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abolitionism used as shorthand to describe the scrapping of, for example, hanging, prison, or corporal punishment. It is allied also to attempts to substantially limit the use of prison or, more loosely, to move away from the punitive fixation of the criminal justice system towards restorative/restitutive forms of justice.
activation policies government programmes that intervene in the labour market to help the unemployed find work.
anti-social behaviour technically defined in the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 as behaviour which has ‘caused or was likely to cause harassment, alarm or distress to one or more persons not of the same household’. However, it has come to be understood as a catch-all category for nuisance behaviour, which may or may not be criminal, and which is most commonly associated with youth.
Anti-social Behaviour Orders a hybrid legal instrument in that it spans both civil and criminal law. Orders are granted in a civil court (rather like an injunction) and impose a number of prohibitive conditions on an individual in order to prevent them from engaging in ‘anti-social behaviour’. Breach of these conditions, however, is a criminal offence which is punishable with a maximum of five year’s imprisonment.
applied philosophy seeks to apply philosophical ideas and approaches to real problems and issues.
‘Back to basics’ a campaign launched by John Major at the Conservative Party conference in 1993, aimed at raising moral standards, it became focused particularly on lone parenthood.
British Social Attitudes Survey a long-running (since 1983) set of annual surveys looking at changes in attitudes within society. Run by the National Centre for Social Research.
brownfield sites a term loosely used to describe land which has previously been developed, as opposed to greenfield sites which have not.
BSE crisis in 1996 fears over an epidemic of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy and over vCJD (new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease, the human equivalent of BSE) led to a crisis in British farming, with the slaughter of millions of cattle and the introduction of new regulations on the slaughter and consumption of beef.
Children’s Commissioner following the Children Act 2004, the post of Children’s Commissioner for England was appointed to act as an independent voice for children and young people. Scotland,Wales and Northern Ireland each have their own Commissioner.
Children’s Fund focused on developing services that support multi-agency working, the Fund was targeted at 5-13 year-olds and was a key part of the Labour government’s strategy to tackle disadvantages and inequalities which derive from child poverty and social exclusion. However, from 2008 these were absorbed into local authority mainstream provision.
commodity a good or service regarded as having no intrinsic merit. Its value is its exchange price as determined by the interaction between supply and demand.
community care a term that can be understood in many different ways, but is generally applicable to a range of policies applied to looking after people with particular needs in the community, including the movement of people from long-stay institutions to living in the community.
Community Charge in 1989 (in Scotland) and 1990 (in England and Wales) the Conservative government replaced the existing system of local taxation, known as ‘rates’ with the Community Charge (often known as the Poll Tax), a charge on each member of a household. Following widespread protests and significant problems with collection it was replaced by the Council Tax in 1993.
comprehensive education a system of state secondary schools designed to ensure that all children receive similar education, thus increasing equality of opportunity.
Comprehensive Spending Review introduced by Gordon Brown this involves government departments justifying their expenditure plans to the Treasury for a three-year period, rather than the previous annual spending allocations. It also gave the Treasury a greater role in coordinating and controlling government expenditure.
corporate crime crime committed in some form of organisational context. This highlights the problem of attributing individual human agency to the ‘author’ of the crime, and thus the problem of exacting appropriate punishment. Recent attempts to upgrade the law on ‘corporate killing’ testify to some of the problems here. Sutherland uses this interchangeably with white collar crime as a rhetorical challenge to Criminology. See too ‘zemiology’.
CRASBO a criminal ASBO, which the court can impose upon conviction of a criminal offence in addition to the punishment. Conditions of the CRASBO are intended to help prevent re-offending, but extend further than merely desisting from committing the offence in future.
criminalisation refers to a range of social and criminal justice processes (including policing, prosecution, punishment, penalisation, stigmatisation and blame) through which an individual or group is accorded the ‘label’ of criminal.
cycle of deprivation thesis Conservative Minister Keith Joseph, in a speech to the Pre-School Playgoup Association, propounded the view that deprivation was transmitted through the family.
dark figure of crime refers to the truism that ‘recorded crime’ is but a fraction of the potential total of activity that could be processed as crime. The British Crime Survey, which is a victim survey, goes some way to fleshing this out.
demand-side stimulation of demand for goods and services.
dependency culture often used to describe a situation where people are seen to have become passive recipients of welfare, dependent upon benefits.
dependency ratio dependency rates or ratios focus on the relative sizes of the economically active part of the population and those who are designated as dependent (primarily children and older people). Generally, a lower dependency ratio implies relatively more workers and less requirement to support dependent populations, while a higher dependency ratio suggests that a higher proportion of a population is dependent and a smaller proportion economically active.
deregulation the process by which governments have sought to reduce and remove regulations on businesses in order to improve the theoretical efficiency of markets. The theory is that deregulation will lead to greater competitiveness and efficiency.
deviance is used to refer to ‘rule breaking behaviour’ and, more controversially, to deviations from the normal, that is, pathological states.
due process a set of procedural rules that should be followed in order to approximate formal justice.
