); Michael O Emerson and Christian Smith, Divided by Faith: Evangelical Religion and the Problem of Race in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001); Alexander Laban Hinton, It Can Happen Here: White Power and the Rising Threat of Genocide in the US (New York: New York University Press, 2021); Richard T. Hughes, Myths America Lives By: White Supremacy and the Stories That Give Us Meaning, 2nd ed. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2018); Ashley Jardina, White Identity Politics (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2019); Robert P. Jones, White Too Long: The Legacy of White Supremacy in American Christianity (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2020); Talia Lavin, Culture Warlords: My Journey into the Dark Web of White Supremacy (New York: Hachette, 2020); Jonathan M. Metzl, Dying of Whiteness: How the Politics of Racial Resentment is Killing America’s Heartland (New York: Basic Books, 2019); Shannon Reid and Michael Valasik, Alt-Right Gangs: A Hazy Shade of White (Oakland: University of California Press, 2020); Jonathan Stevenson, “Hatred on the March,” New York Review of Books (November 21, 2019); Leonard Zeskind, Blood and Politics: The History of the White Nationalist Movement from the Margins to the Mainstream (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2009).
6. Erika Lee, American for Americans: A History of Xenophobia in the United States (New York: Basic Books 2019); Laura Smith, “Lone Wolves Connected Online: A History of Modern White Supremacy,” New York Times (January 26, 2021); Alan Kraut, “Nativism: An American Perennial,” Center for Migration Studies (February 8, 2016); Elaine Frantz Parsons, Ku-Klux: The Birth of the Klan During Reconstruction (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015); Linda Gordon, The Second Coming of the KKK: The Ku Klux Klan of the 1920s and the American Political Tradition (New York: Liveright, 2017); Shaun Assael and Peter Keating, “The Massacre That Spawned the Alt-Right,” Politico (November 3, 2019); Lisa McGirr, Suburban Warriors: The Origins of the New American Right (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001); Maria I. Diedrich, Cornelia James Cannon and the Future American Race (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2010); Heidi Beirich and Mark Potok, Greenwash: Nativists, Environmentalism and the Hypocrisy of Hate (Montgomery, AL: Southern Poverty Law Center, 2010); John Hultgren, Border Walls Gone Green: Nature and Anti-Immigrant Politics in America (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2015); Jonathan Peter Spiro, Defending the Master Race: Conservation, Eugenics, and the Legacy of Madison Grant (Burlington: University of Vermont Press, 2009).
7. Adam Hochschild, “Family Values,” New York Review of Books (September 26, 2019); Patrick J. Buchanan, The Death of the West (New York: St. Martin’s, 2002); Robert Lovato, “Justicia Poetica: Dobbs Rises and Then Falls Thanks to Immigrants,” Huffington Post (November 12, 2009); Michael Gerson, “Tucker Carlson Shows What Mass-Marketed Racism Looks Like,” Washington Post (April 13, 2021); Ari Berman, “The Man Behind Trump’s Voter-Fraud Obsession: How Kris Kobach, the Kansas Secretary of State, Plans to Remak American through Restrictive Voting and Immigration Laws,” New York Times Magazine (June 13, 2017); Barbara Sprunt, “Iowa Rep. Steve King, Known for Racist Comments, Loses Reelection Bid,” NPR (June 3, 2020); Marjorie Taylor Greene Apologizes for ‘Offensive’ Holocaust Comparison after Visiting Holocaust Museum,” CNN (June 15, 2021); Samuel P. Huntington, Who Are We? The Challenges to America’s National Identity (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004); Isaac Chotiner, “A Penn Law Professor Wants to Make America White Again,” New Yorker (August 23, 2019); Colleen Flaherty, “A Professor’s ‘Repugnant’ Views: Penn Law Condemns Amy Wax’s Recent Comments on Race and Immigration as Others Call for Her Ouster,” Inside Higher Ed (July 24, 2019); Amy L. Wax, Races, Wrongs, and Remedies (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2009); Mark Krikorian, The New Case Against Immigration: Both Legal and Illegal (New York: Penguin, 2008).
8. Nasar Meer, ed., Whiteness and Nationalism, special issue of Identities, 26.5 (2019); Soufan Center, White Supremacy Extremism: The Transnational Rise of the Violent White Supremacist Movement (New York: The Soufan Center, n.d.); Cynthia Miller-Idriss, Hate in the Homeland: The New Global Far Right (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2020); Benjamin R. Teitelbaum, War for Eternity: Inside Bannon’s Far-Right Circle of Global Power Brokers (New York: HarperCollins, 2020); Jason Stanley, How Fascism Works: The Politics of Us and Them (New York: Random House, 2020); Jo Becker, “The New Nativists: The Global Machine Behind the Rise of Far-Right Nationalism,” New York Times (August 10, 2019); Nathan Kulish and Mike McIntire, ‘The New Nativists: Why a Banking Heiress Spent Her Fortune on Keeping Immigrants Out,” New York Times (August 14, 2019); Quinn Slobodian, “Trump, Populists, and the Rise of Right-Wing Globalization,” New York Times (October 22, 2018); Max Fisher and Amanda Taub, “‘Overrun,’ ‘Outbred,’ ‘Replaced’: Why Ethnic Majorities Lash Out Over False Fears,” New York Times (April 30, 2019); Jo Becker, “The New Nativists: The Global Machine Behind the Rise of Far-Right Nationalism,” New York Times (August 10, 2019).

On individual countries cited: Azeem Ibrahim, The Rohingyas: Inside Myanmar’s Genocide, rev. ed. (London: Hurst, 2018); Francis Wade, Myanmar’s Enemy Within: Buddhist Violence and the Making of a Muslim ‘Other’, 2nd ed. (London: Zed, 2019); Pal Lendvai, Orbán: Europe’s New Strongman (London: Hurst, 2019; Attila Antal, The Rise of Hungarian Populism: State Autocracy and the Orbán Regime (Bingley, UK: Emerald Publishing, 2019); Christophe Jaffrelot, Modi’s India: Hindu Nationalism and the Rise of Ethnic Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2021); Parvis Ghassem-Fachandi, Pogrom in Gujarat: Hindu Nationalism and Anti-Muslim Violence in India (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012); Sean R. Roberts, The War on the Uyghurs: China’s Internal Campaign against a Muslim Minority (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2020); Abdulhakim Idris, Menace: China’s Colonization of the Islamic World and Uyghur Genocide (Washington, DC: Center for Uyghur Studies, 2020); Richard Lapper, Beef, Bible and Bullets: Brazil in the Age of Bolsonaro (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2021); Eyal Weizman, Hollow Land: Israel’s Architecture of Occupation (London: Verso, 2012); Ilan Pappe, The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine (Oxford, UK: Oneworld, 2006); Edward W. Said, “Zionism from the Standpoint of Its Victims,” Social Text, no. 1 (Winter 1979): 7-58; Ella Shohat, “Sephardim in Israel: Zionism from the Standpoint of Its Jewish Victims,” Social Text, no. 19/20 (Autumn 1988): 1-35; Edward Edy Kaufman, “Raising Racism and Ethnocentrism in Israel and the United States: A Clear and Present Danger,” Tikkun (September 5, 2019); Michel Eltchaninoff, Inside the Mind of Marine Le Pen (London: Hurst, 2018); Koen Vossen, The Power of Populism: Geert Wilders and the Party for Freedom in the Netherlands (New York: Routledge, 2016); Thomas Klikauer, Alternative für Deutschland: The AFD: Germany’s New Nazis or Another Populist Party? (Brighton, UK: Sussex Academic Press, 2020); Jay Julian Rosellini, The German New Right: AFD, PEGIDA and the Re-Imagining of National Identity (London: Hurst, 2019).
On the rise of nativism elsewhere: Steven Erlanger and Katrin Bennhold, “For Europe, Cutting the Flow of Migrants Challenges Basic Ideals,” New York Times (July 5, 2018); Steven Erlanger and James Kanter, “Austria’s Rightward Lurch Is Europe’s New Normal,” New York Times (October 16, 2017); Editorial Board, “Austria’s Welcome to a Party With a Nazi Past,” New York Times (December 20, 2017); Stephanie Malia Hom, Empire’s Mobius Strip: Historical Echoes in Italy’s Crisis of Migration and Detention (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2019); Marci Shore, “Poland Digs Itself a Memory Hole,” New York Times (February 4, 2018); J. M. Coetzee, “Australia’s Shame,” New York Review of Books (September 26, 2019); Max Fisher and Amanda Taub, “Trump’s Immigration Approach Isn’t New: Europe and Australia Went First,” New York Times (July 18, 2019).

9. Kathleen Belew, Bring the War Home: The White Power Movement and Paramilitary America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018): back cover.
10. Jess Walter, Ruby Ridge: The Truth and Tragedy of the Randy Weaver Family (New York: HarperCollins, 2002; orig. 1995); Stuart A. Wright, ed., Armageddon in Waco (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); Richard A. Serrano, One of Ours: Timothy McVeigh and the Oklahoma City Bombing (New York: Norton, 1998); Ben Poston, “Mass Killer Part of Alt-Right, Report Says,” Los Angeles Times (February 6, 2018); Jennifer Berry Hawes, Grace Will Lead Us Home: The Charleston Church Massacre and the Hard, Inspiring Journey to Forgiveness (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2019); Paige Williams, “Kyle Rittenhouse, American Vigilante,” New Yorker (July 5, 2021); John Temple, Up In Arms: How the Bundy Family Hijacked Public Lands, Outfoxed the Federal Government, and Ignited America’s Patriot Militia Movement (Dallas: BenBella Books, 2019); Anthony McCann, Shadowlands: Fear and Freedom at the Oregon Standoff (New York: Bloomsbury, 2019).
11. Adeel Hassan, “Hate-Crime Violence Hist 16-Year-High, FBI Reports,” New York Times (November 12, 2019); Molly Hennessy-Fiske, “From Vehicle Rammings to Verbal Tirades, Videos Capture a Spike in Racist Attacks,” Los Angeles Times (July 10, 2020); Veronica Rocha, “District Attorney Mulling Charges after Sikh Man Was Beaten and His Hair Was Cut Off,” Los Angeles Times (October 11, 2016); Mark Berman and Samantha Schmidt, “He Yelled ‘Get Out of My Country,’ Witnesses Say, and Then Shot 2 Men from India, Killing One,” Washington Post (February 24, 2017); Audra D. S. Burch, “He Became a Hate Crime Victim. She Became a Widow,” New York Times (July 8, 2017); Pilar Maenendez, “Iowa Woman Ran Down Teen With Car Because She Was ‘Mexican’,” Daily Beast (December 20, 2019); “Iowa Woman Accused in Racist Attack Is Charged in Second Hit and Run,” Los Angeles Times (December 23, 2019).
12. The Year in Hate and Extremism: 2020 (Montgomery, AL: Southern Poverty Law Center, 2021); The Year in Hate and Extremism: 2019 (Montgomery, AL: Southern Poverty Law Center, 2020); Hate and Extremism in 2018 (Montgomery, AL: Southern Poverty Law Center, 2019); Hate and Extremism in 2017 (Montgomery, AL: Southern Poverty Law Center, 2018); Hate and Extremism in 2016 (Montgomery, AL: Southern Poverty Law Center, 2017); Charles M. Blow, “White Extinction Anxiety,” New York Times (June 24, 2018); Farhad Manjoo, “The White-Extinction Conspiracy Theory is Bonkers,” New York Times (May 20, 2019); Philip Bump, “Rep. Steve King Warns that ‘Our Civilization’ Can’t Be Restored with ‘Somebody Else’s Babies’,” Washington Post (March 12, 2017); Tyler Hayden, “S.B. Anti-Immigration Group Hit with ‘Hate’ Label,” Santa Barbara Independent (February 28, 2017); Esther Yu-His Lee, “Ku Klux Klan Seizing On Anti-Immigrant Sentiment To Draw New Members,” ThingProgress.org (August 11, 2014); Samdhya Somashekhar, “The Confederate Flag Resurged. The KKK Burned a Cross. Racial Tensions Flared in a Southern Town,” Washington Post (February 2, 2018); “After 150 Years, Ku Klux Klan Sees Opportunities in US Political Trends,” Los Angeles Times (July 4, 2016); Chris Graham, “Nazi Salutes and White Supremacism: Who Is Richard Spencer, the ‘Racist Academic Behind the ‘Alt Right’ Movement,” Daily Telegraph (November 22, 2016); Serge F. Kovaleski, et al., “An Alt-Right Makeover Shrouds the Swastikas,” New York Times (December 10, 2016); Justin Wm. Moyer, “‘America Is a White Nation’: More racist fliers spotted at University of Maryland,” Washington Post (March 15, 2017); Sophie Bjork-James, “Democracy Is a Target for White Nationalists,” Los Angeles Times (October 13, 2020); Leah Sottile, “The Chaos Agents,” New York Times Magazine (August 19, 2020); Ralf Neukirch, “America’s Trump-Supporting Militias: ‘There Will Be Unrest, Dead Civilians’,” Spiegel International (October 19, 2020); Ali H. Soufan, “I Spent 25 Years Fighting Jihadis. White Supremacists Aren’t So Different,” New York Times (August 5, 2019); Max Fisher, “White Terrorism Shows ‘Stunning’ Parallels to Islamic State’s Rise,” New York Times (August 5, 2019). Claudia Rankine and James D. Walsh, “This Is America: Eleven Years After Obama’s Election, and Three Years into the Trump Presidency, the Threat of Domestic Terrorism Can’t be Ignored,” New York (December 23, 2019).
13. It had been there before.  Twelve of the first eighteen presidents were enslavers.  Andrew Jackson made his name in national politics after the War of 1812 roaming Florida and torching Indian villages.  Abraham Lincoln executed Indian leaders but not Confederates, and presided over the destruction of much Native American homeland.  Theodore Roosevelt was aggressively contemptuous of darker (and in his view inferior) peoples.  Woodrow Wilson segregated Washington DC.  Calvin Coolidge pushed for and ultimately signed the racist immigration act of 1924.  Franklin Roosevelt imprisoned 120,000 Japanese Americans without due process and for no reason.  Et cetera ad nauseum.  The difference—if there is one—is that Donald Trump was louder in his racism, and it was the central organizing principle of his presidency.
14. Amber Phillips, “‘They’re Rapists.’ President Trump’s Campaign Launch Speech Two Years Later, Annotated,” Washington Post (June 16, 2017); Lisa Mascaro, “Trump Draws Supremacists Out of Hiding,” Los Angeles Times (September 30, 2016); Kelly McEvers, “‘We’re Not Going Away’: Alt-Right Leader On Voice in Trump Administration,” NPR (November 17, 2016); Jonah Engel Bromwich, “Trump Camp’s Talk of Registry and Japanese Internment Raises Muslim Fears,” New York Times (November 17, 2016); Maggie Haberman and Sheryl Gay Stolberg, “In Attacking Ilhan Omar, Trump Revives His Familiar Refrain Against Muslims,” New York Times (April 15, 2019); Brian Klaas, “A Short History of President Trump’s Anti-Muslim Bigotry,” Washington Post (March 15, 2019); David A. Graham, “Trump’s White Identity politics Appeals to Two Different Groups,” The Atlantic (August 8, 2019); Tyler Anbinder, “Trump Has Spread More Hatred of Immigrants than Any American in History,” Washington Post (November 7, 2019); Sarah Churchwell, “American Fascism: It Has Happened Here,” New York Review of Books (June 22, 2020); Matt Pearce, “The President and the Far-Right Movement,” Los Angeles Times (October 6, 2020); Amy B. Wang and Colby Itkowitz, “Trump Loyalists Start ‘America First Caucus’ to Promote US as ‘Uniquely Anglo-Saxon’,” Washington Post (April 16, 2021); Kevin M. Kruse, “The ‘America First Caucus’ Continues the Country’s Long History of White Nationalism,” MSNBC Daily (April 17, 2021); Editorial Board, “Cruelty in Immigration Policy,” Los Angeles Times (September 6, 2019); Charles M. Blow, “A Lust for Punishment,” New York Times (August 21, 2019); Adam Serwer, The Cruelty Is the Point: The Past, Present, and Future of Trump’s America (New York: One World, 2021).

On the monomaniacal mastermind Stephen Miller, see: Michael Edison Hayden, “Stephen Miller’s Affinity for White Nationalism Revealed in Leaked Emails,” Southern Poverty Law Center: Hatewatch (November 12, 2019); Katie Rogers, “Before Joining White House, Stephen Miller Pushed White Nationalist Theories,” New York Times (November 13, 2019); Jamelle Bouie, “Stephen Miller’s Sinister Syllabus,” New York Times (November 15, 2019); Adam Serwer, “Trump’s White-Nationalist Vanguard,” The Atlantic (November 19, 2019); Jonathan Blitzer, “How Stephen Miller Manipulates Donald Trump to Further His Immigration Obsession,” New Yorker (February 21, 2020); Jean Guerrero, “Stephen Miller’s Dystopian America,” New York Times (August 28, 2020); Jean Guerrero, Hate Monger: Stephen Miller, Donald Trump, and the White Nationalist Agenda (New York: Morrow, 2020); Kelly Vlamis, “A Former Pence Adviser Said Trump Had 4 Years to Help Afghan Allies Leave the Country but Stephen Miller’s ‘Racist Hysteria’ Blocked It from Happening,” Business Insider (August 20, 2021).

15. Most but not quite all also emphasized a Christian identity and expressed hatred of LGBTQ people; Southern Poverty Law Center, The Year in Hate and Extremism: 2020.
16. Anti-Defamation League, “Antisemitic Incidents Hit All-Time High in 2019,” Audit of Antisemitic Incidents (ADL.com, May 12, 2020); Bari Weiss, “A Massacre in the Heart of Mr. rogers’ Neighborhood,” New York Times October 27, 2018); Matt Pearce and Sarah D. Wire, “Synagogue Shooting Kills 11,” Los Angeles Times (October 28, 2018); Rebecca Liebson ,et al, “Monsey Hanukkah Stabbing: 5 Wounded at Rabbi’s Home in NY Suburb,” New York Times (December 29, 2019); Sandy Banks, “She Asked Her Neighbors to Wear Masks. Then the Swastikas and Racial Slurs Appeared,” Los Angeles Times (July 8, 2020).  See also Deborah E. Lipstadt, Antisemitism: Here and Now (New York: Schocken, 2019); Bari Weiss, How to Fight Anti-Semitism (New York: Crown, 2019); Laurie Goodstein, “‘There Is Still So Much Evil’: Growing Anti-Semitism Stuns American Jews, New York Times (October 29, 2018); Michelle Goldberg, “Anti-Zionism Isn’t the Same as Anti-Semitism,” New York Times (December 7, 2018); Mairay Zonszein, “How the Right Has Tried to Rebrand Anti-Semitism,” New York Review of Books (September 4, 2019); Tanya Gersh and Lois Beckett, “I Was the Target of a Neo Nazi ‘Troll Stream’,” The Guardian (April 20, 2017); Kirk Siegler, “Descending on a Montana Town, Neo-Nazi Trolls Test Where Free Speech Ends,” NPR (January 23, 2018).
17. Jennifer Rubin, “In Case You Thought There Couldn’t Be More Bad News: Anti=Semitism Is Spiking,” Washington Post (May 13, 2020); Editorial Board, “”Trump’s Executive Order and the Rise of Anti-Semitism,” New York Times (December 11, 2019); James Ron and Howard Lavine, “American Jews and American Muslims Have a Common Antagonist,” New York Times (September 204, 2019); Michelle Goldberg, “Mazel Tov, Trump. You’ve Revived the Jewish Left: ‘Only One Political Party Is Quite Literally Inciting White Nationalists to Shoot Up Our Synagogues’,” New York Times (August 25, 2019); Bari Weiss, “Donald Trump and the ‘Disloyal’ Jews,” New York Times (August 21, 2019); Editorial Board, “Mr. Trump, Stop Questioning the Loyalty of American Jews,” New York Times (August 21, 2019).
18. Sources for this paragraph include: Erika Lee, America for Americans: A History of Xenophobia in the United States (New York: Basic Books, 2019): 289-320; Erik Love, Islamophobia and Racism in America (New York: New York University Press, 2017); Khaled A. Beydoun, American Islamophobia: Understanding the Roots and Rise of Fear (Oakland: University of California Press, 2018); Nazita Lajevardi, Outsiders at Home: The Politics of American Islamophobia (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2020); Craig Considine, “The Racialization of Islam in the United States: Islamophobia, Hate Crimes, and ‘Flying while Brown’,” Religions, 8 (2017).
19. Molly Hennessey-Fiske, “Attacks Against Muslims Multiplying across US,” Los Angeles Times (December 15, 2015); Jaweed Kaleem, “Anti-Muslim Incidents On the Rise,” Los Angeles Times (May 11, 2017); Katayoun Kishi, “Assaults against Muslims in US Surpass 2001 Level,” Pew Research Center (November 15, 2017); Barbara Demick “In New York: Attacks on Women with Headscarves Raise Alarm,” Los Angeles Times (December 9, 2016); Scott Sandlin, “Man Pleads Guilty to Pulling Hijab off Head of Albuquerque Muslim Woman on Flight,” Albuquerque Journal (May 13, 2016); Hailey Branson-Potts, “Threatening Letters are Sent to Mosques,” Los Angeles Times (November 27, 2016); David Zucchino, “Motive Unsettled in Muslim Deaths,” Los Angeles Times (April 19, 2015); Paloma Esquivel and James Queally, “Fire at Mosque Appears to be Arson,” Los Angeles Times (December 12, 2015); Thatcher Schmid, “White Supremacist Arrested in Fatal Stabbing of Two Men after Anti-Muslim Rant in Portland,” Los Angeles Times (May 28, 2017); Kurtis Lee and Jenny Jarvie, “Rallies Attack Sharia Law, Islam,” Los Angeles Times (June 11, 2017); Kurtis Lee, “US Muslims on Edge after Bombing,” Los Angeles Times (August 6, 2017).

It should be noted that just as it was White men who stepped in who died in the Portland stabbing, sometimes anti-Muslim violence hit other targets, such as Sikh men wearing turbans.  Brittny Mejia, “Attack on Bus Driver Fits a Recent Pattern: Sikh Men Around the Country are Being Mistaken for Muslims and Assaulted,” Los Angeles Times, (January 16, 2016); Sarah Parvini, “A ‘Growing Wave of Hostility’ Faces Sikhs,” Los Angeles Times June 11, 2017.

20. Hawes Spencer, Summer of Hate: Charlottesville, USA (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2018); Louis P. Nelson and Claudrena N. Harold, eds., Charlottesville 2017: The Legacy of Race and Inequity (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2018); Michael Signer, Cry Havoc: Charlottesville and American Democracy Under Siege (New York: Public Affairs, 2020); Christopher Howard-Woods, Colin Laidley, and Maryam Omidi, eds., #Charlottesville: White Supremacy, Populism, and Resistance (New York: Public Seminar Books, 2018); Mark Z. Barabak and Michael Finnegan, “For US Jews, Echoes of an Ugly past,” Los Angeles Times (August 18, 2017); Abigail Levin and Lisa Guenther, “White ‘Power’ and the Fear of Replacement,” New York Times (August 28, 2017); Colin Dwyer, “2 Men Sentenced to Prison for Beating Black Man During Charlottesville Rally,” NPR (August 24, 2018); Laurel Wamsley and Bobby Allyn, “Neo-Nazi Who Killed Charlottesville Protester Is Sentenced to Life in Prison,”NPR (June 28, 2019); Hannah Allen, “Charlottesville Victims Use Post-Slavery KKK Law to Go After Hate Groups,” NPR (August 28, 2019); Neil MacFarquhar, “Charlottesville Lawsuit Puts Rising Intolerance on Trial,” New York Times (October 28, 2019); Tyler Hammel, “Unite the Right Lawsuit Trial to Remain in Charlottesville,” Daily Progress (June 18, 2021).
21. This section is based on a thick file of newspaper articles, mainly from the New York Times and the Los Angeles Times, as well as: Mark Danner, “‘Be Ready to Fight’,” New York Review of Books (February 11, 2021): 4-8; Carol D. Leonnig and Philip Rucker, I Alone Can Fix It: Donald J. Trump’s Catastrophic Final Year (New York: Penguin, 2021): 455-86; Philip Rucker and Carol D. Leonnig, “‘I Alone Can Fix It’ Book Excerpt: The Inside Story of Trump’s Defiance and Inaction on Jan. 6,” Washington Post (July 15, 2021); Brian Greul and Senate Committee Staff, Examining the US Capitol Attack: A Review of the Security, Planning, and Response Failures on 6 January 2021 (Ocotillo Press, June 8, 2021); Domenico Montanaro, “Capitol Police Officer Testifies to the Racism He Faced During the Jan. 6 Riot,” NPR (July 27, 2021); Tyler Olson, “Cops Blame Trump, Republicans for Allegedly Inspiring and Then Downplaying the Jan. 6 Capitol Attack,” Fox News (July 27, 2021).
22. Patrick J. Lyons, “Trump Wants to Abolish Birthright Citizenship. Can He Do That?” New York Times (August 22, 2019); Ronald Brownstein and the National Journal, "Trump Preaching to Shrinking White Electorate Creates Problems for GOP." The Atlantic (August 26, 2015); Adam Cancryn, “David Duke: Trump win a great victory for ‘our people’.” Politico (November. 11, 2016); Dara Lind, “Operation Wetback, the 1950s immigration policy Donald Trump loves, explained.” Vox (Nov. 11, 2015); Camila Domonoske, “Former KKK Leader David Duke Says ‘Of Course’ Trump Voters Are His Voters.” NPR (August 5, 2016); Don Gonyea, Rand Paul Vows To ‘Take Our Country Back’ In Presidential Candidacy Speech.” NPR (April 7, 2015). Adam Serwer wrote that “The Trump administration is a coalition forged between those ideologically committed to maintaining an aristocracy of wealth and those committed to restoring an aristocracy of race”; Adam Serwer, “The Sinister Logic of Trumps Immigration Freeze,” Atlantic (April 29, 2020).
23. Immigration Policy Tracking Project. https://immpolicytracking.org/home/; Pierce and Bolter, Dismantling and Reconstructing the US Immigration System.
24. Zolan Kanno-Youngs, “A Trump Immigration Policy Is Leaving Families Hungry,” New York Times (December 4, 2020).
25. Megan Specia and Maria Abi-Habib, “‘Maybe I Shouldn’t Have Come’: US Visa Changes Leave Students in Limbo,” New York Times (July 10, 2020); Anemona Hartocollis, “17 States Sue to Block Student Visa Rules,” New York Times (July 14, 2020); Noah Bierman, Elliot Wailoo, and Teresa Watanabe, “Trump Administration Does About-Face, Drops Rule that Threatened Foreign Students,” Los Angeles Times (July 14, 2020); Lindsay Schnell, “‘You’re Not Wanted’: Trump’s Proposed College Student Visa Changes Worry International Students—Again,” USA Today (September 26, 2020).

The Trump administration erected lots of other petty measures to discourage immigrants, enable racism, or simply punish people of color: Manuel Pastor, “Trump’s Latest Anti-Immigrant Move: Making It Far More Costly to Apply for Citizenship,” Los Angeles Times (November 19, 2019); Katie Benner, “Justice Dept. Establishes Office to Denaturalize Immigrants,” New York Times (February 26, 2020); Michael D. Shear, et al., “Trump Halts New Green Cards, but Backs Off Broader Immigration Ban,” New York Times (April 21, 2020); Josh Dawsey and Jeff Stein, “White House Directs Federal Agencies to Cancel Race-Related Training Sessions It Calls ‘Un-American Propaganda’,” Washington Post (September 5, 2020); Dave Jamieson, “Trump Administration Moves to Freeze Wages For Farmworkers Before Leaving Office,” Huffpost (November 9, 2020); Simon Romero and Miriam Jordan, “New US Citizenship Test Is Longer and More Difficult,” New York Times (December 3, 2020).