Earth Summit an attempt to bring together participants, including heads of state and government, national delegates, non-governmental organisations, businesses and other major groups, to focus upon improving people’s lives and conserving natural resources.
economic inactivity refers to people not looking for, or not available for, work.
ethical theory ideas that seek to provide a framework for consideration of what is ethical.
ethnicity the identification of individuals as members of a particular group on the basis of their origin in a community, which may be mythical or real, with a historical, territorial, cultural and/or racial basis.
eugenics can be interpreted as the view that society can be improved through the manipulation of genetic inheritance through reproduction.
Exchange Rate Mechanism the European Exchange Rate Mechanism is a system which sought to reduce variability between currencies, with currencies fixed but fluctuating within set margins.
externality a side effect of an activity that affects other parties without being reflected in the price of the good or service involved.
Fabianism the Fabian Society has existed for more than 150 years. Fabians have believed that the free market system was inappropriate for the solution of social problems and that instead there should be collective provision. Closely linked with the Labour Party and with social democratic and democratic socialist thinking, Fabian ideas were influential in the development of the post-war welfare state.
Fordist a range of processes associated with industrial mass production, named after Henry Ford’s approach in the car industry.
further education education often provided by further education colleges, sometimes available to children aged 16 to 19, but also aimed at adults. Although often linked to qualifications or careers, it can also be used solely to enhance knowledge and skills.
genetically modified crops these (GM) crops are from plants that have had their genes modified, for example, to make them more tolerant of particular conditions or resistant to certain herbicides.
Gini coefficient a measure of inequality ranging from 0 (complete equality) to 1 (one person has all the income or wealth, depending on what is being measured). Sometimes expressed as 0-100 per cent.
globalisation whilst there are different perspectives, globalisation recognises that a variety of forces are leading to similar cultural, economic, social, political and technical developments around the world.
GP fundholders as part of the internal market within the health service created by the Conservatives in the 1990s, GP practices were able to opt to receive a budget (become fundholders) with which they could then establish contracts with their chosen providers.
grant maintained schools schools which opt out of local education authority control, are self-governing and receive their funding directly from central government.
gross domestic product the total value of goods and services produced by a nation. The GDP includes consumer and government purchases, private domestic investments and net exports of goods and services. It therefore measures national output.
higher education more specialist provision through universities and colleges of higher education, including undergraduate degrees (BA (Bachelor of Arts), BSc (Bachelor of Sciences), LLB (Bachelor of Laws), etc.), taught postgraduate awards (such as MA and MSc) and research degrees (frequently a PhD, or Doctor of Philosophy).
housing associations non-profit making bodies that specialise in housing and plough any surplus into maintaining existing homes and helping to finance new ones. They provide homes to rent and also run low-cost home ownership schemes.
human development index the HDI provides a composite measure of three dimensions of human development: living a long and healthy life (measured by life expectancy), being educated (measured by adult literacy and enrolment at the primary, secondary and tertiary level) and having a decent standard of living (measured by purchasing power parity, PPP, income). Based on this composite measure the countries of the world are ranked in terms of their relative development.
human genetics the understanding of human genes and their behaviour, a topic which has received greater attention with the unravelling of the human genome and the development of a greater ability to manipulate DNA.
Independent Sector Treatment Centres treatment centres owned by the private sector or by social enterprises which are contracted to work within the NHS in England. They generally perform common elective surgery and diagnostic tests.
informal economy those economic activities conducted mostly outside of the legal and administrative institutions of the formal economy.
Institutional racism processes within an organisation which lead to differentially adverse outcomes for minority ethnic users, going beyond prejudicial behaviour of individuals within the organisation.
intergovernmental organisations organisations that are generally created by treaties or agreements between states, such as the World Bank; these have a legal status and often have mechanisms for resolving disputes between members.
internal markets the Conservative governments of 1979–1997 sought to improve the efficiency and responsiveness of services such as health and social care through the introduction of internal markets, based on the separation of the functions of purchasing and providing of services.
integration, integrationism the notion that members of minority ethnic groups should feel and be seen to be participant in the culture, economy and politics of society as a whole, while having their own particular ethnic identity.
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Keynesianism the economist John Maynard Keynes argued that governments could successfully intervene in the economy to stimulate demand (and therefore to achieve full employment) and to reduce demand (and therefore achieve lower inflation). Keynesianism provided the basis for economic policy in most Western states from 1945 to the 1970s.
Kyoto Protocol signed in Kyoto in 1997 this committed the industrialised nations to reducing worldwide emissions of greenhouse gases by an average of 5.2 per cent below 1990 levels over the next decade.
labelling theory a convenient shorthand for the social reaction perspective based on the premise that a situation, if defined as real, will be real in its consequences. The area is contested, but ranges from a focus upon the interaction between the potential deviant and those who so label him/her, through to the idea that if you call someone deviant/criminal this will confirm and reproduce their problem behaviour and thus make things worse. For example, the idea that the criminal justice system is part of the problem of crime in that it makes things worse, and is not necessarily the best solution.
labour intensification refers to how some people are working harder.
labour market segmentation a situation in which there are so-called ‘insiders’, the workers with a protected job requiring high skills, and ‘outsiders’, who are low-skilled people that are either unemployed or employed with fixed-term, part-time or temporary with little chance to climb the career ladder.
laissez-faire the economic doctrine that urges abstention by governments from interfering in the workings of the free market.
Lease Lend a programme that allowed the United States to provide the United Kingdom (and other allies) with material for the Second World War in return for military bases.
liberal feminists seek the same rights and opportunities for women as for men and focus largely on inequalities caused by prejudice and stereotyping, calling for legislation which outlaws discrimination.
Local Strategic Partnership a single non-statutory, non executive body, aligned with local authority boundaries, that brings together at a local level the different parts of the public sector as well as the private, business, community and voluntary sectors so that different initiatives and services support each other and work together; they are intended to operate at a level which enables strategic decisions to be taken and is close enough to individual neighbourhoods to allow actions to be determined at community level.
male breadwinner a model of the family where the husband works (the breadwinner) and earns the family income whilst the wife provides care for the family.
managerialism an approach to criminal justice which emphasises the management of the system as a whole, with a focus on effective service delivery, efficiency and value for money. It also reflects a concern with identifying and managing ‘risk’ through the collection of aggregate data on offending and calculation of statistical probabilities.
means-testing the testing of a claimant’s means in order to assess their entitlement to benefits. Only those whose resources fall below the eligibility level receive the benefits.
multiculturalism the notion that a multi-ethnic society should respect, protect the rights of and even foster distinct minority ethnic cultures.
National Curriculum introduced by the Education Reform Act 1988 the National Curriculum specifies what subjects must be taught to children of compulsory school age in virtually all state schools.
nationalisation taking into public (state) ownership, as happened with major industries such as coal, gas, electricity and iron and steel in the post-war years.
neo-liberalism a political ideology promoting economic liberalism, partly as a means to political liberty.
new public management a phrase used to describe a set of ideas widely implemented by governments, particularly in English-speaking countries, from the 1980s, which emphasised marketisation and drew on private sector practices.
New Right the ideas of a group of right wing thinkers, often associated with the Thatcher governments. Neo-liberalism and neo-conservatism are were important elements of this political position.
NHS trusts created by the Conservative government in the 1990s as part of the internal market within the NHS, the trusts run hospitals as self-governing bodies, although their freedoms have been constrained by governments.
Non Governmental Organisations organisations established by individuals or associations of individuals and non possessing governmental powers; NGOs vary widely in size and influence.
nursery education pre-school education for children below the age of formal compulsory education.
occupational pension a company pension to which both the employer and the employee make contributions.
outdoor relief following the 1601 Poor Law, this was provision (such as money, food or clothing) given to help individuals avoid poverty without the need to enter an institution.
performance measurement the use of measures of performance for organisations, such as schools, hospitals or even local authorities, sometimes linked with the use of ‘league tables’.
pluralism a view that believes that power is or should be shared amongst the diverse groups and interests in society, and that political decision-making should reflect bargains and compromises between these groups.
policy transfer the practice of governments learning from approaches in other states and implementing them in their own jurisdiction.
positivism often used interchangeably to refer to the ‘positive’ Italian school of criminology associated with Lombroso, and a particular method based upon observation and the search for the causes of crime. Essentially it is a ‘method’ characterised by the organising question, why did s/he do it and what can be done to stop them?
post-Fordist used to describe a perceived contrast with fordist methods of production, with an emphasis on flexible systems of production and a flexible workforce.
predictive genetic testing the ability to test or screen using genetic tests which may suggest that individuals are likely to develop one or more particular condition, such as Huntington’s disease.
primary education education from the age of 5 to 11, designed to provide children with basic skills.
Private Finance Initiative the Private Finance Initiative is a method of injecting private capital into the provision of public services. It can take the form of an agreement between a public body and a private company for the supply of buildings or services over a period of time, often thirty years. The public body sets the standards and pays a fee to the private company for the services provided, such as a hospital or school building, or the repair and improvement of local authority dwellings. Borrowing by the private company does not count as part of the Public Sector Borrowing Requirement.
public health the health of the population as a whole, initially concerned with issues such as sanitation, but more recently focused on areas around the prevention of illness, such as immunisation.
public schools independent schools which charge fees, they do not have to teach the National Curriculum.