26. Ryan Devereaux, "U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services Will Remove "Nation of Immigrants" From Mission Statement." The Intercept (February 22, 2018).  Other words and phrases that were forbidden in the Trump administration included “refugee,” “climate change,” “reduce greenhouse gases,” “vulnerable,” “entitlement,” “diversity,” “transgender,” “fetus,” “evidence-based,” “science-based,” “free from discrimination,” “quality homes,” inclusive communities,” “democratic,” “free press,” and “public trial.”  Karen J. Greenberg, “Words the Trump Administration Hates,” Los Angeles Times (May 18, 2018).
27. John Burnett, "Biden Pledges to Dismantle Trump's Sweeping Immigration Changes - But Can He Do That?" NPR (September, 14 2020); Editorial Board, “Trump’s Overhaul of Immigration Is Worse Than You Think,” New York Times (October 10, 2020); Zolano Kanno-Youngs and Charlie Savage, “Trump Official’s Last-Day Deal With ICE Union Ties Biden’s Hands,” New York Times (February 3, 2021); Michael D. Shear and Miriam Jordan, “Undoing Trump’s Anti-Immigrant Policies Will Mean Looking at the Fine Print.” New York Times (February 10, 2021); “Special Report: How Trump Administration Left Indelible Mark on US Immigration Courts,” Reuters (March 8, 2021).
28. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, Racism without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in America, 5th ed. (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2018); Michael Tesler, Post-Racial or Most-Racial? Race and Politics in the Obama Era (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016); Robin DiAngelo, White Fragility: Why It’s So Hard for White People to Talk About Racism (Boston: Beacon, 2018); Andra Gillespie, The New Black Politician: Corey Booker, Newark, and Post-Racial America (New York: New York University Press, 2012); Walter Earl Fluker, The Ground Has Shifted: The Future of the Black Church in Post-Racial America (New York: New York University Press, 2016); Tim Wise, Color-Blind: The Rise of Post-Racial Politics and the Retreat from Racial Equity (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 2010).
29. Bonilla-Silva, Racism without Racists; Nicholas Kristof, “Racism Without Racists.” New York Times (October 5, 2008).
30. See Appendix B, Table 2.
31. See Appendix B, Tables 8, 22, 24, 26, 27, and 28.
32. Michael D. Nicholson, et al., The Facts on Immigration Today (Washington: Cato Institute, 2017); Ariana Eunjung Cha, “The US Fertility Rate Just Hit a Historic Low. Why Some Demographers Are Freaking Out,” Washington Post (June 30, 2017); Sabrina Tavernise, “US Fertility Rate Fell to a Record Low, for a Second Straight Year,” New York Times (May 16, 2018); Sabrina Tavernise, “Fewer Births Than Deaths Among Whites in Majority of US States,” New York Times (June 20, 2018); Sabrina Tavernise, “Fewer Births, More Deaths Result in Lowest US Growth Rate in Generations,” New York Times (December 19, 2018); Shikha Dalmia, “Actually, the Numbers Show That We Need More Immigration, Not Less,” New York Times (January 15, 2019); Wayne A. Cornelius, “We Aren’t ‘Full.’ The US Needs Immigrants,” Los Angeles Times (April 10, 2019); Sabrina Tavernise and Robert Gebeloff, “US Population Over Last Decade Grew at Slowest Rate Since 1930s,” New York Times (April 26, 2021); Don Lee, “US Saw Surge of Asian Migrants Last Year,” Los Angeles Times (September 23, 2015); Kate Linthicum, “Asians to Top Latinos as Largest Immigrant Group,” Los Angeles Times (September 28, 2015); Carlos Echeverria-Estrada and Jeanne Batalova, “Chinese Immigrants in the United States,” Migration Policy Institute (January 15, 2020).
33. Paloma Esquivel and Hector Becerra, “Report finds wave of Mexican immigration to U.S. has ended.” Los Angeles Times (April 24, 2012); “Is Illegal Immigration Passé?” Los Angeles Times (May 1, 2012); Jeffrey S. Passel, D’Vera Cohn, and Ana Gonzalez-Barrera, “Net Migration from Mexico Falls to Zero – and Perhaps Less” Pew Hispanic Center (April, 23, 2012); “Mexican-Born Population Over Time, 1850-Present”; Ana Gonzalez-Barrera, “More Mexicans Leaving Than Coming to the US,” Pew Research Center (November 19, 2015); Emma Israel and Jeanne Batalova, “Mexican Immigrants in the United States,” Migration Information Source (November 5, 2020).
34. Daniel Hernandez, “Mexican immigrants following homeland’s presidential race.” Los Angeles Times (June 15, 2012).   By comparison, 135,507 American citizens living abroad voted in the 2018 congressional election; Federal Voting Assistance Program, “Overseas Citizen Population Analysis Report,” fvap.gov, retrieved July 28, 2021.
35. “In the grip of tradition.” LA Times, Nov. 21, 2012.
36. David Agren, “Against our dignity’: Mexico vows never to pay for Trump’s wall.” The Guardian (January 11, 2017).
37. https://www.cnn.com/2021/04/18/americas/mexican-president-amlo-migration-climate-summit-intl-latam/index.html?utm_term=161882768597539102e7e0b52&utm_source=cnn_Five+Things+for+Monday%2C+April+19%2C+2021&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=1618827685977&bt_ee=8K5hiQCWJcXSgRC9lwLsQluUtFLvTrDhDugHoBw6HBrgHjsXDtcHtcriwqxnB0ir&bt_ts=1618827685977
38. “Farmworkers, Mostly Undocumented, Become ‘Essential’ During Pandemic.” NY Times, April 2, 2020.
39. “Virus’s unseen hot zone: The American farm,” Washington Post (September 24, 2020).
40. “California Offers $500 in Covid-19 Aid to Undocumented Immigrants.” NY Times, May 18, 2020.
41. “Florida governor owes an apology for blaming COVID-19 spike on ‘Hispanic’ workers,” Miami Herald. (June 24, 2020).
42. “ ‘The US isn’t an option anymore’: why California’s immigrants are heading back to Mexico,’” The Guardian (December 31, 2020).
43. “COVID-19 is blind to legal status, but can disproportionately hurt immigrants,” UC Berkeley Social Science Matrix (April 21, 2020).
44. “Warming could fuel migration.” Los Angeles Times (July 27, 2010; “Global Warming Means More Mexican Immigration?” National Geographic Daily News, July 26, 2010; Donald Kerwin, “Real Needs, Not Fictitious Crises Account for the Situation at US-Mexico Border,” Center for Migration Studies (March 27, 2021).
45. “Few Nicaraguans among Central America’s Exodus to U.S.” Los Angeles Times (August 30, 2014); “Central American Immigrants in the United States,” Migration Policy Institute (August 15, 2019); “Central Americans sent to Mexico by U.S. increasingly victims of kidnappings: aid group,” Reuters (February 11, 2020); “Central American migrant who sought U.S. asylum slain in Tijuana,” Los Angeles Times (December 12, 2019).
46. “Trouble Along Mexico’s other border,” Los Angeles Times (August 4, 2013); “Migrant massacre shakes Central Americans,” Los Angeles Times (September 4, 2010).
47. Óscar Martínez, The Beast: Riding the Rails and Dodging Narcos on the Migrant Trail (London: Verso, 2014); “Riding ‘The Beast’ Across Mexico to the U.S. Border,” NPR (June 5, 2014); “Victims of ‘La Bestia,’ Mexico’s notorious migrant train, learn to walk again,” Reuters (August 22, 2019).
48. “Five Children Murdered After They Were Deported Back to Honduras.” ThinkProgress.com (August 19, 2014); Missing Migrants. https://missingmigrants.iom.int/region/americas?region=1422 (accessed July 30, 2020); “Six migrant children have died in U.S. custody. Here’s what we know about them,” Los Angeles Times (May 24, 201).
49. “ A 12-Year-Old’s Trek of Despair Ends in a Noose at the Border,” New York Times (April 19, 2014).
50. “How Covid-19 is threatening Central America’s economic lifeline.” BBC News (May 17, 2020); "Coronavirus surprise: Remittances to Mexico rise during pandemic," Washington Post (August 6, 2020); “How coronavirus has halted Central American migration to the US,” The Guardian (April 2, 2020); https://www.thedenverchannel.com/news/national/number-of-kids-alone-at-border-hits-all-time-high-in-march (retrieved July 29, 2021); Rosa Flores, Sara Weisfeldt, and Catherine E. Shoichet, “Kids detained in overcrowded border facility are terrified, crying and worried, lawyers say,” CNN (March 13, 2021); Mike Lillis and Scott Wong, “Democrats rush to Biden’s defense on border surge.” The Hill (March 13, 2021).
51. Sources for this section include:  Moustafa Bayoumi, How Does It Feel to Be a Problem? Being Young and Arab in America (New York: Penguin, 2008); Peter Gottshalk and Gabriel Greenberg, Islamophobia: Making Muslims the Enemy (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2008); Amaney Jamal and Nadine Naber, eds., Race and Arab Americans Before and After 9/11 (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2008); Anny Bakalian and Mehdi Bozorgmehr, Backlash 9/11: Middle Eastern and Muslim Americans Respond (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009); Ullrich Fichtner, “The Terrorist Next Door: American Muslims Face Growing Prejudice,” Spiegel (September 13, 2011); Junaid Rana, Terrifying Muslims: Race and Labor in the South Asian Diaspora (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2011); Wajahat Ali, Fear, Inc.: The Roots of the Islamophobia Network in America (Washington: Center for American Progress, 2011); Evelyn Alsultany, Arabs and Muslims in the Media: Race and Representation after 9/11 (New York: New York University Press, 2012); Heather Clark, “Oklahoma’s Ban on Sharia Law Declared Unconstitutional,” Christian News Network (August 18, 2013); Moustafa Bayoumi, This Muslim American Life: Dispatches from the War on Terror (New York: Penguin, 2015); David Cole, “Trump’s Travel Bans—Look Beyond the Text,” New York Review of Books (May 11, 2017); Erik Love, Islamophobia and Racism in America (New York: New York University Press, 2017); Khaled A. Beydoun, American Islamophobia: Understanding the Roots and Rise of Fear (Oakland: University of California Press, 2018); Rachel M. Gillum, Muslims in a Post-9/11 America (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2018); Nafees Syed and Safa K. Syed, “The Supreme Court Used to Oppose Discrimination. What Happened?” New York Times (June 26, 2018); Charlie Savage, “Judge Rules Terrorism Watchlist Violates Constitutional Rights,” New York Times (September 4, 2019); Jon Finer and Brett McGurk, “No, President Trump, It’s Not ‘Importing the Terrorism.’ It’s the Right Thing to Do,” New York Times (October 29, 2019); Zolan Kanno-Youngs, “Trump Administration Adds Six Countries to Travel Ban,” New York Times (February 1, 2020); Jamelle Bouie, “The Racism at the Heart of Trump’s ‘Travel Ban’,” New York Times (February 4, 2020); Nazita Lajevardi, Outsiders at Home: The Politics of American Islamophobia (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2020); Erika Lee, “American are the Dangerous Disease-Carrying Foreigners Now,” Washington Post (July 8, 2020); Laila Lalami, “I’m a Muslim and Arab American. Will I Ever Be an Equal Citizen?” New York Times (September 18, 2020); Laila Lalami, Conditional Citizens: On Belonging in America (New Yor: Pantheon, 2020); Ty McCormick, “The ‘Muslim Ban’ Is Over. The Harm Lives on,” New York Times (January 23, 2021); Declan Walsh, “Barred From US Under Trump, Muslims Exult in Biden’s Open Door,” New York Times (January 24, 2021.
52. Ann M. Simmons and Alan Zerembo, “Other Presidents have blocked groups of foreigners from the US, but never so broadly.” Los Angeles Times (February 1, 2017).
53. If need be can look up specific legislation to cite, got info from Boston Review, "The Myth of the Muslim Country" by Elizabeth Shankman Hurd, Jan 23, 2017
54. tons of articles have this quote but one - "Case is early test of the limits of executive power" LA Times 2/7/2017 by David G Savage
55. Laura King, Barbara Demick and Molly Hennessy-Fiske,” Trump order blocked.” Los Angeles Times (January 29, 2017).
56. Adam Liptak and Michael D. Shear, “Trump's Travel Ban Is Upheld by Supreme Court.” New York Times (June 26 2018).
57. Francisco Cantú, The Line Becomes a River: Dispatches from the Border (New York: Riverhead, 2018); Bill Ong Hing, Ethical Borders: NAFTA: Globalization, and Mexican Migration (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2010); Steven W. Bender, Run for the Border: Vice and Virtue in US-Mexico Border Crossings (New York: New York University Press, 2012); Laura Velasco Ortiz and Oscar F. Contreras, Mexican Voices of the Border Region (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2011); Miriam Davidson, Lives on the Line: Dispatches from the US-Mexico Border (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2000); Paul Ganster and David E. Lorey, The US-Mexican Border Today, 3rd ed. (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2016); David Spener, Clandestine Crossings: Migrants and Coyotes in the Texas-Mexico Border (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2009); Tobin Hansen and María Engracia Robles Robles, eds., Voices of the Border: Testimonios of Migration, Deportation, and Asylum (Washington: Georgetown University Press, 2021); D.W. Gibson, 14 Miles: Building the Border Wall (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2021); Greg Grandin, The End of the Myth: From the Frontier to the Border Wall in the Mind of America (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2019).
58. “Fact Sheet: The Secure Fence Act of 2006,” Whitehouse.gov (October 26, 2006), https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/10/20061026-1.html; David Stout, “Bush Signs Bill Ordering Fence on the Mexican Border,” New York Times (October 26, 2006); Alex Horton, “Trump claimed his plan to put troops on the border is extraordinary. It was routine for Obama,” Washington Post (April 5, 2018).
59. Sandra Dibble, “Tijuana residents face loss of homes, patios, and even a shrine as new border wall rises.” Los Angeles Times (July 16, 2018); Molly Hennessy-Fiske, “Trump administration waives environmental laws to build border wall.” Los Angeles Times (October 18, 2018); “Barriers to border wall taken down,” Los Angeles Times (October 11, 2018); “Border fence meets a wall of skepticism,” Los Angeles Times (March 12, 2018); “Pope crosses Trump over his plans for border wall,” Los Angeles Times (February 19, 2016); Peter Baker, “Trump Declares a National Emergency,” New York Times (February 15, 2019); Michael Brice-Saddler, “Border wall GoFundMe to refund $20 million – unless donors want to give to it again,” Washington Post (January 12, 2019); Julie Hirschfeld Davis, “Trump Plans to Send National Guard to the Mexican Border,” New York Times (April 3, 2018); Rebecca Hersher, “3 Charts That Show What’s Actually Happening Along The Southern Border,” NPR (June 22, 2018); Elliot Spagat, “Biden halts border wall building after Trump’s final surge,” AP News (January 22, 2021); Peter Weber, “Biden has stopped construction on Trump’s border wall, but the fate of outstanding contracts is unclear,” Yahoo!News (January 21, 2021); John Wildermuth, “Jerry Brown sends National Guard to the border, but on his terms, not Trump’s,” San Francisco Chronicle (April 18, 2018); Samuel Granados, “Why Trump’s Wall Contradicts Today’s Immigration Trends,” Washington Post (April 12, 2017); Associated Press, “US Moves FEMA and Coast Guard Money to Fund Border Programs,” Los Angeles Times (August 27, 2019); Matt Welch, “Trump Seizing Private Property for His Wall? Don’t Say He Didn’t Warn You, GOP,” Los Angeles Times (August 30, 2019); Emily Cochrane and Helene Cooper, “Pentagons Lists Projects That Will Be Delayed to Fund Border Wall,” New York Times (September 4, 2019); Manny Fernandez and Mitchell Ferman, “Under Construction in Texas: The First New Section of Border Wall,” New York Times (November 8, 2019); Nick Miroff, “Federal Judge Blocks Trump Plan to Spend $3.6 Billion in Military Funds on Border Wall,” New York Times (December 10, 2019); Editorial Board, “Trump’s Border Wall Wouldn’t Stop Most Illegal Immigration or Drugs. So What Is It For?” New York Times (December 15, 2019); Wendy Fox, “Teibe Seeks to Block Border Wall,” Los Angeles Times (August 17, 2020); Simon Romero and Zolan Kanno-Youngs, “A Rush to Expand the Border Wall That Many Fear Is Here to Stay,” New York Times (November 30, 2020);Simon Romero and Zolan Kanno-Youngs, “Trump’s Incomplete Border Wall Is in Pieces That Could Linger for Decades,” New York Times (Marcy 17, 2021).
60. “Border Patrol Agent Staffing By Fiscal Year,” United States Border Patrol, cbp.gov; Jennifer Johnson, Grandmothers on Guard: Gender, Aging, and the Minutemen at the US-Mexico Border (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2021).
61. “Deaths by Border Patrol Since 2010,” Southern Border Communities Coalition (updated December 2020), https://www.southernborder.org/deaths_by_border_patrol; Adam Liptak, “Two U.S. Agents Fired Into Mexico, Killing Teenagers, Only One Faces a Lawsuit,” New York Times (August 20, 2018); Vanessa Romo, “Supreme Court Rules Border Patrol Agents Who Shoot Foreign Nationals Can’t Be Sued.” NPR (February 25, 2020); Joseph Tanfani, Brian Bennett, and David G. Savage, “Should noncitizens be protected from excessive force at border? Supreme Court to consider case,” Los Angeles Times (November 6, 2015); Nina Lakhani and Tom Dart, “‘Claudia was a good girl. Why did they kill her?’ From a Guatemalan village to death in Texas.” The Guardian (June 2, 2018); Nina Lakhani, “‘I want justice’: a year on, family of Guatemalan woman shot dead in Texas wait for answers.” The Guardian (May 22, 2019); “Border Patrol reform comes slow,” Los Angeles Times (February 23, 2015); “A safer alternative?” Los Angeles Times (November 1, 2015); “Border Patrol rejects use of body cameras,” Los Angeles Times (November 8, 2015); “A less lethal option at border,” Los Angeles Times (November 27, 2015).
62. Manny Fernandez, et al., “‘People Actively Hate Us’: Inside the Border Patrol’s Morale Crisis,” New York Times (September 15, 2019).
63. Greg Grandin, “The Border Patrol has been a cult of brutality since 1924,” The Intercept (Jan. 12, 2019).
64. ‘“There Was Duct Tape’: The Harrowing Journeys of Migrants Across the Border.” New York Times (February 28, 2019); “‘You Have to Pay with Your Body’: The Hidden Nightmare of Sexual Violence at the Border.” New York Times (March 3, 2019); “What it Costs to Be Smuggled Across the U.S. Border.” New York Times (June 30, 2018); Azam Ahmed and Kirk Semple, “Photo of Drowned Migrants Captures Pathos of Those Who Risk It All,” New York Times (June 25, 2019); Michael D. Shear and Julie Hirschfeld Davis, “Photo of Migrants Shocks, but Congress Stalls on Border Aid,” New York Times (June 26, 2019); Kirk Semple, “‘I Didn’t Want Them to Go’: Salvadoran Family Grieves for Father and Daughter Who Drowned,” New York Times (June 28, 2019); Teju Cole, “A Crime Scene at the Border,” New York Times Magazine (July 10, 2019); Caitlin Dickerson, “Desperate Migrants on the Border: ‘I Should Just Swim Across’,” New York Times (September 30, 2019); James Verini, “How US Policy Turned the Sonoran Desert Into a Graveyard for Migrants,” New York Times Magazine (August 18, 2020).
65. "Trump Considers Banning Re-entry by Citizens Who May Have Coronavirus." New York Times (August 10, 2020); Rob Gillies,“Canada urges US not to put troops at border during pandemic.” ABC News (March 26, 2020); Bruno Dupeyron, “Why Trump tried to use the coronavirus to 'Mexicanize' the U.S.-Canadian border.” The Conversation (April 2, 2020).
66. “U.S. Border Agency Settles With 2 Americans Detained for Speaking Spanish,” New York Times (November 26, 2020); “A Border Agent Detained Two Americans Speaking Spanish. Now They Have Sued,” New York Times (February 14, 2019).
67. “Border fences are succeeding–-in keeping migrants in U.S.” Los Angeles Times (August 10, 2015); Jean Guerrero, “The Border Patrol and the ‘Browning’ of America,” Los Angeles Times July 29, 2021.
68. “Anxious immigrants avoiding medical care,” Los Angeles Times (April 6, 2018); Woman Arrested at Gynecologist Appointment Could Face Deportation.” Houston Press (September 11, 2015).
69. All of the information in this paragraph comes from the following article: “Roadblocks to healthcare for immigrants,” Los Angeles Times (April 6, 2016).
70. “The Renegade Priest Helping Undocumented People Survive the Pandemic.” The New Yorker, Aug. 17. 2020.
71. Brown OK’s driver’s licenses for immigrants here illegally.” LA Times, Oct. 3, 2013.
72. The 14 other states that grant driver’s licenses to undocumented immigrants are: Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawai’i, Illinois, Maryland, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Oregon, Utah, Vermont, and Washington. “States Offering Driver’s Licenses to Immigrants.” National Conference of State Legislatures (February 6, 2020). In 2021 more states discussed drivers licenses for undocumented people: Daniela Allee, “N.H. Transportation Committee Hears Bill On Providing Driver’s Licenses To Undocumented Residents.” NHPR (March 5, 2021); Nicole Foy, “Local legislator brings bill to grant driving privileges to undocumented immigrants.” East Idaho News (February 20, 2021); Jeff Gammage, “A push to grant driver’s licenses to undocumented people in underway in Pennsylvania.” Philadelphia Inquirer (February 13, 2021); Steph Solis, “Lawmakers renew push to expand driver’s licenses to undocumented immigrants in Massachusetts.” MassLive (February 22, 2021); Samantha Soto, “Minnesota Introduces Legislation to Provide Driver’s Licenses to Undocumented Immigrants.” KIMT News (February 18, 2021).
73. Tyche Hendricks, “State Lawmakers Urge Newsom to Stop Transferring People in Prison to ICE in Pandemic.” KQED (July 6, 2020); Kim Bojorquez, “'It needs to stop.' California leaders urge Gavin Newsom to stop ICE transfers from prisons.” Sacramento Bee (July 7, 2020). (need accent on second o in last name)
74. https://www.uscis.gov/humanitarian/temporary-protected-status/
75. https://immigrationforum.org/article/fact-sheet-temporary-protected-status/
76. "U.S. to give Haitians temporary legal status. " LA Times, Jan. 16, 2010.
77. Jaclyn Diaz, “More Than 100,000 Haitian Immigrants Can Apply For An Extension To Stay In The US.” NPR, May 24, 2021
78. Laura Santhanam, “Poll: Most Americans say ‘dreamers’ should be granted citizenship.” PBS NewsHour (October 17, 2017).
79. Lauren Gambino, “The civil rights issue of our time’: how Dreamers came to dominate US politics.” The Guardian (January 28, 2018). For more about the Dreamer Movement, see: Kevin Escudero, Organizing While Undocumented: Immigrant Youth's Political Activism under the Law (NYU Press, 2020); Eileen Truax, Dreamers: An Immigrant Generation’s Fight for Their American Dream (Boston: Beacon Press, 2015); and Walter J. Nicholls, The DREAMers: How the Undocumented Youth Movement Transformed the Immigrant Rights Debate (Redwood City: Stanford University Press, 2013). For a more critical analysis and discussion about how the Dreamer narrative excludes some undocumented youth, see Leisy J. Abrego, ed., and Genevieve Negron-Gonzales, We Are Not Dreamers: Undocumented Scholars Theorize Undocumented Life in the United States (Durham: Duke University Press, 2020).
80. "Freedom University: Georgia Profs Offer Course To Undocumented Immigrants." Huffington Post, Aug. 25. 2011.
81. “Brown signs California Dream Act funding.” LA Times, Oct. 11, 2011
82. Dara Lind, “21 states now offer in-state tuition to unauthorized immigrants. Here’s why.” Vox (May 4, 2014).
83. “Group says DREAM Act would create jobs.” USA Today, Oct. 2, 2012
84. “Obama opens new door.” LA Times, June 16, 2012.
85. “Trump Moves to End DACA and Calls on Congress to Act.” NY Times, Sept. 5, 2017.
86. Nina Totenberg, “Supreme Court Rules For DREAMers, Against Trump.” NPR (June 18, 2020).
87. Judge Orders Government to Fully Reinstate DACA Program.” NY Times, Dec. 4, 2020
88. Joseph Tafani, “Trump administration toughens policy towards ‘sanctuary’ cities, but the move affects only some funds.” Los Angeles Times (July 25, 2017); Erica Werner, “House debates bill to crack down on ‘sanctuary cities’.” PBS NewsHour (July 23, 2015).
89. Lee Romney, “Oakland churches offer aid, sanctuary to Central American immigrants.” Los Angeles Times(December 31, 2014).
90. “Vow to Protect.” LA Times, Feb. 8, 2016.
91. Ganesh Setty, “A couple hid in two Philadelphia churches for 843 days to avoid deportation. Now they are free.” CNN (December 22, 2020).
92. Laura Benshoff, “‘All Our Opportunity Was Taken Away’: Sanctuary Family Slowly Restarts Life.” NPR (May 13, 2021).
93. Martin Kaste, “Trump Threatens ‘Sanctuary’ Cities With Loss of Federal Funds.” NPR ( January 26, 2017); Trump administration Gets Court Victory in Sanctuary Cities Case.” NY Times, July 12, 2019; “Trump Can Withhold Millions From ‘Sanctuary’ States, Court Rules.” NY Times, Feb. 26, 2020.
94. Kyle Balluck, “Trump: Americans ‘are demanding that Sanctuary Cities be GONE’” The Hill (June 16, 2019).
95. Catherine E. Shoichet, “Florida just banned sanctuary cities. At least 11 other states have, too.” CNN (June 14, 2019).
96. “Trump Administration Sues California Over Immigration Laws.” NY Times, March 6, 2018
97. Gustavo Arellano, “Orange County’s anti-sanctuary fervor is all but guaranteed to backfire.” Los Angeles Times (March 27, 2018); Cindy Carcano, Hailey Branson-Potts, and Alene Tchekmedyian, “How O.C. became a center of resistance to California’s sanctuary state’ legislation.” Los Angeles Times (March 28, 2018).
98. “A second front in the immigration ‘resistance’” LA Times, Sept. 12, 2018
99. “Trump wants to use coronavirus aid as leverage to force blue states to change immigration policies.” Vox, Apr. 28, 2020.
100. “Trump Says Southern-Border Asylum Seekers Are Running a 'Scam',” Wall Street Journal (April 5, 2019).
101. WaPo White House raises refugee target to 110,000 - Sept 14 2016 - https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2016/09/14/white-house-plans-to-accept-at-least-110000-refugees-in-2017/
102. https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/refugees-and-asylees-united-states-2018%23:~:text%3DIn%25202018%252C%252022%252C491%2520individuals%2520arrived,2017%2520(see%2520Figure%25202)
103. https://www.npr.org/2020/07/23/894859694/u-s-canada-asylum-treaty-unconstitutional-judge-finds-citing-cruel-u-s behavior%23:~:text%3DCanada%252DU.S.%2520Asylum%2520Treaty%2520Ruled,Of%2520%27Cruel%27%2520Conditions%2520%253A%2520NPR%26text%3DLive%2520Sessions-,Canada%252DU.S.%2520Asylum%2520Treaty%2520Ruled%2520Unconstitutional%2520Because%2520Of%2520%27Cruel&sa=D&source=editors&ust=1615829820441000&usg=AOvVaw3Sk0x2qekp6miEbx43-vj9
104. “Asylum cases deeply split immigration court system” LA Times May 6 2018
105. Sources for this section include: Tanya Golash-Boza, Immigration Nation: Raids, Detentions, and Deportations in Post-9/11 America (Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2012); María Cristina García, The Refugee Challenge in Post-Cold War America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017); Michael Kagan, The Battle to Stay in America: Immigration’s Hidden Front Line (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 2020); Viet Thanh Nguyen, ed., The Displaced: Refugee Writers on Refugee Lives (New York: Abrams Press, 2018); Paik, Bans, Walls, Raids, Sanctuary; Shoba Sivaprasad Wadhia, Banned: Immigration Enforcement in the Time of Trump (New York: NYU Press, 2019); Communities in Crisis: Interior Removals and Their Human Consequences (Nogales, AZ: Kino Border Initiative, Center for Migration Studies, and Office of Justice and Ecology, 2018); Doris Meissner, et al., Immigration Enforcement in the United States: The Rise of a Formidable Machinery (Washington: Migration Policy Institute, 2013).  Paul Spickard would like to thank Gwendolyn Wu, Chinmayee Balachandra, and Katherine Montepeque Gonzalez for contributing their research on immigration prisons.
106. Vivian Lee and Caitlin Dickerson, “10-Year-Old Is Detained After Agents Stop Her on Way to Surgery,” New York Times (October 25, 2017); “Texas Releases Disabled Migrant Girl Rosa Hernandez,” BBC News (November 4, 2017); Camila Domonoske, “After Years of Uneventful Check-Ins, Arizona Woman Is Arrested, Deported,” NPR (February 9, 2017); Kate Morrissey, “ICE Arrests Dad at Home at Gunpoint,” Los Angeles Times (May 10, 2018); Angel Jennings, “ICE Cuff Father of Five,” Los Angeles Times (August 19, 2018); Leila Miller, “Pastor’s Arrest by ICE Stokes Fears,” Los Angeles Times (July 25, 2017); Robin Abcarian, “Family’s Struggle Is All Too Familiar: Lives Are Upended When Father, Who Has a Minor Criminal Past, Is Jailed by ICE,” Los Angeles Times (August 6, 2017); John Burnett, “Border Patrol Arrests Parents While Infant Awaits Serious Operation,” NPR (September 20, 2017); Chantal Da Silva, “Pennsylvania Judge Calls ICE to Arrest Couples on Their Wedding Days,” Newsweek (April 20, 2018); Andrea Castillo, “A Dream Displaced: A Father’s Life Put On Hold,” Los Angeles Times (April 5, 2018); Alene Tchekmedyian, “US Citizen Held by ICE Settle Case for $55,000,” Los Angeles Times (October 31, 2018); Paige St. John and Joel Rubin, “ICE Held an American Man in Custody for 1,273 Days. He’s Not the Only One Who Had to Prove His Citizenship,” Los Angeles Times (April 29, 2018); Miriam Jordan, “Former Trump Family Driver Has Been in ICE Custody for 8 Months,” New York Times (March 29, 2019).
107. Josepha Serna and Kate Linthicum, “244 Immigrants Arrested in Four-Day Sweep Across Southern California,” Los Angeles Times (August 31, 2015); Andrea Castillo, “‘Collateral Arrests’ by ICE Amount to Racial Profiling, Violate Immigrants’ Rights, Lawyers Say,” Los Angeles Times (February 4, 2018); Zolan Kanno-Youngs and Miriam Jordan, “Immigration Agency Says It Plans Deportation Operation Aimed at Undocumented Families,” New York Times (June 19, 2019); Zolan Kanno-Youngs, “ICE Is Expected to Begin Operation on Sunday Targeting 2,000 Immigrant Family Members,” New York Times (June 21, 2019); Caitlin Dickerson, et al., “‘Flood the Streets’: ICE Targets Sanctuary Cities With Increased Surveillance,” New York Times (March 6, 2020); Brittny Mejia, “ICE Arrests 300 in Los Angeles Area in 5-Week Operation,” Los Angeles Times (September 4, 2020); Miriam Jordan, “ICE Arrests Hundreds in Mississippi Raids Targeting Immigrant Workers,” New York Times (August 7, 2019); Associated Press, “Mississippi Immigration Raids Lead to 680 Arrests,” Los Angeles Times (August 7, 2019); Jenny Jarvie, “Mississippi Raids Split Families and Leave Children Adrift: ‘I Just Want My Mom and Dad’,” Los Angeles Times (August 10, 2019); Tim Craig, et al., “US Defends Secretive Mississippi ICE Raids as Local, State Officials Decry Effect on Children,” Washington Post (August 8, 2019); Renae Merle, “As Workplace Raids Multiply, Trump Administration Charges Few Companies,” Washington Post (August 9, 2019); Jenny Jarvie, “Church Aches with Loss after ICE Raid,” Los Angeles Times (August 20, 2019); Richard Fausset, “After ICE Raids, a Reckoning in Mississippi’s Chicken Country,” New York Times (December 28, 2019); Associated Press, “146 Arrested at Ohio Plant in Immigration Crackdown,” Los Angeles Times (June 21, 2018); Sarah Mervosh, “Immigration Authorities Arrest More Than 280 in Texas in Largest Workplace Raid in a Decade,” New York Times (April 4, 2019); Cindy Carcamo, “Free Pass for Bosses: Few Businesses are Punished for Illegal Hiring,” Los Angeles Times (March 20, 2017).
108. David L. Ulin, “ICE’s Raids are Political Theater,” Los Angeles Times (January 23, 2018); Families in Fear: The Atlanta Immigration Raids (Atlanta: Southern Poverty Law Center and Georgia Latino Alliance for Human Rights, 2016); Kurtis Lee and Jenny Jarvie, “Immigrants Fear Stepped-Up Raids,” Los Angeles Times(February 12, 2017); Brittny Mejia, “Worry Hangs Over ICE Sweeps,” Los Angeles Times (June 15, 2018); Paloma Esquivel, “Immigrant advocates Prepare for ICE Sweeps: ‘The Effect Is Terror. We’re Getting Call after Call after Call,” Los Angeles Times (June 22, 2019); Molly Hennessy-Fiske, et al., “ICE Raids Spark Fear, Protests and Questions about Who Will be Swept Up,” Los Angeles Times (July 13, 2019); Giulia McDonnell Nieto del Rio, et al., “Hiding from ICE Raids: ‘People Are Terrified to Go Out on the Streets,” Los Angeles Times (July 15, 2019); Matt Hamilton, et al., “‘Retribution’ Is Claimed in Activist’s Arrest,” Los Angeles Times (May 20, 2017); Amy Gottlieb, “ICE Detained My Husband for Being an Activist,” New York Times (January 18, 2018).
109. Jason Stanley, “It Depends on What You Mean by ‘Fascism’,” New York Times (July 4, 2019); Jared McBride, “The Next Time ICE Rounds Up workers, Remember That We Didn’t Do the Same with Nazi-Era War Criminals,” Los Angeles Times (February 4, 2018); Matthew Connelly, “Why You May Never Learn the Truth About ICE,” New York Times (February 4, 2020); Franklin Foer, “How ICE Went Rogue,” The Atlantic (September 2018).
110. Kate Linthicum, “Local Policy and ICE at Odds,” Los Angeles Times (June 2, 2014); Cindy Carcamo, “More Jails Refuse to Hold Inmates for Federal Immigration Authorities,” Los Angeles Times (October 5, 2014); LA County Supervisors Vote to Extend ICE Deal in Jails,” Los Angeles Times (October 8, 2014); Kate Linthicum, “County Set to Sever ICE Partnership,” Los Angeles Times (May 9, 2015); Veronica Rocha, “Interfaith Protest Against ICE Results in 35 Arrests,” Los Angeles Times (April 1, 2017); Frank Shyong, “San Gabriel Withdraws from Its ICE Partnership,” Los Angeles Times (February 8, 2018); Alene Tchekmedyian, “ICE Attacks Oakland Mayor for Warning Residents about Immigration Sweeps,” Los Angeles Times (February 28, 2018); Andrea Castillo, “Another Jurisdiction Severs Its Ties with ICE,” Los Angeles Times (July 23, 2018); Brittny Mejia and Jazmine Ulloa, “State Decries ICE Courthouse Arrests,” Los Angeles Times (August 29, 2018); Justin Jouvenal, “County by County, ICE Faces a Growing Backlash,” Washington Post (October 1, 2018); Margaret Renki, “ICE Came to Take Their Neighbor. They Said No,” New York Times (August 5, 2019); Ron Nixon, “Agents Seek to Dissolve ICE in Immigration Policy Backlash,” New York Times (June 28, 2018); Matthew Haag, “‘This Is Intimidation’: Interview With ICE Whistle-Blower Is Interrupted by Federal Agents,” New York Times (June 28, 2018); Brittny Mejia, “ICE Faces Criticism from Public and Within,” Los Angeles Times (July 1, 2018); Julianne Hing, “What Does It Mean to Abolish ICE?” The Nation (July 11, 2018); Sean McElwee, “The Power to abolish ICE,” New York Times (August 4, 2018); Molly O’Toole, “ICE Directed to Focus on security Threats,” Los Angeles Times (February 19, 2021); Associated Press, “ICE Will Stop Routinely Jailing Pregnant Immigrants,” Los Angeles Times (July 10, 2021).
111. Natasha Lewis, “The Language of Deportation,” Dissent (September 14, 2017); Miriam Jordan, “‘Will I Recognize You?’ She Traveled 2,500 Miles to Reach Her Mother,” New York Times (May 9, 2021); Ron Nixon, “Federal Agencies Lost Track of Nearly 1,500 Migrant Children Placed With Sponsors,” New York Times (April 26, 2018); Seung Min Kim, “Trump Warns Against Admitting Unaccompanied Migrant Children: ‘They’re Not Innocent’,” Washington Post (May 23, 2018); Molly O’Toole and Cindy Carcamo, “US Is Deporting Migrnt Kids Rather Than Releasing Them to Sponsors,” Los Angeles Times (May 14, 2020); Associated Press, “Children Fleeing Danger Come to the US for Refuge and Are Expelled,” Los Angeles Times (August 6, 2020); Molly Hennessy-Fiske, “Migrant Kids Left Waiting for Days,” Los Angeles Times (April 4, 2021); Nicola Abé and Luis Chaparro, “The Children Trapped at the US Border and Their Stories,” Spiegel International (May 18, 2021).
112. Nicholas Kristof, “Why Does Trump Treat Immigrant Kids Cruelly? Because He Can,” New York Times (April 25, 2018).   Sources for this section include: Jacob Soboroff, Separated: Inside an American Tragedy (New York: HarperCollins, 2020); Office of Inspector General, Special Review – Initial Observations Regarding Family Separation Issues Under the Zero Tolerance Policy, OIG-18-84 (Washington: Department of Homeland Security, September 27, 2018); Adam Isacson, et al., A National Shame: The Trump Administration’s Separation and Detention of Migrant Families (Washington: WOLA, August 2018).
113. Caitlin Dickerson and Ron Nixon, “Trump administration Considers Separating Families to Combat Illegal Immigration,” New York Times (December 21, 2017); Molly Hennessy-Fiske, “Children Taken from Immigrants,” Los Angeles Times (February 20, 2018); Dora Galacatos, et al., “The Cruel Ploy of Taking Immigrant Kids From Their Parents,” New York Times (February 28, 2018); Caitlin Dickerson, “Hundreds of Immigrant Children Have Been Taken From Parents at US Border,” New York Times (April 20, 2018); Miriam Jordan and Ron Nixon, “Trump Administration Threatens Jail and Separating Children From Parents for Those Who Illegally Cross Southwest Border,” New York Times (May 7, 2018); Julie Hirschfeld Davis and Michael D. Shear, “How Trump Came to Enforce a Practice of Separating Families,” New York Times (June 16, 2018); Jason Zengerle, “How America Got to ‘Zero Tolerance’ on Immigration: The Inside Story,” New York Times Magazine (July 16, 2019); Macelo M. Suárez-Orozco and Nancy Sheper-Hughes, “America’s Dirty War on Immigrant Children,” Los Angeles Review of Books (April 3, 2019); Michael D. Shear, et al., “‘We Need to Take Away Children,’ No Matter How Young, Justice Dept. Officials Said,” New York Times (October 6, 2020).
114. Editorial Board, “Separating Children and Parents at the Border Is Cruel and Unnecessary,” Los Angeles Times (March 5, 2018); Nicholas Kristof, “Trump Immigration Policy Veers From Abhorrent to Evil,” New York Times (May 30, 2018); Editorial Board, “Seizing Children From Parents at the Border Is Immoral,” New York Times (June 14, 2018); Scott Schuchart, “Careless Cruelty: Civil Servants Said Separating Families Was Illegal. The Administration Ignored Us,” Washington Post (October 25, 2018); Ediberto Roman and Joshua Killingsworth, “Never Forget Child Separation, Trump’s Most Abominable Act,” Orlando Sentinel (July 12, 2020); Charles C. Camosy, “You Can’t Be Pro-Life and Against Immigrant Children,” New York Times (June 16, 2018); Andrew M. Cuomo, “A Moral Outrage We Must Not Tolerate,” New York Times (June 20, 2018); Andrea Castillo, et al., “Nationwide Rallies Decry Separations at Border,” Los Angeles Times (July 1, 2018); Maria Sacchetti, “House Democrats Call Trump’s Family Separations ‘Reckless Incompetence and intentional cruelty’,” Washington Post (October 29, 2020); J. D. Long-García, “Pope Francis Calls Trump’s Family Separation Border Policy ‘Cruelty of the Highest Form’,” America: The Jesuit Review (October 21, 2020).
115. Office of Inspector General, DHS Lacked Technology Needed to Successfully Account for Separated Migrant Families, OIG-20-06 (Washington: Department of Homeland Security, November 25, 2019); Michael D. Shear, et al., “Federal Judge in California Halts Splitting of Migrant Families at Border,” New York Times (June 26, 2018); Joel Lovell, “The ACLU’s Fight to Reunite Families Separated Under Trump,” New York Times (July 2, 2018); Caitlin Dickerson, “Court Orders Temporary Halt to Migrant Family Deportations,” New York Times (July 16, 2018); Michael D. Shear, et al., “Trump Retreats on Separating Families, but Thousands May Remain Apart,” New York Times (June 20, 2018); Jazmine Ulloa, “No Families Divided at Border Have Been Reunited, US Says,” Los Angeles Times (July 5, 2018); Miriam Jordan, “Trump Administration Says It Needs More Time to Reunite Migrant Families,” New York Times (July 6, 2018); Caitlin Dickerson, et al., “Federal Authorities Say They Have Met Deadline to Reunite Migrant Families,” New York Times (July 26, 2018); Associated Press, “Hundreds of Immigrant Families Still Apart a Month After Deadline Passes,” Los Angeles Times (September 1, 2018); Mark L. Schneider, “Trump Is Set to Separate More than 200,000 US-Born Children From Their Parents,” Washington Post (July 6, 2018); Kristina Davis, “US Appeals Family Separation Ban,” Los Angeles Times (August 27, 2018); Nick Miroff, et al., “Trump Administration Weights New Family-Separation Effort at Border,” Washington Post (October 12, 2018); Michael D. Shear, et al., “Trump Signals even Fiercer Immigration Agenda, With a Possible Return of Family Separations,” New York Times (April 8, 2019).
116. Miriam Jordan, “‘It’s Horrendous’: The Heartache of a Migrant Boy Taken From His Father,” New York Times (June 7, 2018).
117. Manny Fernandez, “Inside the Former Walmart That Is Now a Shelter for Almost 1,500 Migrant Children,” New York Times (June 14, 2018); Dan Barry, et al., “Cleaning Toilets, Following Rules: A Migrant Child’s Days in Detention,” New York Times (July 14, 2018); Manny Fernandez and Caitlin Dickerson, “Inside the Vast Tent City Housing Migrant Children in a Texas Desert,” New York Times (October 12, 2018); Molly Hennessy-Fiske, “‘Terrifying’ Transfer of Children,” Los Angeles Times (October 4, 2018); Miriam Jordan, “Migrant Children Are Spending Months ‘Crammed’ in a Temporary Florida Shelter,” New York Times (June 26, 2019); Manny Fernandez, “He Crossed the Border Alone, Then Spent 8 Months in Custody. He Was 7,” New York Times (May 11, 2019); Katie Shepherd, “Three-Year-Old Immigrant Child Released After Two Years of Detention,” https://ImmigrationImpact.com (retrieved August 5, 2021);  Miriam Jordan and Manny Fernandez, “Judge Rejects Long Detentions of Migrant Families, Dealing Trump Another Setback,” New York Times (July 9, 2018); Victoria Kim and Kristina Davis, “US Loses Bid to Detain Kids Indefinitely,” Los Angeles Times (July 10, 2018); Victoria Kim, “Trump Seeks to Change Flores Rule,” Los Angeles Times (September 7, 2018); Editorial Board, “Don’t Let Migrant Kids Rot,” New York Times (September 9, 2018); Maria Benevento, “Catholic Advocates Decry Proposed New Rule for Detaining Immigrant Children,” National Catholic Reporter (September 13, 2018); Philip E. Wolgin, “3 Reasons Why the New Flores Rule Does Not Pass Legal Muster,” Center for American Progress (August 22, 2019).
118. Charles M. Blow, “Trump’s ‘Concentration Camps’,” New York Times (June 23, 2019); Kate Linthicum and David Montero, “Sexual Abuse Alleged at Shelters,” Los Angeles Times (September 1, 2018); Matt Smith and Aura Bogado, “Immigrant Children Forcibly Injected with Drugs, Lawsuit Claims,” Reveal (June 20, 2018); Molly Hennessy-Fiske, “‘Prison-Like’ Migrant Youth Shelter is Understaffed, unequipped for Trump’s ‘Zero Tolerance’ Policy, Insider Says,” Los Angeles Times (June 14, 2018); Aura Bogado, et al., “Migrant Children Sent to Shelters With Histories of Abuse Allegations,” Reveal (June 20, 2018); Caitlin Dickerson, “‘There Is a Stench’: Soiled Clothes and No Baths for Migrant Children at a Texas Center,” New York Times (June 21, 2019); Office of Inspector General, Management Alert—DHS Needs to address Dangerous Overcrowding and Prolonged Detention of Children and Adults in the Rio Grande Valley OIG-19-51 (US Department of Homeland Security, July 2, 2019); Kiera Coulter, et al., “A Study and Analysis of the Treatment of Mexican Unaccompanied Minors by Customs and Border Protection,” Journal of Migration and Human Security (2020): 1-15;  Molly Hennessy-Fiske, “Portraits of Six Migrant Kids Who Died in US Custody,” Los Angeles Times (May 27, 2019); Francisco Cantú, “It Wasn’t an Aberration: Jakelin Caal Maquin’s Death Reflects a Culture of Cruelty,” Los Angeles Times (December 18, 2018); Laura King, “An 8-Year-Old Guatemalan Child Dies in US Custody on Christmas  Eve After Being Treated for a Cold,” Los Angeles Times (December 25, 2018).
119. Miriam Jordan, et al., “As Migrant Families Are Reunited, Some Children Don’t Recognize Their Mothers,” New York Times (July 10, 2018); Esmeralda Bermudez, “‘I’m Here. I’m Here.’ Father Reunited with Son Amid Tears, Relief and Fear of What’s Next,” Los Angeles Times (July 15, 2018); Esmeralda Bermudez, “Living, and Healing, After Traumatic Split,” Los Angeles Times (September 10, 2018); Brittny Mejia, “A 3-Year-Old Was Separated from His Father at the Border. Now His Parents Are Dealing with His Trauma,” Los Angeles Times (July 3, 2018); Associated Press, “Back Home, In His Mother’s Arms,” Los Angeles Times (July 22, 2018); Cindy Carcamo, “Sedated and Dulled after Months in US Custody,” Los Angeles Times (September 14, 2018); Caitlin Dickerson, “Three Years After Family Separation, Her Son Is Back. But Her Life Is Not,” New York Times (December 7, 2020).
120. Molly Hennessy-Fiske, “Honduran Migrant Who Was Separated from Family is Found Dead in Texas Jail in an Apparent Suicide,” Los Angeles Times (June 9, 2018); Richard Marosi, “Guatemalan Man Fears for Daughter, Left Behind in US. Reunification Could Take Months,” Los Angeles Times (June 23, 2018); Jack Healy, “Migrant Parents Wait and Hope for Their Children: ‘I Feel Like I’m Going to Die’,” New York Times (June 21, 2018); Miriam Jordan, “‘I Can’t Go Without My Son,’ a Mother Pleaded as She Was Deported to Guatemala,” New York Times (June 17, 2018); Molly Hennessy-Fiske, “Detained Mothers Share Their Fears,” Los Angeles Times (July 2, 2018); Patrick J. McDonnell, “A Divided Family’s Dread: ‘What If I Lose Her Forever?” Los Angeles Times (July 11, 2018); Esmeralda Bermudez, “An Unbearable Separation,” Los Angeles Times (July 11, 2018); Kate Linthicum, “An Immigrant Mother’s Anguish,” Los Angeles Times (September 16, 2018).
121. Michelle Goldberg, “They Really Don’t Care About Migrant Families,” New York Times (June 21, 2018); Teo Armus and Maria Sacchetti, “The Parents of 545 Children Separated at the Border Still Haven’t Been Found,” Washington Post October 21, 2020); Cindy Carcamo, “In Guatemala’s Highlands, a Quest to Reunite Families,” Los Angeles Times (September 1, 2018); Jacob Soboroff, “More than 2,100 Children Separated at Border ‘Have Not Yet Been Reunified,’ Biden Task Force Says,” NBC News (June 8, 2021); Susan Ferriss, et al., “Homeland Security’s Civil Rights Unit Lacks Power to Protect Migrant Kids,” NPR (August 2, 2019); Kristina Davis, “Trump Administration Has Separated 900 Migrant Children Despite Order to Stop Practice,” Los Angeles Times (July 30, 2019).