Public Sector Borrowing Requirement (PSBR) the difference between Government spending and its income. It is regarded as an important indicator of the Chancellor of the Exchequer’s prudence in managing the economy.
public service agreements established between the Treasury and central government departments, public service agreements set out what the department aims to achieve with a given level of resources.
quangos although not entirely accurate, the term quasi-autonomous non-governmental organisations (quango) is widely used to describe organisations that are not directly accountable to elected bodies, such as parliament or local government.
race the identification of individuals as members of a particular group on the basis of some physical difference of ‘skin, hair and bone’.
racialisation a descriptive process in which race and/or ethnicity is used to categorize people in groups.
radical feminists see women as a group as oppressed by men as a group, including through male dominance of the state, and tend to call for a radical transformation of all spheres of life, with some calling for political, and in some cases personal, separation from men.
replacement ratio the ratio of the amount a person could receive in social security benefits out of work relative to the amount they could receive if they were earning.
rent control state determination of the rents charged by private landlords. The Conservatives attempted to phase out rent control in the 1930s and 1950s. By the 1970s, the major form of rent control was the determination of ‘fair’ rents by rent officers.
secondary education education from 11 to the minimum school leaving age of 16, or to 18.
security of tenure refers to the legal presumption that a tenant should remain in a dwelling unless the landlord can convince a court that there are very good reasons to evict the tenant.
social democracy this position has historically encompassed both socialism and democracy as essential components. Social democrats see capitalism as capable of transformation and reform through democratic action including the welfare state. However, from the 1980s some social democratic parties have adjusted their positions in response to critiques from the New Right and others.
social exclusion often used to describe the wider processes and outcomes that prevent people from participating in society and from accessing services.
social housing defined by the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister as accommodation let at a rent below the market price. The term was invented in the 1980s as a way to blur the distinction between local authority housing and accommodation provided by housing associations;
social inclusion a situation where people do not suffer the problems associated with social exclusion.
social mobility the degree to which an individual’s, family’s, or group’s social status can change throughout the course of their life.
socialist feminists socialist feminists aspire to an economically just society, with both women and men having the opportunity to fulfil their potential.
standardised attainment tests (SATs) standard assessment tasks designed to assess the levels of attainment that pupils have achieved in core subjects, as defined by the Secretary of State for Education and Skills.
stealth taxes taxes where the population are supposedly unaware (or at least are only partially aware) of their existence and function.
subsistence the minimum required to maintain life, but often used to refer to the lowest level at which benefits should be set.
Sure Start a programme introduced by the Labour government designed to address the social and health needs of children and families, including the availability of childcare.
tax credits are used to reduce the amount of taxation paid by subtracting a sum from an individual’s tax bill, but where people are not paying tax can lead to a cash payment.
Thatcherism the ideas and policies of Margaret Thatcher, the British Prime Minister 1979–1990.
think-tanks arguably a special type of pressure group that often has close (usually informal) links with a particular political party (such as those of the Adam Smith Institute, the Institute for Economic Affairs and the Social Affairs Unit with the Conservatives, particularly from 1979 to 1997, and the Institute for Public Policy Research with Labour).
Toryism essentially a form of paternalistic Conservatism, with a better off minority having a responsibility to the poorer majority.
transferable married person’s allowance proposal by the Conservative Party to allow married couples to transfer the personal tax allowance, worth about £20 per week, if one partner was not working.
underclass often used to denote a class of people dependent on welfare, and in particular state assistance, for survival. It has been associated, by thinkers on the right, with dependency, whilst some on the left have made a link with social exclusion.
victimless crime crime in which there is no ‘obvious’ direct victim of the criminal act, but instead the victim may be public morality/decency, or the criminal him/herself, for example, in relation to personal drug use.
welfare dependency relying on social security benefits for financial support (see also dependency culture).
welfare state where the state takes responsibility for providing at least minimal levels of economic and social security through the provision of public services (such as education, health, housing and income maintenance).
welfare to work policies intended to move those reliant on the state for financial support (welfare) into a position of relative financial independence through paid work.
white-collar crime may be defined as those offences committed by people of relatively high status in the course of their occupation and so could include (for example) fraud, embezzlement, tax evasion and corporate crimes involving health and safety violations and pollution.
Workers’ Education Association a voluntary movement, founded in the early twentieth century, to support the educational needs of working people.
workfare the requirement to work, or engage in other work-related activity, in return for welfare.
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zemiology the study of all harmful activity, not just that which is criminalised.
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