For continuing separations and attempts at reunions in the Biden era, see: Molly Hennessy-Fiske, “Family. Separations Persist with Biden,” Los Angeles Times (May 3, 2021); Richard Read, “A ‘Heartbreaking’ Split at the Northern Border,” Los Angeles Times (May 10, 2021); Elliot Spagat, “US to Start Reuniting Some Families Separated at Mexico Border,” Los Angeles Times (May 3, 2021); Molly O’Toole, US to Start Reuniting Some Families,” Los Angeles Times (May 4, 2021).

122. Sources for this section include: César Cuauhtémoc García Hernández, Migrating to Prison: America’s Obsession with Locking Up Immigrants (New York: New Press, 2019); Mark Dow, American Gulag: Inside US Immigration Prisons (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004); Jenna M. Loyd and Alison Mountz, Boats, Borders, and Bases: Race, the Cold War, and the Rise of Migration Detention in the United States (Oakland: University of California Press, 2018); A. Naomi Paik, Rightlessness: Testimony and Redress in US Prison Camps since World War II (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2016); Carl Lindskoog, Detain and Punish: Haitian Refugees and the Rise of the World’s Largest Immigration Detention System (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2018); Patrisia Macías-Rojas, From Deportation to Prison: The Politics of Immigration Enforcement in Post-Civil Rights America (New York: New York University Press, 2018); Michael Welch, Detained: Immigration Laws and the Expanding INS Jail Complex (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2002); Tom K. Wong, Rights, Deportation, and Detention in the Age of Immigration Control (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2015); Robert S. Kahn, Other People’s Blood: US Immigration Prisons in the Reagan Decade (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996); Mary Bosworth, Inside Immigration Detention (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014); Amnesty International, Jails Without Justice: Immigration Detention in the USA (London: Amnesty International 2008); J Rachel Reyes, “Immigration Detention: Recent Trends and Scholarship,” Center for Migration Studies (March 26, 2018); Denise Gilman and Luis A. Romero, “Immigration Detention, Inc.,” Journal on Migration and Human Security (2018): 1-16; Shadow Prisons: Immigrant Detention in the South (Montgomery, AL: Southern Poverty Law Center, 2016); Warehoused and Forgotten: Immigrants Trapped in Our Shadow Private Prison System (New York: American Civil Liberties Union, 2014).
123. Nicole Flatow, “Private Prison Stocks Soar As Companies Cash In On Incarcerated Immigrants,” ThinkProgress.org (September 2, 2014); Kate Linthicum, “Locking In Profits,” Los Angeles Times (April 24, 2015); Molly Hennessy-Fiske, “US Get Cheap Labor in Holding Centers,” Los Angeles Times (August 5, 2015); Keegan Hamilton, “How Private Prisons Are Profiting From Locking UP US Immigrants,” Vice.com (October 6, 2015); Tracy Ian, “These GOP Lawmakers Say It’s Okay for Imprisoned Immigrants to Work for $1 a Day,” Washington Post (March 16, 2018); Jacqueline Stevens, “When Migrants Are Treated Like Slaves,” New York Times (April 4, 2018); Livia Luan, “Profiting from Enforcement: The Role of Private Prisons in US Immigration Detention,” MigrationPolicy.org (May 2, 2018); Kim Barker, et al., “He’s Built an Empire, With Detained Migrant Children as the Bricks,” New York Times (December 2, 2018); Victoria Law, “End Forced Labor in Immigrant Detention,” New York Times (January 29, 2019): Andrea Castillo, “California Bans For-Profit Prisons and Immigrant Detention Facilities,” Los Angeles Times (October 11, 2019); John Washington, “The Amount of Money Being Made Ripping Migrant Families Apart Is Staggering,” The Nation (October 28, 2019); Andrea Castillo, “ICE Is Ignoring California’s Ban on Private Immigrant Detention Centers,” Los Angeles Times (November 9, 2019).
124. Molly Hennessy-Fiske, “Scenes of Crowding and Tears at a Border Center,” June 1, 2018); Anonymous, “What My 6-Year-Old Son and I Endured in Family Detention,” New York Times (June 25, 2018); Paloma Esquivel, “Prison Strains to Handle Detainees,” Los Angeles Times (July 13, 2018); Andrea Castillo, “Inspectors Fine Nooses Inside Cells at Adelanto,” Los Angeles Times (October 8, 2018); Kate Linthicum, “Migrant Families in US Custody are Sleeping on the Ground Under a Bridge in El Paso,” Los Angeles Times (March 29, 2019); Priscilla Alvarez, “Watchdog Finds Detainees ‘Standing on Toilets’ for Breathing Room at Border Facility Holding 900 People in Space Meant for 125,” CNN (May 31, 2019); Zolan Kanno-Youngs, “Squalid Conditions at Border Detention Centers, Government Report Finds,” New York Times (July 2, 2019); Simon Romero, et al., “Hungry, Scared and Sick: Inside the Migrant Detention Center in Clint, Tex.,” New York Times (July 6, 2019);Wendy Fry, “Sickness Thrives in Packed Border Shelters,” Simon Romero, et al., “Hungry, Scared and Sick: Inside the Migrant Detention Center in Clint, Tex.,” New York Times (July 6, 2019);August 25, 2019); Hannah Dreier, “To Stay or to Go? Amid Coronavirus Outbreaks, Migrants Face the Starkest of Choices: Risking Their Lives in US Detention or Returning Home to the Dangers They Fled,” Washington Post (December 26, 2020); Molly Hennessy-Fiske, “Migrant Families Held for Days under Bridge,” Los Angeles Times (March 26, 2021).
125. Meredith Hoffman, “How US Immigrant Detention Facilities Get Away with Being Complete Hellholes,” Vice.com (October 21, 2015); Kate Linthicum, “200 Adelanto Detainees Hold Hunger Strike,” Los Angeles Times (November 7, 2015); Matt Hamilton, “Guatemalan Man Held at Immigrant Detention Center Dies of Heart Attack,” Los Angeles Times (December 26, 2015); Paloma Esquivel, “ICE Detainees Launch Hunger Strikes,” Los Angeles Times (June 15, 2017); “Trump Migration Separation Policy: Children ‘In Cages’ in Texas,” BBC (June 18, 2018); Molly Hennessy-Fiske, “Border Shelter Meds Scrutinized,” Los Angeles Times (June 25, 2018); Tim Dickinson, “ICE Officers to Asylum Seekers: ‘Don’t You Know That We Hate You People?’” Rolling Stone (July 10, 2018); Emily Kassie, “Sexual Assault Inside ICE Detention:  2 Survivors Tell Their Story,” New York Times (July 17, 2018); Paloma Esquivel and Brittny Mejia, “Detention Life Marked by Nooses, Rotting Teeth,” Los Angeles Times ( October 3, 2018); Sheri Fink and Caitlin Dickerson, “Border Patrol Facilities Put Detainees With Medical Conditions at Risk,” New York Times (March 5, 2019); Bobby Allyn and Joel Rose, “Justice Department Announces Plan to Collect DNA from Migrants Crossing the Border,” NPR (October 21, 2019); Alan Gomez, “Deaths in Custody. Sexual Violence. Hunger Strikes. What We Uncovered Inside ICE Facilities Across the US,” USA Today (December 22, 2019); Daniel I. Morales, et al., “DNA Collection at the Border Threatens the Privacy of All Americans,” New York Times (January 23, 2020); Ema O’Connor, “”A Woman Gave Birth in a Border Patrol Station Still Wearing Her Pants. Now the Agents Involved are Being Accused of Abuse,” Buzzfeed News (April 9, 2020); Andrea Castillo, “Immigrants Detained at Adelanto Staged a Peaceful Protest. Guards in Riot Gear Pepper-Sprayed Them,” Los Angeles Times (June 26, 2020); Kari Paul, “ICE Detainees Faced Medical Neglect and Hysterectomies, Whistleblower Alleges,” The Guardian (September 15, 2020); Joel Rose, “ICE Almost Deport4ed Immigrant Woman Who Says She Got Unwanted Surgery While Detained,” NPR (September 16, 2020); Moira Donegan, “ICE Hysterectomy Allegations in Line with US’s Long and Racist History of Eugenics,” The Guardian (September 17, 2020); Nomaan Merchant, “More Migrant Women Say They Did Not Consent to Surgeries at ICE Center,” The Guardian (September 18, 2020); Caitlin Dickerson, et al., “Immigrants Say They Were Pressured Into Unneeded Surgeries,” New York Times (September 29, 2020); Jennifer Nájera, “Why Abuse and Neglect in ICE Detention Grow,” Los Angeles Times (October 1, 2020); Andrea Castillo and Paloma Esquivel, “A ‘Nightmare’ for Detainees Alleging Abuse,” Los Angeles Times (October 18 2020); Eileen Sullivan, “Biden Will End Detention for Most Pregnant and Postpartum Undocumented Immigrants,” New York Times (July 9, 2021).
126. https://www.advocate.com/politics/transgender/2015/01/22/detained-trans-immigrant-marichuy-gamino-be-released, https://www.advocate.com/immigration/2015/05/04/guatemalan-trans-woman-released-after-harrowing-six-months-immigration-detent, https://transgenderlawcenter.org/archives/case/marichuy-leal-gamino, https://www.glaad.org/blog/transgender-immigration-detainee-marichuy-leal-gamino-moved-solitary-confinement-after?response_type=embed
127. “Kids on the Line,” Reveal (October 32, 2020); Michelle Wiley, “US Treatment of Migrant Children Falls Under UN Definition of ‘Torture,’ Doctors Say,” KQED (October 27, 2020); Miriam Jordan, “Whistle-Blowers Say Detaining Migrant Families ‘Poses High Risk of Harm’,” New York Times (July 18, 2018); Melissa Jenco, “AAP Renews Call for an End to Family Separation at the Border,” American Academy of Pediatrics News (January 18, 2019); Andrea Castillo and Meg Bernhard, “Family Detention Left Lingering Scars,” Los Angeles Times (August 19, 2018); Ana Raquel Minian, “America Didn’t Always Lock Up Immigrants,” New York Times (Dec. 1, 2018); Michael D. Shear and Zolan Kanno-Youngs, “Migrant Families Would Face Indefinite Detention Under New Trump Rule,” New York Times (August 21, 2019); Caitlin Dickerson, “Despite Warnings, Trump Moves to Expand Migrant Family Detention,” New York Times (December 9, 2019); Ingrid Eagley, et al., Detaining Families (Washington: American Immigration Council, 2018); Molly Hennessy-Fiske and Cindy Carcamo, “Echoes of Texas Internment Camp,” Los Angeles Times (April 11, 2016); Melissa Healy, “The Psychological Toll of Separating Families,” Los Angeles Times (June 21, 2018); Alexandra Villarreal, “Seven Months Detained: Seven-Year-Old Is Longest-Held Child Migrant in US,” The Guardian (January 26, 2020); Joanne M. Chiedi, Care Provider Facilities Described Challenges Addressing Mental Health Needs of Children in HHS Custody, OEI-09-18-00431 (Washington: US Department of Health and Human Services, September 2019).

Regarding the final point, a July 2019 Quinnipiac poll found that 31 percent of Americans thought it was better “to keep all undocumented immigrants in detention centers, even if it causes overcrowding and bad conditions” than to let them be free even under supervision; Quinnipiac University, “Trump Is Racist, Half Of U.S. Voters Say, Quinnipiac University National Poll Finds; But Voters Say Almost 2-1 Don’t Impeach President” (July 30, 2019) https://poll.qu.edu/national/release-detail?ReleaseID=3636.

128. Kirstjen M. Nielsen, Secretary of Homeland Security, “Policy Guidance for Implementation of the Migrant Protection Protocols” (Washington: US Department of Homeland Security, January 25, 2019); Human Rights Watch, “Q & A: Trump Administration’s ‘Remain in Mexico’ Program,” (January 29, 2019) https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/01/29/qa-trump-administrations-remain-mexico-program, retrieved August 10, 2021; Tom Phillips, “Remain in Mexico Policy Needlessly exposed Migrants to Harm, Report Says,” The Guardian (January 1, 2021); Julián Aguilar, “Two Years After ‘Remain in Mexico’ Policy began, Migrants Allowed to Pursue Their Asylum Claims in the US,” Texas Tribune (February 26, 2021); Molly O’Toole, “‘Sitting Ducks for Organized Crime’: How Biden Border Policy Fuels Migrant Kidnapping, Extortion,” Los Angeles Times (April 28, 2021); Patrick J. McDonnell, “Mexico Also Facing a Crisis with Migrant Children, Families,” Los Angeles Times (May 17, 2021); Molly O’Toole, “Pandemic Border Closure Could Crack Under Pressure,” Los Angeles Times (May 19, 2021).
129. Sources for this section include:  Tanya Golash-Boza, Due Process Denied: Detentions and Deportations in the United States (New York: Routledge, 2012): Alison Peck, The Accidental History of the US Immigration Courts: War, Fear, and the Roots of Dysfunction (Oakland: University of California Press, 2021); J. C. Salyer, Court of Injustice: Law Without Recognition in US Immigration (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2020); No End in Sight: Why Migrants Give Up on Their US Immigration Cases (Montgomery, AL: Southern Poverty Law Center, 2018).
130. Editorial Board, “Immigration Courts Aren’t Real Courts,” New York Times (May 8, 2021); Molly Hennessy-Fiske, “An Overwhelming Day in Border Court,” Los Angeles Times (May 21, 2018); Molly O’Toole, “Immigration Caseload Soars Despite Push to Reduce Backlog,” Los Angeles Times (February 22, 2019); Kate Morrissey, “Immigration Court Is Overwhelmed,” Los Angeles Times (June 5, 2019); Mazin Sidahmed, “‘It’s Like an Automatic Deportation if You Don’t Have a Lawyer,” New York Times (August 13, 2019); Madeleine Schwartz, “Inside the Deportation Courts,” New York Review of Books (October 10, 2019); Eli Saslow, “In a Crowded Immigration Court, Seven Minutes to Decide a Family’s Future,” Washington Post (February 2, 2014); Ira Glass, et al., “I Thought It Would Be Easier,” This American Life – NPR (January 19, 2018).
131. Kate Morrissey, “US Turns Away Mexican Migrant Kids Without Crucial Screening, Report Says,” Los Angeles Times (June 12, 2021); Gustavo Solis, “US Border Agents Wrote Fake Court Dates on Paperwork to send Migrants Back to Mexico,” Los Angeles Times (November 7, 2019); Molly Hennessy-Fiske, “Immigrants’ Attorneys Say They Were ‘Locked Out’ of Detention Centers After Raising Concerns,” Los Angeles Times (July 27, 2015); Misyrlena Egkolfopoulou, “The Thousands of Children Who Go to Immigration Court Alone,” The Atlantic (August 21, 2018); Ilyce Shugall, “In Immigration Court—and Forced to Go It Alone,” Los Angeles Times (December 5, 2019); Manny Fernandez, “‘You Are Safe Here’: In a Border Courtroom, a Migrant Woman Confronts Her Biggest Fear,” New York Times (March 4, 2019); Vivian Yee and Miriam Jordan, “Migrant Children in Search of Justice: A 2-Year-Old’s Day in Immigration Court,” New York Times (October 8, 2018); Jeff Ernst and Miriam Jordan, “A Toddler Who Appeared in Immigration Court Goes Home to Honduras. ‘Mi Amor,’ Her mother Cries,” New York Times (October 25, 2018).
132. Editorial Board, “Immigration Courts Aren’t Real Courts.”  Sources for this section include: Adam Goodman, The Deportation Machine: America’s Long History of Expelling Immigrants (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2020); Macías-Rojas, From Deportation to Prison; Ethan Blue, The Deportation Express: A History of American Through Forced Removal (Oakland: University of California Press, 2021); Lauren Heidbrink, Migranthood: Youth in a New Era of Deportation (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2020); Deborah A. Boehn and Susan J. Terrio, eds., Illegal Encounters: The Effect of Detention and Deportation on Young People (New York: New York University Press, 2019); Tanya Maria Golash Boza, Deported: Immigrant Policing, Disposable Labor, and Global Capitalism (New York: New York University Press, 2015); Margaret Regan, Detained and Deported: Stories of Immigrant Families Under Fire (Boston: Beacon, 2015); Jeremy Slack, Deported to Death: How Drug Violence Is Changing Migration on the US-Mexico Border (Oakland: University of California Press, 2019); Beth C. Caldwell, Deported Americans: Life After Deportation to Mexico (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2019); Julia Rose Kraut, threat of Dissent: A History of Ideological Exclusion and Deportation in the United States (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2020); Luis H. Zayas, Forgotten Citizens: Deportation, Children, and the Making of American Exiles and Orphans (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015).
133. Muzaffar Chishti and Sarah Pierce, “Trump’s Promise of Millions of Deportations Is Yet to Be Fulfilled,” Migration Information Source (October 29, 2020); Beth Werlin, “The Human Cost of Fast-Track Deportation,” New York Times (July 25, 2019); Kate Linthicum, “In the Wings: ‘Guardian Angels Watch and Wait for Kids Facing Deportation,” Los Angeles Times (February 17, 2015); David Kelly, “Church Builds a Wall of Its Own,” Los Angeles Times (February 27, 2017); Alan Feuer, “Brooklyn Moves to Protect Immigrants From Deportation Over Petty Crimes,” New York Times (April 24, 2017); Danielle Allen and Richard Ashby Wilson, “Mass Deportation Isn’t Just Impractical. It’s Very, Very Dangerous,” Washington Post (September 23, 2016); Robert Warren and Donald Kerwin, “Mass Deportations Would Impoverish US Families and Create Immense Social Costs,” Journal on Migration and Human Security, 5.1 (2017): 1-8; Brian Bennett, “Not Just ‘Bad Hombres’: Trump Is Targeting Up to 8 Million People for Deportation,” Los Angeles Times (February 5, 2017); David Nakamura, “Trump Administration Moving Quickly to Build Up Nationwide Deportation Force,” Washington Post (April 12, 2017); Abigail Hauslohner and David Nakamura, “In Memo, Trump Administration Weights Expanding the Expedited Deportation Powers of DHS,” Washington Post (July 14, 2017); Charles M. Blow, “John Kelly, Deacon of Deportation,” New York Times (January 17, 2018).
134. Ed Pilkington, “Mother of Four to Be Deported to Mexico in Sign of Trump Policy Shift,” The Guardian (April 6, 2017); Choe Sang-Hun, “Deportation a ‘Deat Sentence’ to Adoptees After a Lifetime in the US,” New York Times (July 2, 2017); Kate Morrissey, “US Working to Bring Back Deported Veterans,” Los Angeles Times (July 3, 2021); Adeel Hassan, “Witness in Hard Rock Hotel Collapse Is Deported,” New York Times (November 29, 2019); “Merrit Kennedy and Jane Arraf, “‘I’ve Got Nothing Over Here’: Michigan Man Deported By ICE Dies in Baghdad,” NPR (August 8, 2019); Melissa Etehad, “Iraqi Chaldeans Supported Trump. Now One of Their Own Died after Being Deported,” Los Angeles Times (August 12, 2019); Andrea Castillo, “LA Father Could Be Deported Next Week,” Los Angeles Times (August 1, 2017); Vivian Yee, “An American Middle Schooler, Orphaned by Deportation,” New York Times (July 30, 2019); Editorial Board, “ICE Tried to Deport an Immigration activist. That May Have Been Unconstitutional,” New York Times (April 27, 2019); Brittny Mejia, “Green Card in Wallet, He’s Facing Deportation: ICE Sweeps Also Target Immigrants Legally in US,” Los Angeles Times (June 29, 2018); Kate Linthicum, “Thousands of Immigrant Children Have Been Ordered Out of US Without Appearing in Court,” Los Angeles Times (March 6, 2015); Miriam Jordan, “A Woman Without a Country: Adopted at Birth and Deportable at 30,” New York Times (July 7, 2020); Jennifer Medina, “After an Arrest at a Black Lives Matter Protest: Deportation Proceedings,” New York Times (July 11, 2020); Elise Foley, “He Begged ICE to Let Him See His Daughter Graduate.  But He’s an Easy Target for Removal,” Huffington Post (March 26, 2018); Nicholas Kristof, “We’re Helping Deport Kids to Die,” New York Times (July 17, 2016); Shannon Dooling, “Trump Administration Ends Protection for Migrants’ Medical Care,” NPR (August 27, 2019); Jorge Ramos, “If They Send Me Back, I Will Die,” New York Times (September 9, 2019); “Mexico Is Deporting Central Americans Flown in by US,” Los Angeles Times (August 12, 2021).
135. Sonia Pérez D., “After a Failed Migration, Debts Set In,” Los Angeles Times (June 5, 2021); Kate Morrissey, “Migrant Families’ Journey to Nowhere,” Los Angeles Times (April 12, 2021); Maria Abi-Habib, “Images of Confusion, Then Anguish: Migrant Families Deported by Surprise,” New York Times (March 20, 2021); Caitlin Dickerson, “Migrant Children From Other Countries Are Being Expelled Into Mexico,” New York Times October 30, 2020); Julia Preston, “The True Costs of Deportation,” The Marshall Project (June 18, 2020).
136. Jon Henley, “US elects first trans state senator and first black gay congressman.” The Guardian (November 4, 2020); Nina Lakhani, “Deb Haaland confirmed as first Indigenous US cabinet secretary.” The Guardian (March 15, 2021); Alex Seitz-Wald, “AOC and ‘the squad’ are getting some company. Here’s who is joining the team.” NBC News (December 12, 2020); Li Zhou, “A historic new Congress will be sworn in today.” Vox (January 3, 2019).

Notes

1. Leon Kolankiewicz, “Immigration, Population, and the New Census Bureau Projections,” Center for Immigration Studies press release (Washington, June 2000); Steven A. Camarota, “Immigration in an Aging Society,” Center for Immigration Studies press release (Washington, April 2005).
2. Republican strategist Matthew Dowd correctly predicted that a sharply declining fertility rate in Mexico in the 2000s would result in a decline in that country’s population growth, hence in pressure for Mexicans to migrate in search of work in the 2010s, and so it proved to be; Matthew Dowd, “The Mexican Evolution,” New York Times (August 1, 2005).
3. Simon Behrman and Avidan Kent, eds., Climate Refugees (New York: Routledge, 2018); Rebecca E. Hirsch, Climate Migrants (Minneapolis: Twenty-First Century Books, 2016); Johannes Graf Keyserlingk, Immigration Control in a warming World: Realizing the Moral Challenges of Climate Migration (Exeter, UK: Imprint Academic, 2018); Jane McAdam, ed., Climate Change and Displacement (Oxford, UK: Hart, 2010); Robert A. McLeman, Climate and Human Migration (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2014); Todd Miller, Storming the Wall: Climate Change, Migration, and Homeland Security (San Francisco: City Lights, 2017); New York Times Editorial, Climate Refugees (New York: New York Times Educational Publications, 2018); Gregory White, Climate Change and Migration (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011).
4. Richard Alba argues cogently against the preoccupation with the “majority minority” idea, on the ground that a majority of families will in fact be racially mixed, so consigning people to single racial boxes increasingly fails to reflect what is socially important; The Great Demographic Illusion: Majority, Minority, and the Expanding American Mainstream (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2020); Alba, “What Majority-minority Society? A Critican Analysis of the Census Bureau’s Projections of America’s Demographic Future,” Socius, 4 (2018): 1-10.  See also William H. Frey, “No Need to Fear a ‘No Majority’ America,” Los Angeles Times (March 8, 2015).
5. Mark Hugo Lopez, Jeffrey Passell, and Molly Rohal, “Modern Immigration Wave Brings 59 Million to US, Driving Population Growth and Change Through 2065” (Washington: Pew Research Center, 2015); Sandra Johnson, “A Changing Nation: Population Projections Under Alternative Immigration Scenarios” (Washington: US Census Bureau, Current Population Reports P25-1146, February 2020).
6. We are  going to speak in conceptual terms in this section, rather than descend into mathematical detail, for we are analyzing the arguments of other scholars, not presenting my own.  Sources on the economic impact of immigration include: Cynthia Bansak, et al., The Economics of Immigration (New York: Routledge, 2015); Francine D. Blau and Christopher Mackie, eds., The Economic and Fiscal Consequences of Immigration: A Report of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, Medicine (Washington: National Academies Press, 2017); Michael A. Clemens, “Economics and Emigration: Trillion-Dollar Bills on the Sidewalk?” Journal of Economic Perspectives, 25.3 (2011): 83-106; Raúl Hinojosa-Ojeda, Raiising the Floor for American Workers: The Economic Benefits of Comprehensive Immigration Reform (Washington: Center for American Progress and Immigration Policy Center, January 2010); Don Lee and Molly O’Toole, “The Cost of Low Immigration,” Los Angeles Times (October 20, 2020); Tod G. Hamilton, Immigration and the Remaking of Black America (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2019); Gordon H. Hanson, Why Does Immigration Divide America? Public Finance and Political Opposition to Open Borders (Washington: Institute for International Economics, 2005); David Heer, Immigration in America’s Future (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1996); The Impact of Immigration on the California Economy (n.p.: Center for the Continuing Study of the California Economy, 2005); Helen B. Marrow, “Is Unauthorized Immigration an Economic Drain on American Communities? Research Says No,” Contexts (May 21, 2018); Douglas S. Massey and Kerstin Gentsch, “Undocumented Migration to the United States and the Wages of Mexican Immigrants,” International Migration Review, 48.2 (2014): 482-99; Kevin F. McCarthy and Georges Vernez, Immigration in a Changing Economy (Santa Monica, Calif.: Rand, 1997); Alex Nowrasteh and Robert Orr, “Immigration and the Welfare States” (policy brief; Washington: Cato Institute, 2018); Giovanni Peri, et al., “Opportunity Lost: The Economic Benefit of Retaining Foreign-Born Students in Local Economies,” Chicago Council on Global Affairs (April 2016); Benjamin Powell, ed., The Economics of Immigration: Market-Based Approaches, Social Science, and Public Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015); Steven Shulman, ed., The Impact of Immigration on African Americans (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 2004); James P. Smith and Barry Edmonston, eds., The New Americans: Economic, Demographic, and Fiscal Effects of Immigration (Washington: National Academy Press, 1997); We The People: Helping Newcomers Become Californians (n.p.: Little Hoover Commission, 2002).
7. Haydee Pavia, letter to the editor, Los Angeles Times (December 27, 2003).
8. George Borjas, Heaven’s Door: Immigration Policy and the American Economy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1999), 212; see also Borjas, Heaven’s Door: Immigration Policy and the American Economy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011); Borjas, “Immigration and the American Worker: A Review of the Academic Literature” (Washington: Center for Immigration Studies, April 2013); Borjas, Immigration Economics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014).  Other writers with a negative assessment of the economic impact of immigrants include: Beck, The Case Against Immigration; Steven A. Camarota, Immigration from Mexico: Assessing the Impact on the United States (Washington: Center for Immigration Studies, 2001); Graham, Unguarded Gates; Christopher Jencks, “Who Should Get In?” New York Review of Books (November 29, 2001); Roger Lowenstein, “The Immigration Equation,” New York Times (July 9, 2006); Robert J. Samuelson, “The Changing Face of Poverty,” Newsweek (October 18, 2004); Dan Stein, “Immigration Is Fueling Poverty Rate,” Los Angeles Times (July 6, 1999).
9. Writers with a positive assessment of the economic impact of immigrants include: Vernon M. Briggs Jr. and Stephen Moore, Still an Open Door? US Immigration Policy and the American Economy (Washington: American University Press, 1994); Tim Cavanaugh, “No Border, No Problem,” Los Angeles Times (May 23, 2006); James Flanigan, “Immigrants Benefit US Economy Now as Ever,” Los Angeles Times (July 4, 2005); Michael Hiltzik, “Clearing Out Bad Data on Illegal Immigrants,” Los Angeles Times (December 22, 2003); Michael Hiltzik, “The Truth About Illegal Immigrants,” Los Angeles Times (December 15, 2005); Tamar Jacoby, “A Law That Means Business,” Los Angeles Times (July 12, 2005); Robert Scheer, “Surprise! Immigration Hasn’t Ruined Us,” Los Angeles Times (February 22, 2000); Julian Simon, The Economic Consequences of Immigration, 2nd ed. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999); Kenneth Swift, “Saving Social Security? Now That’s a Job for Immigrants,” Los Angeles Times (April 23, 2006).
10. Julie Hirschfeld Davis and Somini Sengupta, “Trump Administration Rejects Study Showing Positive Impact of Refugees,” New York Times (September 18, 2017; the draft report is “The Fiscal Costs of the US Refugee Admissions Program at the Federal, State, and Local Levels, from 2005-2014” (US Department of Health and Human Services, July 29, 2017).  See also Alexia Fernández Campbell, “Undocumented Immigrants Pay Billions of Dollars in Federal Taxes Each Year,” Vox (August 28, 2018).
11. Rong-Gong Lin II, “Mexican Immigrants Not Burdening ERs, Study Says,” Los Angeles Times (October 14, 2005); David R. Francis, “Recent Immigrants Less Likely to Go to Prison than Natives,” NBER Digest (National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass.; 1998).
12. Nelson Lim, “On the Back of Blacks? Immigrants and the Fortunes of African Americans,” in Strangers at the Gates, ed. Roger Waldinger (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 186-227; Camarota, Immigration from Mexico, 5-6; Impact of Immigration, 7.  Otis Graham’s guess of thirty per cent was wildly off the mark; Graham, Guarding the Gates, 113.
13. Impact of Immigration.
14. Jessica Stillman, “Immigrants’ Big Role in Small Business,” Inc. (January 5, 2021); Sarah Koch, “Immigrants, We Create Jobs,” Case Foundation (August 18, 2017); Jason Furman and Danielle Gray, “Ten Ways Immigrants Help Build and Strengthen Our Economy,” White House Press Release, December 7, 2012; Linda Chavez, “Want Job Creators? Bring in More Immigrants,” Los Angeles Times (May 11, 2021).
15. Ruben Vives, “Migrant Labor of Pride: Mexican-Born Wildland Firefighters,” Los Angeles Times (August 6, 2018); Nelson D. Schwartz and Steve Lohr, “Companies Say Trump Is Hurting Business by Limiting Legal Immigration,” New York Times (September 2, 2018); Miriam Jordan, “As Fires Move On, Wine Country Wonders Whether Immigrants Will, Too,” New York Times (October 17, 2017); Paula Span, “If Immigrants Are Pushed Out, Who Will Care for the Elderly?” New York times (February 2, 2018); John Burnett, “Employers Struggle With Hiring Undocumented Workers: ‘You Cannot Hire American Here’,” NPR (August 21, 2019); Maria Perez, “Wisconsin’s Dairy Industry Would Collapse Without the Work of Latino Immigrants—Many of Them Undocumented,” Milwaukee Journal Sentinel (November 22, 2019); Donald Kerwin and Robert Warren, “US Foreign-Born Workers in the Global Pandemic: Essential and Marginalized,” Journal on Migration and Human Security (2020): 1-19.
16. Impact of Immigration, 8.
17. Simon, Economic Consequences, 367; Impact of Immigration, 8; Peter Francese, quoted in Nicholas Capaldi, ed., Immigration: Debating the Issues (Amherst, N.Y: Prometheus, 1997), 171; Kenneth Swift, “Saving Social Security? Now That’s a Job for Immigrants,” Los Angeles Times (April 23, 2006); Michael Hiltzik, “Why Immigrants are Essential to Social Security,” Los Angeles Times (March 23, 2019).  I made essentially this same argument in an op-ed piece for the Minneapolis Star-Tribune in 1984.
18. Rebecca Shabad, “Terminating the Payroll Tax Could End Social Security Benefits in 2023, Chief Actuary Warns,” NBC News (August 25, 2020); Elizabeth Bauer, “Social Security Ending In 2023? No. But What Really Happens When the Trust Fund Is Emptied?” Forbes (August 27, 2020).
19. Charles L. Lindner, “Police the Border, Flood the Courts,” Los Angeles Times (July 16, 2006).
20. “If it weren’t for immigrants, President Trump, we wouldn’t have good news about a COVID vaccine.” Miami Herald (November 18, 2020).  The Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine was also developed by immigrants, in this case two Turkish immigrants to Germany; David Gelles, “The Husband-and-Wife Team Behind the Leading Vaccine to Solve Covid-19,” New York Times (November 10, 2010).
21. Dartunorro Clark, “Trump Hold White House Event Focused on ‘American Victims of Illegal Immigration’,” NBC News (June 22, 2018).  Adolf Hitler used this same technique to stir up anti-Jewish hysteria.
22. Ramiro Martínez Jr. and Abel Valenzuela Jr., eds., Immigration and Crime: Ethnicity, Race, and Violence (New York: New York University Press, 2006); Ruth D. Peterson, et al., eds., The Many Colors of Crime: Inequalities of Race, Ethnicity, and Crime in America (New York: New York University Press, 2006); Steven A. Camarota and Jessica M. Vaughan, “Immigration and Crime: Assessing a Conflicted Issue,” Center for Immigration Studies (November 2009); Jörg L. Spenkuch, “Understanding the Impact of Immigration on Crime,” American Law and Economics Review (2013); Michael G. Vaughn, et al., “The Immigrant Paradox: Immigrants Are Less Antisocial than Native-Born Americans,” Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology (2014); Walter A. Ewing, et al., “The Criminalization of Immigration in the United States,” American Immigration Council Special Report (July 2015); Rick Gladstone, “Research Doesn’t Back a Link Between Migrants and Crime in US,” New York Times (January 13, 2016); Richard Pérez-Peña, “Contrary to Trump’s Claims, Immigrants Are Less Likely to Commit Crimes,” New York Times (January 26, 2017); “Fact Check: Immigration Doesn’t Bring Crime into US, Data Say,” PBS News Hour (February 3, 2017); Bianca E. Bersani and Alex R. Piquero, “Criminal Immigrant Myth: The Foreign-Born Commit Fewer Crimes than Their Native-Born Peers,” Los Angeles Times (September 6, 2016); “Michelangelo Landgrave and Alex Nowasteh, “Criminal Immigrants: Their Numbers, Demographics, and Countries of Origin,” Cato Institute Immigration Research and Policy Brief (March 15, 2017); Nazgol Ghandoosh and Josh Rovner, Immigration and Public Safety (Washington: The Sentencing Project, 2017); “Point of No Return: The Fear and Criminalization of Central American Refugees,” Center for Migration Studies and Cristosal *June 2017); Leisy Abrego, et al., “Making Immigrants into Criminals,” Journal of Migration and Human Security (5.3 (2017): 694-715; Graham C. Ousey and Charis E. Kubrin, “Immigration and Crime: Assessing a Contentious Issue,” Annual Review of Criminology (2018): 63-84; Holly Ventura Miller and Anthony Peguero, eds., Routledge Handbook on Immigration and Crime (New York: Routledge, 2018); Ketie Rogers, “Trump Highlights Immigrant Crime to Defend His Border Policy. Statistics Don’t Back Him Up,” New York Times (June 22, 2018); Anna Flagg, “The Myth of the Criminal Immigrant,” New York Times (March 30, 2018); Francesco Fasani, et al., Does Immigration Increase Crime? Migration Policy and the Creation of the Criminal Immigrant (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2019); Rubén G. Rumbaut, et al., “Immigration and Crime and the Criminalization of Immigration,” in Routledge International Handbook of Migration Studies, 2nd ed., ed. Steven J. Gold and Stephanie J. Nawyn (New York: Routledge, 2019); Anna Flagg, “Is There a Connection Between Undocumented Immigrants and Crime? New York Times (May 13, 2019); Pia Orrenius and Madeline Zavodny, “Do Immigrants Threaten US Public Safety?” Journal of Migration and Human Security (2019): 1-10.  To clarify one possible point of objection: being in the US without papers is not a crime; it is a civil offense.
23. Eric H. Monkkonen, Police in Urban America, 1860-1920 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Sidney L. Harring, Policing a Class Society: The Experience of American Cities, 1865-1915, 2nd ed. (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2017); Sally E. Hadden, Slave Patrols: Law and Violence in Virginia and the Carolinas (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001); Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness (New York: New Press, 2010).
24. James Allen, Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photography in America (Twin Palms Publishers, 2000); Amy Louise Wood, Lynching and Spectacle: Witnessing Racial Violence in America, 1890-1940 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009); Philip Dray, At the Hand of Persons Unknown: The Lynching of Black America (New York: Modern Library, 2002); Walter White, Rope and Faggot: A Biography of Judge Lynch (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 2001; orig. New York: Knopf, 1929); Michael J. Pfeiffer, The Roots of Rough Justice: Origins of American Lynching (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2011); Stephen J. Whitfield, A Death in the Delta: The Story of Emmett Till (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991)
25. One of the authors of this book, Paul Spickard, has had scores of occasions to talk with law enforcement professionals about their relationships with minority communities.  In every single one of those conversations, the officers brought up, unbidden, the idea that there is a war going on between the police and the public, that “People are gunning for us.”  For the most recent year on record (2020) 48 officers were shot and killed by members of the public (some of them people of color); Harmeet Kaur, “2020 Was One of the Deadliest Years for Law Enforcement Officers on Record,” CNN (January 12, 2021).  That is a terrible thing.  By contrast, 1,021 members of the public were shot and killed by police in that same year (241 of those were Black, and 169 were Latinx); “Number of People Shot to Death by Police in the United States from 2017 to 2021, by Race,” Statista.com (July 1, 2021).  If there is a war going on, it is because the police make it a war, and the police are winning in a big way, and Black and Brown people are disproportionately the victims.  On George Floyd and the semi-progressive reaction to his tragic death, see: Walter R. Jacobs, Wendy Thompson Taiwo, and Amy August, eds., Sparked: George Floyd, Racism, and the Progressive Illusion (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2020).
26. https://blacklivesmatter-blog.tumblr.com/demands, https://blacklivesmatter.com/about/.
27. Mario Koran, “‘We’re suffering the same abuses’: Latinos hear their stories echoed in police brutality protests.” The Guardian (June 12, 2020).
28. Russell Contreras, “How Black Lives Matter helped Native Americans and Latinos.” Axios (March 13, 2021).
29. Antonio Flores and Jews Manuel Krosgtad, “Puerto Rico’s population declined sharply after hurricanes Maria and Irma,” Pew Research Center (July 29, 2019); John D. Sutter, “130,000 left Puerto Rico after Hurricane Maria, Census Bureau says,” CNN (December 19, 2018); “Hurricanes Eta and Iota ravaged Central America. Is a Migration Wave Next?” New York Times (December 4, 2020); “Punishing Hurricanes to Spur More Central American Migration,” Associated Press (November 24, 2020); "US Temporary Protected Status extended for Honduras and other countries," CNN (December 7, 2020).
30. Carl A. Zimring, Clean and White: A History of Environmental Racism in the United States (New York: New York University Press, 2015); Harriet A. Washington, A Terrible Thing to Waste: Environmental Racism and Its Assault on the American Mind (New York: Little, Brown Spark, 2019); Dorceta E. Taylor, Toxic Communities: Environmental Racism, Industrial Pollution, and Residential Mobility (New York: New York University Press, 2014); Luke W. Cole and Sheila R. Foster, From the Ground Up: Environmental Racism and the Rise of the Environmental Justice Movement (New York: New York University Press, 2001): Ingrid R. G. Waldron, There’s Something in the Water: Environmental Racism in Indigenous and Black Communities (Halifax: Fernwood Publishing, 2018).
31. https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/04/20/465545378/lead-laced-water-in-flint-a-step-by-step-look-at-the-makings-of-a-crisis, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/06/us/politics/flint-michigan-schools.html.
32. https://www.epa.gov/navajo-nation-uranium-cleanup/abandoned-mines-cleanup
33. The scientist who has worked the most on runoff of atrazine is biologist Tyrone B. Hayes at the University of California, Berkeley. Dr. Hayes has been the target of campaigns to discredit himself and his work, especially by Syngenta, a large agribusiness. For more information on Hayes and Syngenta, see https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/02/10/a-valuable-reputation. For his research on frogs and atrazine, see https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC122794/?wptouch_preview_theme=enabled.
34. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/08/06/climate/climate-change-inequality-heat.html?campaign_id=9&emc=edit_nn_20200807&instance_id=21067&nl=the-morning&regi_id=92699357&segment_id=35507&te=1&user_id=0f9c1c61480d230c96de2cc24f054393
35. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/15/us/politics/native-americans-health-care.html; Mark Walker, “Pandemic Highlights Deep-Rooted Problems in Indian Health Service,” New York Times (September 29, 2020; updated May 21, 2021).
36. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/69/wr/mm6949a3.htm; https://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2021/04/reports-detail-high-covid-19-burden-native-americans. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/08/us/choctaw-indians-coronavirus.html?campaign_id=37&emc=edit_rr_20201010&instance_id=23023&nl=race%2Frelated®i_id=92699357&segment_id=40535&te=1&user_id=0f9c1c61480d230c96de2cc24f054393.
37. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/07/health/pregnancy-deaths-.html; https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/15/well/family/the-impact-of-disparities-on-childrens-health.html.
38. https://www.kff.org/medicaid/issue-brief/status-of-state-medicaid-expansion-decisions-interactive-map/;  https://www.cdc.gov/vitalsigns/aahealth/index.html; https://www.aamc.org/news-insights/how-we-fail-black-patients-pain; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4843483/.
39. https://lulac.org/programs/health/health_disparities/ ; https://www.brookings.edu/blog/how-we-rise/2020/09/25/latinos-often-lack-access-to-healthcare-and-have-poor-health-outcomes-heres-how-we-can-change-that/ ; https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hus/2019/022-508.pdf; “Did the Affordable Care Act Reduce Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Insurance Coverage?” The Commonwealth Fund (August 21, 2019).
40. All of the figures in this paragraph related to COVID-19 deaths by race from article “COVID-19’s stunningly unequal death toll in America, in one chart,” Vox (October 2, 2020).
41. “Black Americans are the most hesitant to get a COVID-19 vaccine,” USA Today (October 29, 2020); “Researchers Find Doubts About COVID-19 Vaccine Among People of Color.” NPR (October 22, 2020); “Some Black and Latino Americans are still hesitant to take the vaccine. Here’s what is fueling that distrust,” CNN (December 4, 2020); “Should people of color get access to the Covid-19 vaccine before others?” Vox (October 28, 2020).
42. Why Native Americans Are Getting COVID-19 Vaccines Faster,” NPR (February 19, 2021) https://www.npr.org/2021/02/19/969046248/why-native-americans-are-getting-the-covid-19-vaccines-faster
43. “As COVID-19 vaccine rolls out, undocumented immigrants fear deportation after seeking dose,” USA Today (December 20, 2020); “Nebraska governor says citizens, legal residents will get vaccine priority over undocumented immigrants,” Washington Post (January 6, 2021).
44. Caroline Randall Williams, “You Want a Confederate Monument? My Body Is a Confederate Monument,” New York Times (June 26, 2020).  For reflection on the anti-Confederate-monuments movement, see Connor Towne O’Neill, Down Along with That Devil’s Bones: A Reckoning with Monuments, Memory, and the Legacy of White Supremacy (Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin Books, 2020); Ty Seidule, Robert E. Lee and Me: A Southerner’s Reckoning with the Myth of the Lost Cause (New York: St. Martin’s, 2020); Karen L. Cox, No Common Ground: Confederate Monuments and the Ongoing Fight for Racial Justice (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2021); Roger C. Hartley, Monumental Harm: Reckoning with Jim Crow Era Confederate Monuments (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2021).
45. "Gov. Pete Wilson statue gone from San Diego's downtown after advocates call for removal," San Diego Union Tribune (October 15, 2020).
46. https://www.defense.gov/Newsroom/Releases/Release/Article/2502459/statement-by-secretary-of-defense-lloyd-j-austin-iii-on-the-departments-represe/.
47. "Confederate monuments are falling, but hundreds still stand. Here's where," Washington Post (July 2, 2020).
48. "U.S. Statue Removals Inspire Indigenous People in Latin America To Topple Monuments," NPR (September 30, 2020); Aamna Mohdin and Rhi Storer, “Tributes to Slave Traders and Colonialists Removed Across UK,” The Guardian (January 29, 2021).
49. "Opinion: Want to tear down insidious monuments to racism and segregation? Bulldoze L.A. freeways," Los Angeles Times (June 24, 2020); "Freeways are Detroit's most enduring monuments to racism. Let's excise them," Detroit Free Press (July 5, 2020); https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2021/05/27/climate/us-cities-highway-removal.html?campaign_id=9&emc=edit_nn_20210528&instance_id=31768&nl=the-morning®i_id=92699357&segment_id=59272&te=1&user_id=0f9c1c61480d230c96de2cc24f054393; "California task force to study paying reparations for slavery," Los Angeles Times (September 30, 2020); "Mexican Americans seek atonement for ancestral lands that were taken over generations," ABC News (September 30, 2020);"Newsom apologizes for California's history of violence against Native Americans" Los Angeles Times (June 18, 2019); "California apologizes for Japanese American internment," Associated Press (February 20, 2020);"To Native Americans, reparations can vary from having sovereignty to just being heard," ABC News (September 25, 2020); "'This is all stolen land': Native Americans want more than California's apology," The Guardian (June 21, 2019).
50. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/12/us/georgetown-reparations.html;https://www.insidehighered.com/quicktakes/2021/01/18/caltech-removes-names-6-eugenics-supporters-buildings.
51. “Congress authorizes Smithsonian museums focused on American Latinos and women’s history,” Washington Post (December 21, 2020).
52. Brian Welk, “Cleveland Indians and 14 Other Sports Teams That Dumped Racist Names and Mascots,” The Wrap (July 23, 2021); James V. Fenelon, Redskins? Sports Mascots, Indian Nations, and White Racism (New York: Routledge, 2017); Jennifer Guiliano, Indian Spectacle: College Mascots and the Anxiety of Modern America (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2015); Andrew C. Billings and Jason Edward Black, Mascot Nation: The Controversy over Native American Representations in Sports (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2018); Carol Spindel, Dancing at Halftime: Sports and the Controversy over American Indian Mascots (New York: New York University Press, 2002); C. Richard King and Charles Fruehling Springwood, eds., Team Spirits: The Native American Mascots Controversy (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001).
53. Jamelle Bouie, “’This Is Jim Crow in New Clothes,” New York Times (March 19, 2021); Amy Gardner and Amy B. Wang, “Georgia governor signs into law sweeping voting bill that curtails the use of drop boxes and imposes new ID requirements for mail voting,” Washington Post (March 25, 2021); “Georgia G.O.P. Passes Major Law to Limit Voting,” New York Times (April 3, 2021); William H. Frey, “Turnout in 2020 election spiked among both Democratic and Republican voting groups, new census data shows,” Brookings (May 5, 2021); Carol Anderson, One Person, No Vote: How Voter Suppression Is Destroying Our Democracy (New York: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2019).
54. Robert Barnes, “Supreme Court stops use of key part of Voting Rights Act,” Washington Post (June 25, 2013); Adam Liptak, “Supreme Court Invalidates Key Part of Voting Rights Act,” New York Times (June 25, 2013);Brentin Mock, “Justice Ginsburg Quotes King and Shakespeare in Shelby Dissent,” Colorlines (June 25, 2013).
55. Sean Illing, “How Republicans turned voter suppression into a high art,” Vox (January 24, 2019); Sam Levine and Ankita Rao, “In 2013 the supreme court gutted voting rights – how has it changed the US?” The Guardian (June 25, 2020);Adam Liptak, “Supreme Court Upholds Texas Voting Maps That Were Called Discriminatory,” New York Times (June 25, 2018); Adam Liptak, “Supreme Court Weighs Claims That Texas Voting Maps Discriminate Against Minorities,” New York Times (April 24, 2018); Andrew Prokop, “Supreme Court splits 5-4 on Texas racial gerrymandering case,” Vox (June 25, 2018).
56. May:https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/research-reports/voting-laws-roundup-may-2021.
57. Mark Oliver, “Stacey Abrams calls Republican efforts to restrict voting in Georgia ‘Jim Crow in a suit’,” The Guardian (March 14, 2021); Timothy Bella, “A GOP lawmakers says the ‘quality’ of a vote matters. Critics say that’s ‘straight out of Jim Crow’,” Washington Post (March 13, 2021).
58. Dave Montgomery and Nick Corasaniti, “After Dramatic Walkout, a New Fight Looms Over Voting Rights in Texas,” New York Times (May, 31, 2021); Alexandra Jaffe and Lisa Mascaro, “Biden pushes for US voting rights law as restrictions mount,” AP News (June 2, 2021); Ian Millhiser, “The Supreme Court is about to hear two cases that could destroy what remains of the Voting Rights Act,” Vox (March 2, 2021);Statement of Concern. New America (June 1, 2021).https://www.newamerica.org/political-reform/statements/statement-of-concern/.
59. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva and David G. Embrick, “Black, Honorary White, White: The Future of Race in the United States?” in Mixed Messages: Multiracial Identities in the “Color-Blind” Era, ed. David L. Brunsma (Boulder, CO: Lynne-Rienner, 2006): 33-48; Rosalind S. Chou and Joe R. Feagin, The Myth of the Model Minority: Asian Americans Facing Racism, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge 2015); Madeline Y. Hsu, The good Immigrants: How the Yellow Peril became the Model Minority (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017); Ellen D. Wu, The Color of Success: Asian Americans and the Origins of the Model Minority (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Pres, 2014); Christi Carras, “Hollywood Slams Coronavirus-Related Racism toward Asian Americans: ‘Call It Out’,” Los Angeles Times (March 20, 2020).
60. Thomas Fuller, “He Came From Thailand to Care For Family. Then Came a Brutal Attack,” New York Times (February 27, 2021); Nicole Hong, et al., “Brutal Attack on Filipino Woman Sparks Outrage,” New York Times (March 31, 2021); Anh Do, “‘You Started the Corona!’ As Anti-Asian Hate Incidents Explode, Climbing Past 800, Activists Push for Aid,” Los Angeles Times (July 5, 2020); Pilar Melendez, “Stabbing of Asian-American 2-Year-Old and Her Family Was a Virus-Fueled Hate Crime,” Daily Beast (March 31, 2020); Bryan Ko, “Elderly Asian Woman Fights Back After Man Punches Her in the Face in SF,” Yahoo! News (March 18, 2021); Marian Liu and Rachel Hatzipanagos, “‘Nobody Came, Nobody Helped’: Fears of Anti-Asian Violence Rattle the Community,” Washington Post (February 25, 2021); Cathy Park Hong, “The Slur I Never Expected to Hear in 2020,” New York Times (April 12, 2020); Jaweed Kaleem, et al., “Anti-Asian Hate Crimes Surge in US,” Los Angeles Times (March 8, 2021); Claudia Grisales, “In Rare Moment of Bipartisan Unity, Senate Approves Asian American Hate Crimes Bill,” NPR (April 22, 2021); Jorge Ramos, “Why Has There Been a Spike of Anti-Asian Hate?” New York Times (March 5, 2021); Neil G. Ruíz, et al., “Many Black and Asian Americans Say They Have Experienced Discrimination Amid the COVID-19 Outbreak,” Pew Research Center (July 2020); Jay Kaspian Kang, “We Need to Put a Name to This Violence,” New York Times (March 6, 2021).
61. Richard Fauset and Neil Vigdor, “8 People Killed in Atlanta-Area Massage Parlor Shootings: Six of the Victims Were Asian,” New York Times (March 17, 2021); Anh Do, et al., “Violence Has Asian Americans Questioning How Far They Have Really Come in Their American Journey,” Los Angeles Times (March 17, 2021); Mary McNamara, “If the Mass Killing of Six Asian Women Isn’t a Hate Crime, What Is?” Los Angeles Times (March 17, 2021);Bridget Read, “They’ll Call It Anything But Racism,” The Cut (March 17, 2021); Monica Hesse, “‘It’s Race, Class and Gender Together’: Why the Atlanta Killings Aren’t Just About One Thing,” Washington Post (March 18, 2021); Shaila Dewan, “How Racism and Sexism Intertwine to Torment Asian-American Women,” New York Times (March 19, 2021); Emily Baumgaertner, “The Intersection of Sexism, Racism, Hate,” Los Angeles Times (March 20, 2021); Steph Cha, “The Face of This Hate is White,” Los Angeles Times (March 19, 2021); May Jeong, “The Deep American Roots of the Atlanta Shootings: The Victims Lived at the Nexus of Race, Gender and Class,” New York Times (March 19, 2021); Edmund Lee, “Making Sense of Atlanta and This Asian-American Movement,” New York Times (March 27, 2021); Marissa, “Depression, Anxiety after Atlanta,” Los Angeles Times (March 31, 2021); Jaweed Kaleem and Jenny Jarvie, “Brdging a Divide After Massacre: Asian American Christians Confront Racism, Evangelical ‘Purity Culture’,” Los Angeles Times (April 6, 2021); Richard Fausset, “Gulty Plea iin 4 Atlanta-Area Spa Killings,” New York Times (July 27, 2021); “When Women are the Enemy: The Intersection of Misogyny and White Supremacy,” Anti-Defamation League Report (n.d., downloaded August 22, 2021).  Some Asian American males observed that they did not even get to be the objects of racist sexual fantasies, however murderous.  Asian males were just invisible to most White Americans.  Fani T. Willis, the prosecutor in Fulton County, where some of the murders took place, did charge Long with a hate crime.
62. “Thousands honor ’68 walkouts by Mexican American students,” Los Angeles Times (March 8, 2018); “The Chicano Moratorium of 1970 still has plenty of lessons for today,” Los Angeles Times (August 28, 2020); “Hundreds converge on East Los Angeles for 50th anniversary of Chicano Moratorium,” Los Angeles Times (August 30, 2020); “Chicano Park 50 years later: Coronavirus delays celebration but historical moment still matters,” Los Angeles Times (April 24, 2020); “Mexican-American boy’s national anthem sparks racist comments.” CNN (September 16, 2013); “Mother, daughter say they were attacked for speaking Spanish,” Associated Press (February 24, 2020); “Americans Who Were Detained After Speaking Spanish in Montana Sue U.S. Border Agency,” NPR (February 15, 2019); “A white lawyers threatened to call ICE on Spanish-speaking restaurant workers. Twitter is tearing him apart,” Vox (May 17, 2018); “A California waiter refused to serve 4 Latina women until he saw ‘proof of residency’,” Washington Post (March 19, 2017); “This couple didn’t tip their Latina server. They left a hateful message instead,” Washington Post (August 21, 2016); “Student alleges teacher made ethnic remarks,” Los Angeles Times (July 22, 2011); Carrie Gibson, El Norte: The Epic and Forgotten Story of Hispanic North America (Reprint; New York: Grove Press, 2020); and Rosina Lozano, An American Language: The History of Spanish in the United States (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2018); “Trump’s English-only campaign,” Politico (September 23, 2016).
63. “Arizona bill targeting ethnic studies signed into law,” Los Angeles Times (May 12, 2010). A number of books deemed “subversive” were banned from public schools in Arizona including Rodolfo Acuña’s Occupied America,  8th ed. (London: Pearson, 2014); Elizabeth “Betita” Martínez’s De Colores Means All of Us (London: Verso, 2017), and Francisco Jiménez’s The Circuit: Stories from the Life of a Migrant Child (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1997). Even books by non-Latinx authors like Howard Zinn’s A People’s History of the United States (New York: HarperCollins, 1999) and Ronald Takaki’s A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (Boston: Back Bay Books, 2008) were blacklisted. Even William Shakespeare’s The Tempest was banned in Arizona. In response, an underground network of libro traficantes, or book smugglers, worked to get these books in the hands of Arizona students. For information about the larger campaign against Mexican American Studies, see: “Do Latino studies incite or inspire?” Los Angeles Times (Nov. 20, 2011); “Arizona’s ethnic studies gap,” Los Angeles Times (November 28, 2012); Precious Knowledge, directed by Ari Luis Palos, produced by Eren Isabel McGinnis. 2011; “Federal judge blocks Arizona from banning Mexican American studies classes,” Los Angeles Times (December 27, 2017)." L.A. Unified to require ethnic studies for high school graduation." Los Angeles Times (Dec. 8, 2014); Ethnic studies requirement for California high school students passes,” San Francisco Chronicle (August 31, 2020); “Minneapolis adds ethnic studies to high school graduation requirements.” Minneapolis Star Tribune (November 27, 2020); “Connecticut will become the first state to require high schools to offer Black and Latino studies in fall 2022,” CNN (December 9, 2020).

On the 1776 Commission, President Trump’s attempt to take US history teaching back to the White nationalist self-celebratory curriculum of the 1920s, or perhaps back to Parson Weems, see: President’s Advisory 1776 Commission, The 1776 Report (Washington: The White House, 2021); Robyn Autry, “Trump’s ‘1776 Commission’ Tried to Rewrite History. Biden Had Other Ideas,” NBC News (January 21, 2021); “Trump Announces ‘Patriotic Education’ Commission, a Largely Political Move,” NPR (September 17, 2020); Sarah Ruiz-Grossman, "Trump Administration's '1776 Report' Justifies Slavery, Three-Fifths Compromise," HuffPost (January 18, 2021); Valerie Strauss, "That didn't take long: Biden removes Trump's '1776 Report' on US history from White House website," Washington Post (January 22, 2021).
Critical Race Theory (CRT) is not and has never been taught in K-12 schools.  Any argument to the contrary is utterly bogus.  CRT is a graduate-level analytical orientation, not a curriculum, begun in legal studies, that asks, not “What does a law say?,” but “What is its impact?,” particularly its impact on different racial groups, and thereby uncovers unarticulated racial biases, in the law, in our social structures, and in our very language.  The people who mounted a campaign against CRT were really complaining about anyone ever teaching any student about slavery, genocide of Native Americans, making war on Mexico, the Ku Klux Klan, Jim Crow segregation, concentration camps for Japanese Americans, or the Civil Rights movement.  See: Kimberlé Crenshaw, et al., eds., Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings that Formed the Movement (New York: New Press, 1996); Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic, Critical Race Theory: An Introduction, 3rd ed. (New York: NYU Press, 2017); Derrick Bell, Faces at the Bottom of the Well: The Permanence of Racism (New York: Basic Books, 1992); Robert Miles, Racism After ‘Race Relations’ (New York: Routledge, 1993); Dorothy Roberts, Fatal Invention: How Science, Politics, and Big Business Re-Create Race in the Twenty-First Century (New York: New Press, 2011); Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness (New York: New Press, 2012); Ta-Nehisi Coates, Between the World and Me (New York: Spiegel and Grau, 2015); Paul Spickard, Race in Mind: Critical Essays (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2015); Michael Eric Dyson, Tears We Cannot Stop: A Sermon to White America (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2017); Robin DiAngelo, White Fragility: Why It’s So Hard for White People to Talk About Racism (Boston: Beacon Press, 2018); Ibram X. Kendi, How to Be an Antiracist (New York: Random House, 2019). For the current (2021) artificial CRT controversy, see, e.g.: Caitlin O’Kane, “Nearly a dozen states want to ban critical race theory in schools,” CBS News (May 20, 2021); Adrian Florido, “Teachers Say Laws Banning Critical Race Theory are Putting a Chill On Their Lessons,” NPR (May 28, 2021); Colleen Flaherty, “Legislating Against Critical Race Theory,” Inside Higher Ed (June 9, 2021).

64. These paragraphs are adapted from Paul Spickard, “Birthers’ Attack on Obama is Not Only Bogus, It’s Irrelevant,” San Jose Mercury News (June 16, 2012).   Regarding John McCain, some readers may note that he was born in a US naval hospital in the Canal Zone, territory that the US controlled in much the same way that it controls Guantánamo Bay in Cuba.  If the Birthers wanted to argue that the Panama Canal Zone was US soil, then they would have had to concede that Guantánamo Bay was US soil and therefore subject to the rule of US law.  They would have had the US grant habeas corpus to the scores of prisoners whom we imprisoned there so many years without charges.  Regarding the elder Romney’s citizenship, see Huma Khan, “How Mitt Romney’s Mexican-Born Father Was Eligible to Be President,” ABC News (January 27, 1995).
65. Among the marketers were The Native Press (www.cafepress.com),  West Wind World (www.westwindworld.com), and Coyotes Corner (www.coyotescorner.com).
66. Paul Spickard, Almost All Aliens: Immigration, Race, and Colonialism in American History and Identity (New York: Routledge, 2007): 464.
67. Paul is grateful to the great Frank Shyong for pointing out this neighborhood to him; Frank Shyong, “Re—Finding Home on a Search for Hot Chicken,” Los Angeles Times (August 12, 2021).